I.
Collocational Pitfalls and Problems in Translation
Collocation is defined as the tendency of certain words to co-occur regularly in a
given language. Collocational patterns are often arbitrary and independent of
meaning.
A. Major Collocational Challenges
Translators face several specific issues related to collocations:
1. Engrossing Effect of Source Text Patterning: Translators can become
"engrossed" (busy) with the source text and mistakenly carry over source-language
collocational patterns that are untypical of the target language. Confusing source and
target patterns is a pitfall. For example, translating shoe repairs into French using
reparer ses chaussures (repairing machines/cars) instead of the appropriate
ressemeler ses chaussures (resole his shoes).
2. Misinterpreting Meaning: A translator may misinterpret a source-language
collocation if it appears familiar due to correspondence in form with a common
target-language collocation, even though the meanings differ. This involves
confusing English and Arabic collocational patterns, potentially communicating the
wrong meaning (e.g., misinterpreting modest means as relating only to simplicity
rather than lack of affluence).
3. Tension between Accuracy and Naturalness: Translation often involves
choosing between what is strictly accurate and what is typical or natural in the target
language. For instance, rich colours might be accurately translated to convey depth,
but the typical Arabic collocation indicates brightness.
4. Culture-Specific Collocations: These reflect the material, social, or moral
environment. Some collocations have no direct equivalent because the underlying
concept is culture-bound, such as law and order in English reflecting high value
placed on order, compared to the Arabic al-qanuun wa altaqaalid ('law and
convention/tradition'). Academic English uses lesser-known languages, but Russian
culture finds this distinction offensive.
5. Collocational Range and Markedness:
◦ Collocational Range refers to the set of collocates typically associated with a
word. It is influenced by the level of specificity (general words like run have a vast
range, specific words like shrug have a limited range) and the number of senses a
word has.
◦ A marked collocation is an unusual combination of words used deliberately to
create new images, often found in fiction or poetry (e.g., peace break out). The
translation of a marked collocation should also be marked in the target language.
6. Collocation and Register: Collocations that seem untypical in everyday
language may be common in specific registers (e.g., dull highlights in photography;
specific computer terminology). Being a native speaker is insufficient for assessing
the typicality of register-specific collocations.
7. Collocational Meaning: The meaning of a word is often dependent on its
pattern of collocation and not intrinsic to the word in isolation (e.g., the specific
meaning of dry changes significantly depending on its collocate: dry cow, dry
humour).
II. Equivalence at Word Level: Meaning Types
To analyze equivalence, the content differentiates between four main types of
meaning in words and utterances:
1. Propositional Meaning: The relationship between a word and what it refers to
in the real or imaginary world. It provides the basis for judging an utterance as true
or false, and is often what is challenged when a translation is deemed "inaccurate".
2. Expressive Meaning: Relates to the speaker’s feelings or attitude and cannot be
judged as true or false. Words can have the same propositional meaning but differ
expressively (e.g., famous is neutral, while French fameux can be derogatory). Some
words, like swear words, contribute solely to expressive meaning.
3. Presupposed Meaning: Restrictions on the other words expected to co-occur
with a lexical unit.
◦ Selectional Restrictions are based on the propositional meaning (e.g.,
studious requires a human subject).
◦ Collocational Restrictions are semantically arbitrary (e.g., laws are broken in
English but contradicted in Arabic).
4. Evoked Meaning: Arises from dialect (geographical, temporal, social) and
register variation. Register is classified by: Field of discourse (what is going on),
Tenor of discourse (relationships between participants, such as formal/informal
tone), and Mode of discourse (speech, essay, written, spoken).
III. The Problem of Non-Equivalence and Translation Strategies
Non-equivalence occurs when the source language (SL) word or expression lacks a
direct equivalent in the target language (TL). This issue is often understood by
analyzing vocabulary in semantic fields (conceptual fields like SPEECH or
VEHICLES) and lexical sets (the specific words within a field). Semantic fields are
hierarchical, with superordinates (general words like vehicle) and hyponyms
(specific words like bus, car).
Common Causes of Non-Equivalence
Non-equivalence arises from issues such as: culture-specific concepts (e.g.,
airing cupboard), concepts that are known but not lexicalized in the TL (e.g., the
adjective standard meaning ordinary in Arabic), semantically complex words,
differences in meaning distinctions (e.g., Indonesian having two words for going out
in the rain), the TL lacking a superordinate term, and differences in expressive
meaning or physical perspective.
Strategies for Dealing with Non-Equivalence
Professional translators use several strategies to tackle non-equivalence:
Example/Contex
Strategy Description
t
Translatio
n by a Shampooing
Using a superordinate term to overcome relative
More translated as
specificity in the TL (commonest strategy).
General washing.
Word
Translatio Mumble
n by a replaced by
More suggests in
Replacing an emotionally charged SL word with
Neutral/L Italian. Home
a neutral TL equivalent.
ess replaced by
Expressiv habitat or
e Word settlements.
Translatio
Replacing
n by
Replacing a culture-specific item with a TL British cream
Cultural
concept the reader can identify with. tea with pastry
Substituti
in Italian.
on
Translatio
n Using a
Shaman
Loan
Incorporating the SL word, especially for (technical word)
Word or
culture-specific items or buzz words, followed by or a loan word
Loan
careful explanation. like cap followed
Word Plus
by explanation.
Explanati
on
The concept is expressed by unpacking its Paraphrasing
Translatio meaning. This is the most common way to provides high
n by translate idioms. Paraphrase can use related precision but
Paraphras words or unrelated words (e.g., translating loses expressive
e affidavit by describing it as a 'written and associative
communication supported by an oath'). meaning.
Omission can
Translatio Omitting a word or expression if its meaning is cause loss of
n by non-vital, cannot be easily paraphrased, or for meaning and
Omission stylistic reasons. should be used
as a last resort.
Translatio
n by Used when the non-equivalent word refers to a Illustrating a
Illustratio physical entity. tagged teabag.
n
Idiom Translation Strategies
Idioms can be translated by using an idiom of:
• Similar Meaning and Form: Matching lexical items and meaning (rare).
• Similar Meaning but Dissimilar Form: Using different lexical items to
express the same idea.
Translation Techniques: Chunking
Chunking is a technique used to modify the size of a translation unit.
1. Chunking Up: Moving to a more general or abstract word (superordinate).
(Pros: allows translation of almost every word; Cons: translation will be generic).
2. Chunking Down: Moving to a more specific, concrete level by describing the
components. (Pros: very accurate description; Cons: requires many more words).
3. Lateral Chunking: Finding a match or similar cultural reference in the target
culture at the same level of specificity. This leverages the reader's existing cultural
knowledge and imagination.
The overall goal of these techniques is to ensure the reader understands the original
concepts, often requiring modification of the text structure to preserve the original
message rather than translating word for word.
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Analogy: The process of translation described here is like navigating a complex
maze where every path (word choice) is interconnected. A direct, accurate path might
lead to a dead end (unnatural collocation or non-equivalence), requiring the
translator to use strategies—like lateral chunking—to step sideways to a familiar
landmark (cultural substitute) or to zoom out (chunking up) to find a broader
category, ensuring the traveler (reader) reaches the destination with the intended
message intact.