Solar System Characteristics, Advantages, and Disadvantages Chapter | 1 11

FIGURE 1.11 PV panel arrays electrical equivalent circuit.

A solar cell is usually produced as 0.5 V 2 W. In order to increase this pow-

er, the solar cells can be connected in series or parallel to produce solar panels at
desired voltage and current values. Fig. 1.11 shows the PV panel arrays circuit
connected with the Ns series and Np parallel.
According to the single-diode model, the total system consists of up to Ns
series and up to Np parallel connected solar cells. The I–V relation of the PV
panel arrays is given in the following equation:

  q Vd + IRs   
   Rs Rp   
  N s KFTPV  
  
  N pVd / N s
I PV = N p I ph − I o e − 1 − (1.5)
  Rp
 
 
 

where Ns is the number of solar cells connected in serial, and Np is the number
of solar cells connected in parallel. In fact, the efficiency of the PV panel mod-
ule Rs affects very little, while Rp has a greater effect [25].

2.3.1 PV panel fill factor

A direct calculation of current and voltage values at the maximum power point
of a PV panel is quite difficult due to the nonlinear I–V curve. Even if the inter-
nal resistance of the solar cell is neglected, the maximum power (Pm) from the
PV panel is smaller than the VOC × ISC value due to its electrical characteristic.
There is a need for rigid insertion to bring the term Pm closer to the VOC × ISC.
12 Solar Hybrid Systems

The maximum utilization rate of the I–V curve of a PV panel is defined by the
fill factor (FF) [33]. The FF is expressed by the following equation:
Vm I m
FF = (1.6)
VOC I SC

2.3.2 PV efficiency (η)

The efficiency of a PV panel is the ratio of the electric power output (Pout) to the
solar input (Pin). Pout is the output power of PV panel which can be accepted as
Pmax. A PV panel can be operated up to maximum power output [34]. PV panel
efficiency is given in the following equation:

Pout Pmax
η= = (1.7)
Pin Pin

3 Concentrating solar power technologies

Thermal solar technologies can be divided into three applications: low-, me-
dium-, and high temperature. The most common example of low-temperature
applications is linear collector systems (LCS). Medium-temperature applica-
tions are LCS (PTCs, LFCs) and are given in Fig. 1.12. High-temperature appli-
cations include point concentrator systems [PDC and solar tower plants (STPs)
with central receiver] and are given in Fig. 1.13.
Classic plate type linear solar collectors are mostly used in domestic hot wa-
ter heating. Solar energy is transferred from heat to fluid by focusing. The tem-
perature of the circulating fluid in these systems can reach up to 70 °C–80 °C.

FIGURE 1.12 Parabolic trough and linear Fresnel collector topology.

 Solar System Characteristics, Advantages, and Disadvantages Chapter | 1 13

FIGURE 1.13 Parabolic dish collector and tower plants topology.

Apart from need for hot water, they are also used for hot water supply in swim-
ming pools and small industrial facilities. In the last period the use of vacuum
heat pipes has started to become widespread. The fluid temperature can reach
up to 120 °C in the linear collectors [35–37].
The most common of thermal solar energy applications is water heating sys-
tems. Hot water preparation systems with solar energy vary depending on the
way the water is used, the way the water is heated, and the circulation of the
water in the system [38,39].
The second largest group of thermal solar energy applications is the parabol-
ic and Fresnel trough collector systems. The temperature rises to 300 °C–400
°C in these collectors. In tower plants with central receiver and dish collectors,
the temperature can reach up to 1400 °C. Concentrators are intended to use di-
rect sunlight at the highest possible rate. For this purpose the sun collectors are
equipped with a monitoring mechanism that allows the sun to be continuously
monitored [40–42].

3.1 Linear concentrator systems (LCS)

3.1.1 Parabolic trough collector power system
PTCs are composed of parabolic arrays that can make linear condensation. Re-
flective surfaces on the inside of the trough reflect sunlight to a black absorbent
pipe located at the focus of the parabolic. The heat-collecting glass tube consists
of steel receiver pipes and glass–metal connectors with an absorptivity of ap-
proximately 97 % on the surface [43]. The air between the glass tube and the
receiving pipe is vacuumed to reduce heat losses due to high temperature occur-
ring on the receiving pipe. This gap pressure is about 0.1 atm. The heat-resistant
14 Solar Hybrid Systems

FIGURE 1.14 Parabolic trough power system diagram.

glass tube has a high permeability and an antireflective structure to minimize

radiation losses. Glazed glass–metal binders are used to remove the effects of
temperature expansions. The system has an automation-tracking control unit
that allows the mirrors to monitor the sun [44].
Solar energy collectors can obtain saturated or superheated steam at me-
dium and high temperatures. Industrial plants can be used directly for thermal
purposes; it can also be used in electricity production by passing through a
suitable thermodynamic cycle. The general operation principle of parabolic
trough power system is shown in Fig. 1.14. In the first phase of such plants, the
heat transfer fluid circulates. This fluid is usually high-temperature synthetic
oil [45]. By means of a synthetic oil heat exchanger, the water contained in the
electrical power generation system is converted into a steam phase. This super-
heated steam is generated electricity through the turbine generator. There is a
heat storage unit in the cycle to ensure the continuity of electricity generation.
In this heat storage unit, the salt melt is generally used. When the sunlights are
insufficient, the heat storage unit is activated and plays a supporting role in the
evaporation of water in the power circuit [46,47].
In thermal solar power plants, one of the most important measures imple-
mented in recent years for continuous and regular electricity production is the
use of hybrid systems. The use of hybrid energy sources plays an important role
in ensuring the uninterrupted operation of plants [48].
Steam generation system consists of preheating, steam generation, and
superheating sections. Steam is passed through these sections to 400 °C and
100 bar pressure. It is sent to the turbine for electricity generation [49]. After
the electricity generation, the steam that is not cooled sufficiently is heated to
the same temperature and sent back to the turbine without being sent to a new
cycle. In this second cycle the residual cooling steam is sent to a new cycle after
 Solar System Characteristics, Advantages, and Disadvantages Chapter | 1 15

FIGURE 1.15 Linear Fresnel power system diagram.

it becomes liquid. These systems, which can produce 25–200 MW of electricity

in terms of the highest radiation, are generally the lowest cost electric power
plants per kW h.

3.1.2 Linear Fresnel power system

High temperatures can be achieved with linear or point concentrators in CSP
technologies [50,51]. Linear Fresnel power (LFP) plants are constructed using
one-dimensional planar mirrors. A heat-collecting tube is placed along the focal
point of the mirrors. In linear concentrator systems, the sunlight is collected on a
linear focus by the reflective surface. The fluid passing through the pipe forming
the surface is heated. The focus mentioned here as a line is a narrow and long
space in the form of strips [52,53]. The temperature of the fluid varies depend-
ing on the flow rate, concentration ratio, and the instantaneous solar radiation
value. The highest theoretical temperature in linear concentrator systems is very
close to the temperature of the sun. The control unit is available for the linear
mirrors to follow the sun [54]. An LFP system diagram is shown in Fig. 1.15.

3.2 Point concentrator systems (PCS)

3.2.1 Parabolic dish collector power system
Dish collector systems consist of dish, collector, and a motor unit. The solar
energy is densified to a receiving surface by a dish-shaped surface. A Stirling
or a Brayton engine is used as receiving surface [55]. The receiver may be used
as the direct heat energy of the radiation collected on the surface or transfer to
the fluid in a Stirling engine. The Stirling engine converts heat into mechanical
power. A gas of low specific gravity such as hydrogen or helium is preferred in
these systems. The compressed gas expands by being heated by the sunlight.
16 Solar Hybrid Systems

The cylinder pistons in the Stirling engine move with this gas. This mechanical
power is converted into electrical power by means of a generator. Dish systems
follow the sun in two axes. It is very suitable for droughty environments where
water sources are not available since the water cycle is not used in the collector
systems. As it is modular, it can be used as a single or as many dishes. However,
it is difficult to make a stable and economical Stirling engine. Hydrogen and
helium gases, which are lightweight, should not leak for the robust operation of
Stirling engines. In addition, it is not possible to store energy in dish collector
systems. Therefore, it is recommended that the dish collector systems be de-
signed in conjunction with another energy source in a hybrid structure [56,57].

3.2.2 Central tower power system

Central tower power systems consist of hundreds of heliostat mirrors spread
over a wide area. Heliostats concentrate the sunlight on the tower to the col-
lector by performing two-axis solar tracking [58,59]. A central tower power
system diagram is given in Fig. 1.16. The temperature of the salt melt circulated
through the collector increases with the help of this concentrated radiation. The
salt melt efficiently absorbs heat and is pumped from the storage tank at 277 °C
into a collector on the tower. The salt melt is heated to 777 °C in a tower and
stored in a salt melt tank. When the power is needed, the salt melt is pumped
into a boiler and used to produce superheated steam. In solar tower systems, the
condensing rate varies between 300 and 1500, while the temperature can range
from 550 °C to 1500 °C. The maximum electrical power is 10 MW in central
tower power plants. It is the most efficient among the concentrating solar power
(CSP) systems [60]. As the operating temperature in heliostat systems is very
high compared to the others, reliability and robustness are the most important
factors. The heliostats are controlled by a computer to ensure that the tower

FIGURE 1.16 Central tower power system diagram.

 Solar System Characteristics, Advantages, and Disadvantages Chapter | 1 17

collector is continuously receiving sunlight. As STP systems require complex

structure and high technology, investment costs are high [61].

4 Advantages and disadvantages of solar systems

Renewable energy sources (RESs) are being replaced by fossil fuels to produce
electricity in today’s and future technologies. Solar energy is clearly more envi-
ronment friendly compared to all other energy sources, so its use is increasing
worldwide. RESs are inexhaustible and no harmful gases such as CO2 leave
solid wastes.
The following are the advantages of RES:

• the amount of greenhouse gases released into the environment is zero (CO2,
NOx),
• no release of toxic gases to the environment throughout using of sources
(SO2, particles),
• making barren lands useful,
• decreasing the transmission line costs in existing electricity grids,
• allow for individual installation and use,
• provide national energy independence to countries, and
• the rapid increase in the rate of use in rural areas.
The use of solar energy is encouraged to meet the rapidly increasing energy
consumption demand, to prevent global climate change and to minimize green-
house gas emissions. International regulations are launching to ensure easy ac-
cess to these resources [1]. Countries add the issue of generating electricity
from RES to their national strategic objectives. Countries are trying to establish
various solar energy policies within this framework [2,3]. Moreover, different
areas of the world are being worked for the use of solar energy in electricity
generation. Advantages and disadvantages of PV panels are given in Table 1.3.
Advantages and disadvantages of CSP systems are given in Tables 1.4
and 1.5. When the CSP systems are examined in terms of technological, eco-
nomic, and area utilization and ease of operation, the differences between these
systems are as follows:
Technologically
PTC: Their efficiency is low because they make solar tracking on one-axis
and linear condensation. The solar tracking unit of these systems is cheap
and simple. These systems can be used in low and high electrical power
plant applications. The manufacture of heat-collecting pipes and mirrors
used in the system requires special technologies.
LFC: Their efficiency is low because they make solar tracking on one-axis
and linear condensation. The solar tracking system is cheap and very sim-
ple. It can be used in all applications with low and high power when it is
used as an electrical power plant. There are no elements that require special
technology.
18 Solar Hybrid Systems

TABLE 1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of PV panels.

PV panels
Advantages • PV panels do not release harmful greenhouse gas emissions
during electricity generation
• PV panels can be made available wherever there is sunlight
• PV panels are suitable for smart grid structures with distributed
power generation
• PV panel costs are on the way to a rapid decline thanks to
developing technology
• Direct electrical energy can be achieved with PV panels
• The operating and maintenance costs of PV panels are almost
negligible compared to other RES
• PV panels do not produce any sound during operation. Suitable
for urban areas and residential applications
• PV panel installations are quite easy and do not require special
equipment
• There are incentives for PV panels to increase use in many
countries
• Thanks to the financial incentives provided to PV panels,
an attractive investment is becoming an alternative
Disadvantages • As with all RESs, electrical energy generated from PV panels
depends on the natural events
• The electrical energy generated from PV panels is intermittent
and unstable. It requires an energy storage unit to eliminate this
disadvantage
• The use of the energy storage unit together with the PV panels
increases the cost
• PV panels produce direct current (DC) electrical energy. An in-
verter is required for use in the alternative current (AC) electricity
grid
• Large powerful PV panel systems require large area for installa-
tion
• PV panel efficiency levels are relatively low in today’s technol-
ogy (14 %–25 %)
• The surfaces of PV panels must be cleaned periodically in order
not to reduce system efficiency

DC: The solar tracking system is of two axes. A special motor (Stirling or
Brayton engine, etc.) may be required in the focusing unit. It requires special
engineering.
STP: Their efficiency is high because they make solar tracking on two-axis
and point condensation. Solar tracking systems are expensive and complex.
Low power and small sizes cannot be produced. The support structure car-
rying the heliostats is large and bulky.
Economically
PTC: Costs are high due to the special technology of heat-collecting pipes
and mirrors. It can be used to generate electricity or to produce heat at me-
dium-high temperature.
 Solar System Characteristics, Advantages, and Disadvantages Chapter | 1 19

TABLE 1.4 Advantages and disadvantages of PTC and LFC.

Linear concentrators
Parabolic trough collector Linear Fresnel collector
Advantages • Operating potential up • Easy setup
to 600 °C • Lower installation costs com-
• About 14 % net electricity pared to other solar systems
production efficiency • Reflective flat mirrors are
annual sufficient
• Applicable investment and • Low production costs
operating costs • Hybrid processing possible
• Modular structure • 1.5–3 Times more energy per
• Good land use factor land area is produced
• Minimum material demand • The most land-efficient solar
• Hybrid concept applicable energy technology
• Thermal storage capability
Disadvantages • Oil-based heat transfer is • Low system efficiency due to
used during heat cycle. It low operating temperature
limits operating tempera- • Implementation only in low
tures to 400 °C in oil-based power plants
system. Therefore the
steam quality produced is
moderate

TABLE 1.5 Advantages and disadvantages of DC and STP.

Point concentrators
Dish collector Tower plants with
central receiver
Advantages • Small land requirement than • High conversion efficiency in
other solar systems terms of system
• High working temperature • Operating temperature poten-
• High thermodynamic ef- tial above 1000 °C
ficiency • Thermal storage at high tem-
• High sunlight collecting rate peratures
thanks to two-axis solar track- • Hybrid concept applicable
ing • Suitable for dry cooling con-
cepts
• Good for use in rough areas
Disadvan- • Low thermal storage capabil- • Large land requirement
tages ity • Higher installation costs than
• High engineering require- other solar systems
ments • Complex control mechanism
• High installation cost
20 Solar Hybrid Systems

LFC: There is no special part requiring technology. Due to its simple struc-
ture, unit cost is the lowest among all systems. It can be used to generate
electricity or to produce heat at medium-high temperature.
DC: Costs are high because it requires the use of special motors in the heat
collection unit. These systems use a lightweight gas as a heat exchanger and,
therefore, require a special installation infrastructure.
STP: It is an expensive system due to the bulky structure of towers and
heliostats used for sunlight collection. It is suitable for electrical energy pro-
duction purposes.
In terms of area utilization and ease of operation
PTC: In order for the mirrors to not shade each other, it is necessary to
leave a certain amount of space between the mirror arrays. At least three
times the active mirror area is required. The two most important elements
of the system are heat-collecting pipes and special technologies mirrors.
In the case of failure, original spare part supply and sometimes outsourced
workmanship is required. Cleaning of mirrors or reflective surfaces is im-
portant for system efficiency. In addition, vacuum must be provided in the
heat-collecting pipe.
LFC: A mirror settlement area of 1.1–1.2 times of the active mirror area
is sufficient. The whole system can be produced with local materials and
workmanship. Because of its simple structure, all maintenance and repairs
can be carried out with the standard maintenance team.
DC: There is not much space for mirrors. In order to prevent the leakage of
the gas used as a heat exchanger in the system, their maintenance should be
done frequently. Due to the special motor, there may be outsourced work-
manship and material requirements.
STP: A mirror settlement area of approximately 10 times the active mirror
area is needed. It is possible to use a large proportion of local materials and
workmanship. It is therefore relatively easy to operate and repair.

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