Characteristics and Applications of Spread Spectrum, Direct Sequence

Spread Spectrum, Effect of Thermal Noise, Single Tone Interference

and Jamming, Code Division Multiple Access, PN Sequence,
Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum, Time Hop Spread Spectrum.

1
• Traditionally, spectrum efficiency (measured by bits per second
per Hz) in digital communication systems is obtained by
transmitting as much information as possible using as narrow
frequency band as possible.

• Hence, in Narrowband systems: bandwidth is close to the

minimum necessary to send the information.

• In contrast to this, wideband or spread spectrum (SS) systems

uses a bandwidth much wider than minimum necessary for the
application.

2
Even for low S/N ratio transmission with low error of probability is
possible if bandwidth is large that is the signal is spreaded over the
large band width. 3
• Motivations for SS initially from the military context.

Ex: problems that could be faced in military communications,

are

• Interception (tapping) of the communication (unsecure

communication)

• Intentionally interference by a pulse-noise (jammer)

4
The definition of spread-spectrum modulation may be stated in two
parts:
1. Spread spectrum is a means of transmission in which the data
sequence occupies a bandwidth in excess of the minimum
bandwidth necessary to send it.
2. The spectrum spreading is accomplished before transmission
through the use of a code that is independent of the data sequence.
The same code is used in the receiver (operating in synchronism
with the transmitter) to despread the received signal so that the
original data sequence may be recovered.
In this technique, an already modulated signal is modulated a
second time in such a way as to produce a waveform which does not
interfere with any other signals operating in the same frequency
band.
5
The definition of spread-spectrum modulation stated in parts 1:
Spread spectrum is a means of transmission in which the data sequence
occupies a bandwidth in excess of the minimum bandwidth necessary to
send it.

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 6

Part2: Spreading through the use of a code that is independent of the
data sequence.
Dispreading: Using same code is used in the receiver (operating in
synchronism with the transmitter)
An already modulated signal is modulated a second time by code

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 7

8
• Provide security: due to unknown pseudo-random noise/code
(low probability of detection or interception): Nonauthorized
listeners do not have the key used to spread the original signal,
hence listeners cannot decode it.

• Resistance to intentional jamming: Intentional or

unintentional interference and jamming signals are rejected
because they do not contain the spread-spectrum key. Only the
desired signal will be seen at the receiver, when the despreading
operation is exercised.

9
10
• Increased tolerance to multipath interference:
The reflected path (R) can interfere with the direct path (D) in a
phenomenon called fading. Because the despreading process
synchronizes to signal D, signal R is rejected even though it
contains the same key. Methods are available ( rake receiver) to
use the reflected-path signals by despreading them and adding the
extracted results to the main one
• Multi-user facility: Can share the same frequency band with
other users
• Ranging facility: Capable of giving very good accuracies in
the range measurement.

11
Disadvantage:
• Large bandwidth requirement
• Complex system
• Expensive

Spreading of signal in three different ways:

(a) Direct Sequence (DS) spread-spectrum systems
(b) Frequency Hopping (FH) spread-spectrum systems
(c) Time hop spread spectrum.

12
The amplitude of an already modulated signal is amplitude
modulated by a very high rate NRZ binary stream of digits.
Thus, if the original signal is (a binary PSK signal)
𝑠 𝑡 = 2𝑃𝑆 𝑑 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔0 𝑡
Then DSSS signal will be 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝒔 𝒕 𝒈 𝒕 = 𝟐𝑷𝑺 𝒈 𝒕 𝒅 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝎𝟎 𝒕
where g(t) is a pseudo-random noise (PN) binary sequence having
the values ±1.
The bit rate 𝑓𝐶 of 𝑔 𝑡 is usually much greater than the bit rate 𝑓𝑏 of
𝑑 𝑡 .
We say g(t) “chops the bits of data into chips”.
hence, we call the rate of 𝑔 𝑡 : the chip rate 𝑓𝐶
13
 XNOR Operation
d(t) g(t) g(t)d(t) g(t) d(t)

0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1
Transmitter Receiver

The bandwidth of the BPSK signal 𝑠(𝑡) is nominally 2𝑓𝑏

The bandwidth of the BPSK spread spectrum signal 𝑣(𝑡) is 2𝑓𝐶
2𝑓𝐶
The spectrum has been spread by the ratio = 𝑓𝐶 /𝑓𝑏
2𝑓𝑏
Since the power transmitted by 𝑠(𝑡) and 𝑣(𝑡) is the same
𝑃𝑆 the power spectral density 𝐺𝑆 (𝑓) is reduced by the factor 𝑓𝐶 /𝑓𝑏
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 14
at the receiver it is necessary to regenerate both the sinusoidal carrier of
frequency 𝜔0 and also to regenerate the PN waveform g(t).

15
• The data 𝑑(𝑡) is an NRZ bit stream which makes excursions
between +1 and -1 at the rate 𝑓𝑏 .
• Chipping waveform makes excursions between +1 and -1 at the rate
𝑓𝐶
• The input signal is twice multiplied by g(t), which is equivalent to
𝑔2 𝑡 = 1 and there is no net effect on the received output
signal.
• The noise n(t) introduced in the channel is chipped at the receiver
before reaching the integrator.
• At nominally random times, the polarity of the noise waveform is
reversed.
• The reversal has no effect on the power spectral density or the
probability density function of the gaussian noise .
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 16
• Hence both the signal and the statistical properties of the noise are
unaffected by the spread spectrum technique

=> the overall performance of the system is not affected

• As in BPSK without spread spectrum, the error probability is
𝟏 𝑬𝒃
𝑷𝒆 = 𝒆𝒓𝒇𝒄
𝟐 𝜼

where, 𝐸𝑏 is the bit energy and 𝜂 /2 is the two-sided power-spectral

density of the noise.

17
Consider that the DS spread spectrum signal is interfered by a
sinusoidal signal of normalized power 𝑃𝐽 at the carrier frequency 𝑓0
The input to the receiver is then
𝑣1 𝑡 = 2𝑃𝑆 𝑔 𝑡 𝑑 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔0 𝑡 + 2𝑃𝐽 cos 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃
signal 𝑣0 𝑡 that appears at the input to the integrator is
𝑣0 𝑡 = 2 𝑃𝑆 𝑑 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜔0 𝑡 + 2 𝑃𝐽 𝑔 𝑡 cos 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔0 𝑡
𝑣0 𝑡
= 𝑃𝑆 𝑑 𝑡 (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔0 𝑡) + 𝑃𝐽 𝑔 𝑡 (1 + cos2 𝜔0 𝑡)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑃𝐽 𝑔 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔0 𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

If the bit duration be integer multiple of the half period of the carrier
period 1ൗ𝑓0.

at the integrator output 𝑣0′ 𝑡 = 𝑃𝑆 𝒅 𝒕 + 𝑃𝐽 𝒈 𝒕 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

18
The power spectral density of the interfering signal
𝟐
𝑷𝑱 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝝅𝒇/𝒇𝑪
𝑮𝑱 𝒇 =
𝟐𝒇𝑪 𝝅𝒇/𝒇𝑪
An integrator whose integration period is 𝑇𝑏 is approximately equivalent to a
1
low-pass filter with cutoff at frequency 𝑓𝑏 (= ). Since 𝑓𝑏 ≪ 𝑓𝐶 then, in the
𝑇𝑏
frequency range ±𝑓𝑏, 𝐺𝐽 𝑓 in equation has approximately, the constant value
𝑃𝐽 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
𝐺𝐽 𝑓 = ; 𝑓 ≤ 𝑓𝑏
2𝑓𝐶

1 𝐸𝑏
In the present case, where the interfering signal is sinusoidal 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
2 𝜂

1 𝐸𝑏 𝑓𝐶 1 𝑃𝑆 𝑇𝑏 𝑓𝐶
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
2 𝑃𝐽 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 2 𝑃𝐽 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

1 𝑃𝑆 𝑓𝐶 1
= 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
2 𝑃𝐽 𝑓𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 19
𝜃 is a random variable all of whose possible values are equally likely.
1
In this case we have that 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = and we have
2

1 𝑃𝑆 𝒇𝑪 1 𝑃
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 2 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 𝑆 𝑃
2 𝑃𝐽 𝒇𝒃 2 ൙ 𝐽
𝑓
2 𝐶
𝑓𝑏
𝑷𝑱
𝑷𝑱,𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝒇 is called,
𝟐 𝒇𝑪
𝒃
the effective jamming
power.
It is this power, in
comparison to the signal
power 𝑃𝑠 that determines
the error probability
generated by the
jamming.
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 20
 1 𝑃𝑆 𝒇𝑪 1 𝑃𝑆 𝒇𝑪
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 2 = 𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
2 𝑃𝐽 𝒇𝒃 2 𝑃𝐽 /2 𝒇𝒃
𝑓𝐶
The ratio measure the extent to which the effect of the (mean)
𝑓𝑏
𝑃𝐽
jamming power ൗ2 is reduced by the chipping and is called the
𝑓𝐶
processing gain 𝐺𝑝 ie. 𝐺𝑝 ≡
𝑓𝑏

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 𝐸𝑏 𝑃𝑆 𝑓𝐶 𝑃𝑆 𝑇𝑏
= = For θ=0
𝜂 𝑃𝐽 𝑓𝑏 𝑃𝐽 𝑇𝐶

𝐸𝑏 𝑃𝑆 𝑃𝐽
= 𝑃𝐺 ⇒ = 𝑃𝐺 × 1൘𝐸
𝜂 𝑃𝐽 𝑃𝑆 𝑏
𝜂
𝑃𝐽 𝐸𝑏
= Jamming margin (dB) = Processing Gain (dB) - (𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵)
𝑃𝑆 𝑁0 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐸𝑏
Where = minimum value needed to support a prescribed
𝑁0 𝑚𝑖𝑛
probability of error.

22
Multiple Access is the use of multiplexing techniques to provide
communication service to multiple users simultaneously..

23
24
Number of Users Supported by GSM
The uplink band in GSM has a total of 25 MHz of bandwidth and
each radio channel has an assigned bandwidth of 200 kHz.
The number of radio channels (FDMA) is 𝑁𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 =
25×106 𝐻𝑧
2×105 𝐻𝑧/𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙
= 125𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙𝑠
Actually, in practice GSM uses 124 channels (not 125 channels).
Each channel is divided into 8 time slots
so 8 users are allowed per radio channel (using TDMA)
The maximum number of users is then
𝑁𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 124 channels × 8users/channel = 992users
GSM also has a corresponding downlink band for sending signals to
the mobile phone. For GSM the uplink and downlink frequency
bands are 890 to 915 MHz and 935 to 960 MHz, respectively.
25
More than one user can be allocated to the same physical
communication channel in the same cell simultaneously, with only an
angle separation.
This technology dramatically
improves the interference
suppression capability while
greatly increasing frequency
reuse, resulting in increased
capacity and reduced
infrastructure cost. Basically,
capacity is increased not only
through intercell frequency reuse
but also through intracell
frequency reuse.

26
CDMA is based on the spread spectrum technique
• In CDMA, every channel uses the full available spectrum.
• Individual conversations are encoded with a pseudo - random digital
sequence and then transmitted.
A duplex method whereby the Uplink and the Downlink transmissions use
two separate frequency bands −
Uplink − 1920 MHz to 1980 MHz
Downlink − 2110 MHz to 2170 MHz
Bandwidth − Each carrier located at center in 5 MHz band
3G CDMA network is now shut down:
Verizon’s Dec31, 2022
Sprint Mar 2022
US cellular Jan 2024
India Mar 2016 – Mar 2018

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In CDMA, each user is provided with an individual and distinctive PN code,
which are almost uncorrelated with one another
At a given time, each of k users is transmitting data at the same carrier
frequency 𝒇𝟎 using DS spread spectrum, and his particular code
𝒈𝒊 (𝒕).Then, each receiver is presented with the same input waveform,
𝑘

𝑣 𝑡 = ෍ 2𝑃𝑆 𝑔𝑖 (𝑡)𝑑𝑖 (𝑡)cos(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃𝑖 )

𝑖=1
➢ 𝑑𝑖 𝑡 = the data transmitted by user i.
➢ 𝑃𝑆 = each signal is assumed to present the same power to the receiver
𝑓𝑐 = chip rate; each 𝑔𝑖 (𝑡) has same chip rate
➢ 𝑓𝑏 = data rate; each user is using same bit rate
➢ Also 𝜃𝑖 is a random phase, statistically independent of the phase of each
of the other users.
➢ Thermal noise is omitted. 28
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
If the receiver is required to receive each of the k users, it needs k correlators.
➢ At receiver 1, the signal will be modulated by 𝑔1 𝑡 and 2cos(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃1 )
➢ Out put of the integrator will be
𝑘
′
𝑣01 = ෍ 𝑃𝑆 𝑔1 𝑡 𝑔𝑖 (𝑡)𝑑𝑖 (𝑡)cos(𝜃𝑖 − 𝜃1 )
𝑖=1
𝑘

= 𝑃𝑆 𝑑1 (𝑡) + ෍ 𝑃𝑆 𝑔1 𝑡 𝑔𝑖 (𝑡)𝑑𝑖 (𝑡)cos(𝜃𝑖 − 𝜃1 )

𝑖=2
➢ We assume that all the 𝑔𝑖 make transitions at the same time.
➢ The chip rate of 𝑔1 𝑡 𝑔𝑖 𝑡 will remain the same =𝑓𝑐
Representing 𝑔1 𝑡 𝑔𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑔1𝑖 (𝑡). and also cos 𝜃𝑖 − 𝜃1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1𝑖
𝒌
′
𝑣01 = 𝑷𝑺 𝒅𝟏 (𝒕) + ෍ 𝑷𝑺 𝒈𝟏𝒊 (𝒕)𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽𝟏𝒊
𝒊=𝟐
29
Comparing with jamming signal
𝑣0′ 𝑡 = 𝑷𝑺 𝒅 𝒕 + 𝑷𝑱 𝒈 𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
above equation shows k – 1 independent interfering signals
𝑃𝐽 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
PSD of one interferer is 𝐺𝐽 𝑓 = ; 𝑓 ≤ 𝑓𝑏
2𝑓𝐶

𝑃𝐽 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
For (k-1) interferer 𝐺𝐽 𝑓 = 𝑘 − 1 ; 𝑓 ≤ 𝑓𝑏
2𝑓𝐶
1 𝑃𝑆
Since 𝑃𝐽 = 𝑃𝑆 and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝐺𝐽 𝑓 = 𝑘 − 1 |𝑓| ≤ 𝑓𝑏
2 4𝑓𝐶

1 𝐸𝑏 1 𝐸𝑏 1 𝑃𝑆 𝑇𝑏 4𝑓𝐶
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
2 𝜂 2 2𝐺𝐽 𝑓 2 2𝑃𝑆 𝑘 − 1

1 1 𝑓𝐶
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 2
2 𝑘 − 1 𝑓𝑏
30
 1 2 𝑓𝐶
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
2 𝑘 − 1 𝑓𝑏
𝑓𝐶
to ensure a low probability of error, the gain must be adjusted so that
𝑓𝑏

𝑓𝐶
≫ (𝑘 − 1)/2
𝑓𝑏
➢ When an unwanted user’s received power is much larger than the
received power presented by the desired user, error can occur.
➢ This problem is referred to as the near-far problem and limits the
utility of DS systems where each user’s received power is
approximately the same
➢ This problem is addressed by adaptive power control.

31
✓ For a given data rate, the resistance to jamming of a DS spread-
spectrum system can be improved only by increasing the chip
rate relative to the data rate.
1 𝑃𝑆 𝒇𝑪
𝑃𝑒 = 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
2 𝑃𝐽 /2 𝒇𝒃

𝑓𝐶
✓ In CDMA, ≫ (𝑘 − 1)/2
𝑓𝑏
✓ Beyond a certain limit, practical difficulties in the design and
implementation of PN sequence generators make it difficult to
achieve very high chip frequencies.
✓ This puts a limit on the processing gain and the degree of
resistance to jamming that can be achieved using DS spread-
spectrum systems.
32
✓ FHSS: hops from narrow-
band to narrow-band within
a wide band:
FHSS send one or more
data packets at one carrier
frequency, hop to another
frequency send more data
packets and continue this
hop-transmit sequence.
✓ The hopping sequence or
pattern appears random but is
actually a periodic sequence,
which can be tracked by the
senders and the receivers
only. 33
➢ Considering that BFSK is used, we have that the original signal,
before spread spectrum is applied, is
𝑠 𝑡 = 2𝑃𝑠 cos 𝝎𝟎 𝒕 + 𝑑 𝑡 𝛺𝑡 + 𝜃
Where d(t) is the data to be transmitted.
➢ The FH modulation is then applied by varying the carrier
frequency.
The resulting FH spread spectrum is
𝑠 𝑡 = 2𝑃𝑠 cos 𝝎𝒊 𝒕 + 𝑑 𝑡 𝛺𝑡 + 𝜃
FH signal has a carrier frequency 𝑓𝑖 = 𝜔𝑖Τ2𝜋 which changes at the
hopping rate 𝒇𝑯
⇒ the Carrier frequency 𝑓𝑖 changes each 𝑇𝐻 seconds.
➢ The frequency chosen each 𝑇𝐻 is selected in a pseudo-random
manner from a specified set of frequencies.
➢ Typically, 32-500 different frequencies are used to form this set.34
Advantage of FH is that it enables the transmitter to change its
carrier frequency and thereby avoid an otherwise in-band interfering
signal.
For example, let i=1000 and consider that the FH signal spends an
equal time at each of 1000 frequencies 𝑓1 , 𝑓2 , … . . 𝑓1000 .
• Bit rate of data is 𝑓𝑏
• Bandwidth used by the signal, at any carrier frequency 𝑓𝑖 is B =
4𝑓𝑏 .
• Now assume that there is an interfering signal having bandwidth
B = 4𝑓𝑏 and a fixed center frequency 𝑓𝑗 .
• If frequency i.e, 𝑗 = 𝑖 then if the interfering signal power were
sufficiently large the probability of error would be 𝑃𝑒 = 0.5
• By employing FH and using say 1000 frequencies, the probability
of the same interferer causing an error is reduced to 𝟏/𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 =
𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒
35
36
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 37
Dwell Time: Time spent over a frequency is known as a dwell time.
Hop Rate: Rate at which hopping takes place. How fast a
system changes from one channel to another.
Frequency hopping systems can be divided into
Fast-hop (FFH)
Slow-hop(SFH).
• A fast-hop FH system is the kind in which hopping rate is
greater than the message bit rate and
• in the slow-hop system the hopping rate is smaller than the
message bit rate.
• Total number of hopping frequency channel is known as chips.
• Pattern of channel usage is known as hopping sequence.
38
Fast Hopping: several frequencies per user bit : 𝑓ℎ > 𝑓𝑠 ; 𝑓𝐶 = 𝑓ℎ
Slow Hopping: several user bits per frequency : 𝑓ℎ < 𝑓𝑠 ; 𝑓𝐶 = 𝑓𝑠

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 39

Symbol energy to noise spectral density :
𝑃𝑆 𝑃𝐽 𝑬 𝑃𝑆 𝑓𝑆𝑆 𝑃𝑆 𝒇𝑺𝑺 𝑃𝑆
𝑬= and 𝜼= ⇒ = × = × = × 𝑃𝐺
𝑓𝑆 𝑓𝑆𝑆 𝜼 𝑓𝑆 𝑃𝐽 𝑃𝐽 𝒇𝑺 𝑃𝐽
𝑓𝑆𝑆
Processing gain = PG = Processing gain 𝑃𝐺 = 10 log 𝑁 in dB
𝑓𝑆

Where N number of frequencies over which carrier frequency can

hop.
If narrow band signal has BW=B (Ex 10 KHz)
Spread spectrum BW is 𝐵𝑠𝑠 ( 1 MHZ)
𝐵𝑆𝑆
Then 𝑃𝐺 = 10 log (𝑃𝐺 = 10 log100 = 20𝑑𝐵)
𝐵

40
1. Hard to find the user’s frequency at any instant of time whereas in DSSS
the frequency once allotted is always same.
2. High tolerance of narrow band interference: Since Center frequency of
FHSS keep on varying hence interfering signal will degrade the signal only
when message signal and interfering signal are at the same frequency.
3. Straightforward interference avoidance: If certain band of spectrum is
known to contain interference, the hopping frequency can be selected to
avoid this band.
4. When relative power of interference is greater than the processing gain of
DS signal then DSSS system will fail, whereas in FH this will cause
degradation only at one frequency. Therefore, interference tolerance is
more in FHSS.
5. Near to far interference is due to full frequency band used. Therefore, it is
present in DSSS not in FHSS.

41
• Time hopping is analogous to FH.
• Time frame is subdivided into large number of time slots
duration 𝑇𝑐
• Message is transmitted during only one time slot, which is
generated using PN generator.
• Since the duration is very small so short pulses are called as
chirp.
• Two types : equal chirp duration and variable chirp duration.

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Complex system and more stringent timing requirement.

43
Equal Chirp
Duration

Varying
Chirp
Duration

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PN sequences can be generated easily using shift register circuits with
feedback from one or more stages.
There are 3 shift-register stages : each stage can have either a zero or a
one,
PN sequence generated: Length of shift register (m), initial state and
feed back logic
There can be 23 = 8 distinct sets of contents, including 0 0 0.
However, the 0 0 0 state is not used because there will be no change
whatever may be the number of shifts we give by clocking the circuit.

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 45

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Thus, this PN sequence generator produces a sequence of length 7 and
thereafter the same sequence will be repeated.
Because the all-zero pattern from the eight possible patterns is not possible.
N is the length of the sequence and m is the number of shift register stages,
𝑁 = 2𝑚 − 1
Maximal-length sequences: PN sequences with (2𝑚 − 1)length are called
maximal-length sequences or m-sequence.
Every PN sequence generator with m shift registers need not produce (𝟐𝒎 −
𝟏) length sequences.
It depends on the feedback connections and the type of logic circuit used for
combining the feedback outputs.

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 The three basic properties that can be applied to any periodic binary
sequence as a test for appearance of randomness are
Balanced: in each period of sequence , the number of binary ones
differs from the number of binary zeros at the most by one digit.
Run: ½ of the run of length 1, about ¼ of length 2, 1/8th of length
3 and so on.
Correlation (Cyclic shift property): If a period of sequence is
compared term by term with any cyclic shift of itself , it is best if
the number of agreements differs from the number of
disagreements by not more than one count.
Balance property: Property of a maximal-length sequence: the
number of l’s in it is always one more than the number of 0’s or one
more 0’s than l’s depending on when the sequence is taken
from a Q or 𝑄ത output.
Output x3 = 1110010 → No. of 1 is 4 whereas number of 0 is 3 48
Run Property: 111 00 1 0 Total 4 runs
2/4=1/2 of length 1
1/4 of length 2
1/4 of length 3
Autocorrelation property or Shift Property
1
For shift 0 that is 𝜏=0 𝑅𝐶 𝐾 = σ 𝐶0 (𝑛)𝐶0 (𝑛 − 𝑘)
𝑁

1 𝐾 = 𝑙𝑁 ⇒ 𝑛𝑜 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡
𝑅𝐶 𝐾 = ቐ 1
− 𝐾 ≠ 𝑙𝑁 ⇒ 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑘
𝑁

1110010
0111001
daadadd
1 1
𝑅𝐶 𝜏 = 1 = 3 − 4 = −
7 7 49
Since the PN sequence is periodic (with a period of (2𝑚 − 1) for maximal
length sequence), its auto-correlation function defined by is also periodic
with the same period.
1 𝑇𝐶 /2
𝜏 = න 𝑐 𝑡 𝑐 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
𝑇𝐶 −𝑇𝐶 /2
In the equation c(t) is the time function representing the PN sequence, 𝜏 is
the delay and 𝑇𝐶 is the duration of each binary digit in the sequence.
For the case of a maximal-length sequence of N bits length and denoting the
bit duration of the maximal-length sequence by 𝑇𝐶 , we get

𝑁+1
1− 𝜏 |𝜏| ≤ 𝑇𝐶
𝑁𝑇𝐶
𝑅𝐶 𝜏 =
1
− 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝑁

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 Independence of sequences: sequences discussed above are not independent.
One may be derived from another by a simple shift in time or by
complementing each bit or both.
There are logic designs which do yield sequences which have small
correlation to one another. The number of such sequences has an upper bound
S given by
𝐿−1
𝑆≤
𝑚
The equal sign applies when L is a prime number.
These independent sequences can be divided into two equal groups so that
each number of one group has a mirror image in the other group.
Mirror image sequences have the same bit sequence when one is read forward
in time and the other is read backward in time.
𝐿−1
Ex: m=13, L= 213 − 1 = 8191 , Since L is a prime number 𝑆 = = 630
𝑁
Hence there are 630/2=315 basic sequence and 315 mirror images
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 [5,2]

[5,4,2,1]

Code generator of figure a has an advantage over that of figure b, as it requires

fewer feedback connections.
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Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
54
Table gives the number and location of the feedback connections that
would give us maximal-length PN sequences.

M Sequence length Sequence (Initial Feedback digit

N length all 1)

2 3 110 𝑥1 ⊕ 𝑥2
3 7 1110010 𝑥2 ⊕ 𝑥3
4 15 111100010011010 𝑥3 ⊕ 𝑥4
5 31 111110011010010 𝑥2 ⊕ 𝑥5
000101011101100
0

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