Department of

Electronics and Communication

Engineering

EC 301 Digital Communication System

Pre-requisite(s): Analog Communication, Probability and Random Signal
Theory

1
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
1
 Module II
Matched Filter, Error Rate due to Noise,
Intersymbol Interference, Nyquist Criterion for
Distortion-less Baseband Binary Transmission,
Geometric Representation of Signals, The
Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Procedure,
Maximum Likelihood Decoding, Correlation
Receiver.

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 2

 Vector Space and vectors
Vector Space V is a set of vectors, whose elements (vectors) satisfy
certain conditions:
1. The sum of two vectors belonging
to V is another vector which also
belongs to V
2. There exists a vector , called the
zero vector(O), which is such that
A +O=A, for any vector
belonging to V
3. For any vector A there exists
another vector B, such that A +B
=O
4. If any vector A belonging to V is multiplied by a scalar ( a real or
complex number) the resultant vector also belongs to V
We represent vector A as
3
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Linearly independent vector

4
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 Basis Vector
A set of vector belonging to a vector space V, which are linearly
independent and which span for that space , are said to be forming a
basis set for that space.
Thus i, j, k, form a basis set of vectors for the Euclidian space.
i, j, k, are not only linearly independent but also mutually orthogonal.
Orthogonal: The two vectors are said to be orthogonal to each other if
their dot product is zero.
Orthogonal Set: A set of vectors is said to be an orthogonal set of
vectors if any two distinct vectors from the set are orthogonal to each
other.
Orthonormal Set: If, in addition, each one of the vectors of the set has
a unit magnitude, the set is said to be an orthonormal set.
Therefore i, j and k form an orthonormal basis set of vectors for the
Euclidean space. Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 5
 6
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Component of a Vector along Another Vector

7
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Given Two Vectors X=(0,2,1)and Y=(1, -2, 1), find the component of Y along X

8
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Analogy of Vectors and Signals

9
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 Signal Spaces

10
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Orthogonality and Length of a Signal

11
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Distance Between Two Signals

12
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Set of Orthogonal/ Orthonormal Signals

13
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Component of One Signal Along Another Signal

14
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 15
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 16
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 17
Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Procedure:

18
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 19
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 20
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 21
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 22
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 23
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Step3:

24
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 25
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 26
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Energy of each of signal is ‘1’ 27
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 28
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 29
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 30
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Vector Representation of Signals/Signal Space
Diagrams

31
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 Vector Representation of Signals/Signal Space
Diagrams

It is a geometrical representation, or vector representation, of signals in the

signal space; and is generally known as the signal space diagram of signals .
32
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 33
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 Distance Between Signals and Distinguishability
• In digital communications, the transmitter transmits, one of M
possible signals, during each time of T seconds.
• The job of the receiver is to determine, during each time slot, which
one of the M signals has been sent.
• However, noise is always present and it makes it difficult for the
receiver to distinguish between one signal and another, thus causing
errors to occur occasionally.
• The probability of occurrence of such errors would depend not only
upon the signal-to-noise ratio of the received signal but also upon how
close the signals are to each other.
• The larger the separation of two signals in the signal-space diagram,
the larger will be the noise amplitude required to force the receiver
into committing a mistake in its decision; and larger noise amplitudes
are less probable. Hence, a larger separation of the signals ensures
better distinguishability of signals and a low probability of error.
34
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Determine the distance between the signals x1(t), x2(t) and x3(t). If
during each time slot, any one of these signals is transmitted, which
type of error is more likely? (i) x1 (t) being mistaken for x2(t) ii) x1(t)
being mistaken for x3(t) (iii) x2(t) being mistaken for x3(t)?

35
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 36
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 37
A BASEBAND SIGNAL RECEIVER

38
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 A BASEBAND SIGNAL RECEIVER
Integrate and Dump

The operation of receiver during each bit interval is independent of the

waveform during the past and future bit interval.

39
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Peak Signal to RMS Noise Output Voltage Ratio

40
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 41
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 42
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 43
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 44
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
PROBABILITY OF ERROR

45
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
PROBABILITY OF ERROR

46
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 47
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 48
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 49
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 Optimum Receiver

50
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 51
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 52
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 53
Optimum Filter Transfer Function H(f)

54
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 55
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 56
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 57
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 58
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 Matched Filter

59
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 Matched Filter

60
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 Properties of the Matched Filter
• Impulse response of the Matched filter consists of p(t) rotated about
t=0 and is then delayed by the duration T and scaled by the constant
factor.

61
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Probability of Error of the Matched Filter

62
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 Contd..

63
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 64
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 65
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Optimum Filter Realization using Correlator:

66
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 67
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 68
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 Properties of the Matched Filter
• Impulse response of the Matched filter is the delayed version of
pulse signal p(t) by the duration T and scaled by the factor k
• The peak pulse to signal-to-noise ratio of a matched filter depends
only on the ratio of the signal energy to the power spectral density of
the white noise at the filter input.
• If the signal is of duration T seconds, the filter matched to it has to
have a delay of at least T seconds in order to be physically realizable.

69
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Optimum Threshold: Maximum Likelihood
Detector

70
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 71
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 72
(a) For an equiprobable binary baseband data the optimal receiver
receives -5mV for 0 and +5mV for 1, corrupted with the white
noise of PSD 10-9 W/Hz. With optimum decision threshold
what is the probability of error in the reception if data rate is
9600bits/sec?
(b) Find the percentage increase in error rate if data rate is
doubled.
(c) If we want probability of error at increased data rate same as
(a) what should be input voltage levels?

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 73

 Intersymbol Interference
• Each pulse is to be confined to its own time slot.
• But when this signal is transmitted over a channel that is dispersive,
the pulses are no longer confined to their respective time slots by the
time the signal arrives at the receiving end.
• Instead, the pulses spill over to the adjacent time slots, influencing
the amplitudes of the pulses in those adjacent time slots.
• This is referred to as ‘intersymbol interference’, or ISI.
• This can lead to the decision-making device making wrong
decisions with regard to the symbols that were transmitted in those
affected time slots, thus causing error.

74
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 Intersymbol Interference
Input Waveform Individual Pulse Response Received waveform
(Sum of Pulse responses)

75
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Intersymbol Interference

76
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Intersymbol Interference

77
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Intersymbol Interference

78
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Nyquist Criterion for Distortion less Baseband
Transmission

79
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Nyquist Criterion for Distortion less Baseband
Transmission

80
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 81
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
The Ideal Nyquist Channel

82
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 83
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
The Raised Cosine Spectrum

84
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 85
1. The pulse function p(t) has two distinct factors.
• The first factor, sinc2Wt, is associated with ideal Nyquist
channel,
• The second factor decreases as l/|t|2 for large values of |t|.
The first factor being a sinc function, ensures that there are zero-
crossings at regular intervals, so that they can be used for sampling (to
avoid ISI),
While the second factor ensures that the tails of the pulse decay faster
than what we had for the pure sinc pulse used in the ideal Nyquist
channel.
2. The ‘raised cosine filter’, with a value of ρ = 1, can easily be
approximated by giving an adequate amount of time delay.
3. Since the tails of p(t) reduce very fast when = 1, timing jitter of
the sampler in the receiver does not produce much of intersymbol
interference (ISI).
86
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
4. However, to avoid ISI with this raised cosine channel (ρ=1), the
minimum transmission bandwidth required is 2W, i.e., twice that
required for the ideal Nyquist channel, for the same pulse rate.
5. (a) The pulse p(t) corresponding to ρ=1, i.e., p(t) for the raised
cosine filter takes a value of 0.5 at t = ±T/2 = ±1/4W. This means
that the pulse width, measured at half the maximum amplitude (of
1), is exactly equal to the time-slot duration T.
(b) For the pulse p(t) of the raised cosine filter with ρ=1, there are
two zero crossing points at t=±1.5 T and ± 2.5T in addition to the
usual zero-crossings at t = ±1, ±2, ±3,…
The properties 5(a) and 5(b) are very useful since they enable the
receiver to extract the timing signals required for synchronization.

87
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 The Eye pattern
The eye pattern is an experimental tool that can be used for evaluating
the combined effect of channel noise and ISI on a baseband data
transmission system under operational conditions.
It gives information on zero-crossing jitter, noise margin, timing
sensitivity and time interval available for sampling.
The received pulse
stream is fed to the
vertical input of the
oscilloscope, and the
symbol clock is fed to
the external trigger input,
while the sweep rate is
set approximately equal
to the symbol rate.
88
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 89
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 • Ideal Amplitude +1 and -1
• Ideal decision time T
• The area in the middle of
pattern as eye opening.
• ISI =20 log h/H
h= degraded vertical opening
H= ideal vertical opening
20 log 90/100= 0.915 dB
Overlapping signal pattern does not cross the horizontal zero line at
exact integer multiples of the symbol clock. This is an impairment
known as data transition jitter.

90
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
 noise margin : Amount of noise the
detector can tolerate without
making an error. The instant of
maximum eye opening indicates the
optimum sampling or decision-
making instant.
Sensitivity to timing jitter. The width
of the eye indicates the time interval
over which correct decision can still
be made, and it is desirable to have
an eye with the maximum
horizontal opening.

The slope of the eye shows how fast the noise tolerance is reduced and, hence, the
sensitivity of the decision noise tolerance to variation of the sampling instant. It
demonstrates the effects of timing jitter.

91
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 92
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 93
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 94
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 95
 Books Recommended:

Textbooks:
1. “Digital Communication”, P. Ramakrishna Rao.

96
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 97
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 98
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 99
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 100
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering 101
Given Two Vectors X=(0,2,1)and Y=(1, -2, 1), find the magnitude of each and
check whether they are orthogonal , if they are not orthogonal, find the angle
between them.

Ex 2.2 and 2.3 of P R Rao

102
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering