ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY LABORATORY

GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF ENGG. AND RESEARCH

AWSARI(KHURD), TAL. AMBEGAON

DIST. PUNE-412405

LAB MANUAL

ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY LABORATORY

Staff In-Charge Lab Assistant

 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY LABORATORY

GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF ENGG. AND RESEARCH

AWSARI(KHURD), TAL. AMBEGAON

DIST. PUNE-412405

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that

Mr/ Miss___________________________________________________________ of

Class___________________ Roll No____________________ has completed all the

Practical work in the subject in the of _____________________________________

Satisfactorily in the Department of MECHANICAL ENINEERING as prescribed in the

syllabus of SavitribaiPhule Pune University

Course Teacher Head of the Department Principal

ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND METALLURGY LABORATORY
GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF ENGG. AND RESEARCH

AWSARI(KHURD), TAL. AMBEGAON

DIST. PUNE-412405

INDEX

Name:___________________________________ Roll No____________

Class:______________________________ Subject _________________

Sr No Title of Experiment Page Date Remark Sign

/ Assignment No
1 To study the Rockwell Hardness testing
machine and perform the Rockwell
hardness test.
2 To determine hardness of the given test
piece(Stainless Steel) using Brinell
Hardness test.

To determine hardness of the given test

piece(Stainless Steel) using Poldi Hardness
tester.

3 To Study and Perform Liquid Penetration

Test
4 Study and demonstration of specimen
preparation for microscopic examination.
5 Study of the microstructures of steels of
various compositions.

6 Study and Drawing of Microstructure of Non

Ferrous Metals.

7 Study of effect of Annealing &

Normalizing on properties of the steel
 MINIATURE COMMITMENT

Sr No Title of Experiment Page Date Remark Sign

/ Assignment No
1
To study Creep and Fatigue

2
Fluorescence Microscope
Experiment No-01
Title: Rockwell Hardness Test
Conducted Date:
 Experiment No-01

AIM : To study the Rockwell Hardness testing machine and perform the Rockwell
hardness test.

APPARUTS :- Rockwell Hardness testing machine, specimen of mild steel or other

material.
THEORY: - Hardness represents the resistance of material surface to abrasion,
scratching and cutting, hardness after gives clear indication of strength. In all hardness
tests, a define force is mechanically applied on the piece, varies in size and shape for
different tests. Common indentors are made of hardened steel or diamond. Rockwell
hardness tester presents direct reading of hardness number on a dial provided with the
m/c. principally this testing is similar to Brinell hardness testing. It differs only in
diameter and material of the indentor and the applied force. Although there are many
scales having different combinations of load and size of indentor but commonly ‘C’
scale is used and hardness is presented as HRC. Here the indentor has a diamond cone
at the tip and applied force is of 150 kgf. Soft materials are often tested in ‘B’ scale
with a 1.6mm dia. Steel indentor at 60kgf.

SPECIFICATION OF HARDNESS TESTING M/C AND INDENTORS:- A

hardness test can be conducted can be conducted on Brinell testing m/c, Rockwell
hardness m/c or vicker testing m/c. the specimen may be a cylinder, cube, thick or
thin metallic sheet. A Brinell-cum-Rocwell hardness testing m/c along
 Observation table:-

Reading of the dial after Rockwell

Sr. no. Material Load(Major)
removal of Load Hardness Number

Result

Conclusion
Questions:-
• What are the advantages of Rockwell hardness test?
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• What is the purpose of Minor load in Rockwell hardness tester?

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Experiment No-02 A
Title: Brinell Hardness test.
Conducted Date:
 Experiment No-02- A
Aim: To determine hardness of the given test piece(Stainless Steel) using Brinell
Hardness test.

Brinell hardness test

Apparatus:
• Brinell hardness tester
• Test specimens of above mentioned materials
Procedure:
• A test specimen to be tested is placed on the anvil.
• Selected load is applied on the ball indenter for a specified time using Brinell
hardness tester.
• The load is gradually applied by means of hydraulic mechanism.
• After full application of load for specified time, load is slowly removed.
• The indenter is taken out and diameter of circular impression is measured by special
microscope.
• This measuring instrument magnifies the image and with calibrated grid provided in
the eyepiece, measurement of diameter is done with accuracy 0.01 mm.
Precaution:
• Thickness of test piece – The thickness of the specimen should be at least ten times the
depth of indentation.
• Test surface – Test surface should be flat and parallel to base. Surface of the work
piece should be milled, ground or polished.
• Spacing of indentation- indentation must not be made near the edge of the specimen as
it may result in abnormally large, unsymmetrical indentations. Brinell indentations
must not be made too close to one another.
Observation table:
Types of Dia of Steel ball Dia. of indentationon
[Link] B.H.N.
Material specimen (mm)

Formula:

Brinell hardness number = 2P

____________
ΠD (D-√ (D2-d2)
D=Diameter of steel ball indenter in mm=
d=Diameter of indentation mark on specimen in mm.
P=Load in kg=

Calculations:-

Result
Questions:-
1) Why Brinell hardness number is dependent of load?
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2) What are the advantages and drawbacks of Brinell hardness test?
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3) Differentiate between Brinell and Poldi hardness test.
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Experiment No-02 B
Title:Poldi Hardness test.
Conducted Date:
 Experiment No-02- B
Title: To determine hardness of the given test piece(Stainless Steel) using Poldi
Hardness tester.
 Experiment No-2- B
Aim: To determine hardness of the given test piece (Stainless Steel) using Poldi Hardness
tester.

Poldi hardness test

Apparatus:
• Poldi hardness tester
• Magnification scope
• Hammer
• Standard bar of known hardness value
• Standard table for hardness value
Precautions:
1) The tube should be held perfectly vertical on the specimen to avoid elliptical
impressions.
2) Specimen should be kept on hard platform to avoid rebound.
3) The hammer blow should be moderate.

Procedure:
• The standard bar is inserted in the slot of the instrument. This bar touches the ball
as well as the lower end of the plunger.
• The entire assembly is held with the left hand over the specimen surface of which
hardness is to be measured and hammer blow is given with the right hand on the
top of the plunger.
• Due to the above blow two impressions are obtained simultaneously one on the
specimen and the other on the standard bar
• The diameters of these impressions are measured by using magnifiscope.
• Hardness of material can be found out by using the equation of
Brinell.
Formula:-
Brinell hardness number = D-√ D2-(dstd.2)
___________ X [B.H.N.]std.
D-√ D2-(dsp.2)
D= Diameter of steel ball indenter.
dstd = Diameter of indentation mark on standard bar.
dsp = Diameter of indentation mark on specimen.

Observation table:-
Dia of Dia of
indentation of indentation of
Sr. no. Material Standard Test B.H.N.
Specimen Specimen
(mm) (mm)

Calculations:-
• Diameter of ball indenter D= ……mm
• B.H.N. of Standard bar = ……..
• Multiplying factor =
Result:

Conclusion:-
Questions:-
• What are the advantages of Poldi hardness tester?
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• What is the multiplying factor? Write down the value of multiplying factor in this
test.
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• Derive the Brinell formula for the Poldi hardness test.

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Experiment No-03
Title: Non Destructive Testing- Dye Penetrant Test
Conducted Date:
 Experiment No-03

Aim: To Study and Perform Liquid Penetration Test

Apparatus: Develeloper, Dye,Test sample

Theory This is a method which can be employed for the detection of open-to-surface
discontinuities in any industrial product which is made from a non-porous material.
This method is widely used for testing of non-magnetic materials. In this method a
liquid penetrant is applied to the surface of the product for a certain predetermined
time, after which the excess penetrant is removed from the surface. The surface is
then dried and a developer is applied to it. The penetrant which remains in the
discontinuity is absorbed by the developer to indicate the presence as well as the
location, size and nature of the discontinuity.
Procedure:
 Clean the Specimen thoroughly with Water
 Let the specimen dry
 Apply the Liquid Penetrant and let it settle on the specimen
 Use a cloth, wipe the additional Penetrant
 Use developer toget the surface cracks

This is a method which can be employed for the detection of open-to-surface

discontinuities in any industrial product which is made from a non-porous
material. This method is widely used for testing of non-magnetic materials. In this
method a liquid penetrant is applied to the surface of the product for a certain
predetermined time, after which the excess penetrant is removed from the surface.
The surface is then dried and a developer is applied to it. The penetrant which
remains in the discontinuity is absorbed by the developer to indicate the presence
as well as the location, size and nature of the discontinuity.
.
Results:

Conclusion:
 Questions:-
1) What advantaged of Liquid Penetration Test?
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2) Advantages of NDT
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Experiment No-04
Title: Study and demonstration of specimen preparation for microscopic
examination
Conducted Date:
 Experiment No-04
Aim: Study and demonstration of specimen preparation for microscopic examination.

Apparatus:

1) Abrasive belt grinder

2) Disc polisher
3) Metallographic polish paper
4) Abrasive powder/paste
5) Mounting fixture
6) Optical metallurgical microscope.

Precautions:

1) Use correct method of holding specimen, and optimum pressure while operating belt
grinder and disk polisher.
2) Do not subject polished specimen to etchant for longer duration.

Procedure:
1) Select specimen for microscopic study. Specimen should not be very large or
small. Cut specimen from ductile material or crush brittle material to obtain
specimen.
2) Make the surface to be examined flat by grinding on abrasive belt grinder. Avoid
excessive heating by frequently dipping it into water.
3) If specimen is difficult to handle (i.e. awkward shape) mount specimen in
thermosetting or thermoplastic resin.
4) After surface is made flat, clean the surface with water and polish it on 1X0(0)
emery paper. Move the specimen back and forth slowly on emery paper till all
parallel scratches are observed on the surface. Use lubricants for soft materials.
5) Once polishing on 1X0 paper is complete repeat step 3 on 2X0(00), 3X0(000) and
4X0 (0000) emery paper. Ensure that new scratches produced by subsequent
polishing are perpendicular to previous polishing operation.
6) Once rough polishing is complete hold the specimen on polishing wheel with
desired polishing paste or powder. Use light pressure while holding specimen and
 move specimen continuously from centre to the periphery of the polishing wheel.
Continue the polishing till specimen is reasonably scratch free at 100X
magnification.
7) Select appropriate etching reagent and subject the specimen to etching reagent
either by dipping or by swabbing for appropriate time according to specimen.
8) Rinse in water and ethyl or methyl alcohol and dry using blast of warm air.
9) Observe the specimen under the microscope and record your observation.

Name any two etching reagents and write their composition for following materials:
.
1) For Iron and Steel

2) For Stainless Steel

3) For Non Ferrous Alloys

Experiment No-05
Title: Study and drawing of microstructure of mild steel, medium carbon steel,
Low carbon steel and high carbon steel.
Conducted Date:
 Experiment No-05
TITLE: Study of the microstructures of steels of various compositions.

OBJECTIVE:To study and draw the microstructure of the mild steel, medium carbon
steel, eutectoid steel and hypo-eutectoid steel

EQUIPMENT:Optical metallurgical microscope.

MATERIALS:Prepared specimen of mild steel, medium carbon steel , eutectoid steel

and hyper eutectoid steel.

THEORY:

General features of Microstructures:-

*Gives details about grains of single phase metals and alloys

*Shows shapes and sizes of grains of micro-constituents and their configuration

arrangements in case of multi-phase system as they produce a variety of typical
micro-structures

In the Fe-Fe3C (iron iron carbide) equilibrium diagram, the eutectoid transformation takes
place at a temperature of 727⁰C and at 0.8%C. In eutectoid transformation; austenite
decomposes and forms mixture of ferrite and cementite, which is called pearlite.
1)Steel containing carbon from 0.008%C to 0.8%C are called hypereutectoid steels,2)
Steel containing 0.8%C are called eutectoid steels,3) Steels containing 0.8%C
to2.0%C are called hyper eutectoid steels.
Various phases in slowly cooled steels:-

1. Hypo eutectoid steels:

The steels contained carbon from 0.008%C to 0.8%C. For better illustration of changes in
structures during cooling of steels from austenite region , the eutectoid region of Fe-
FeC diagram is shown separately. Structural changes of mild steel(0.2%C) and
medium carbon steel (0.5%C)are as follows

At point 1, a ferrite starts separating out a grin boundaries of austenite(y) . As the

temperature decreases,the amount of alpha ferrite increases.

At point 2 the existing austenite transforms at a constant temperature of 727⁰C to a

mixture of ferrite and cementite called pearlite by eutectoid transformation process.

For other steels the sequence of structural changes are very much similar as above but
only the amount of phases that will be present are different. As the % of carbon goes
on increasing the amount of pro-eutectoid ferrite decreases and pearlite increases. For
0.8%C the amount of pro-eutectoid ferrite becomes equal to 0% and pearlite becomes
100%. There is a linear variation in carbon content of steel and amount of ferrite and
pearlite. For 0.008%c, amount of a is 100% and 0.8%c the amount of pearlite is
100%. This means that every 0.1%c approximately corresponds to 12.5% pearlite.

Ferrite appears white and pearlite appears dark under microscope with most common
etchants such as Nital or picral.

2. Eutectoid steels:-

In general, eutectoid transformation is denoted as:-

Constant

S1--------------------------→ S2 + S3 i.e.

Austenite(y) ---------------------------→ Ferrite(a) + cementite

(0.8%C) (0.025%C) (6.67%C)

Austenite of 0.8%C decomposes at constant temp. of 727⁰C and forms a mixture of ferrite
and cementite. This mixture of ferrite and cementite is called pearlite due to pearly
appearance under optical microscope. It consists of alternate lamellae of ferrite and
cementite. Austenite has FCC structure where as ferrite and cementite has BCC and
orthorhombic structures respectively.

3. Hyper –eutectoid steels:

These steels contain carbon between 0.8%C-2.0%C .the structural charges of steel with
1.4%C are described here as follows-

1. At point 1, Fe3C starts separating out along the grain boundaries of austenite(y). As the
temperature decreases the amount of cementite increases and austenite decreases The
composition of austenite varies along the line DE and the composition of cementite
does not change, since it is an inter metallic compound .This continues up to point 2.
The amount of austenite and cementite can be found only by applying the liver rule.
This cementite, which has separated before the eutectoid transformation is called
primary,free ,or pro-eutectoid cementite.

[Link] point 2, existing amount of austenite transforms at constant temperature of 727 ⁰C to

pearlite.

3. Cooling from 2 to 3 does not result insignificant change in microstructure and same
microstructure is obtained at room temperature.

Free cementite increases linearly with increasing carbon and for 2.0% carbon steel its
value is 20.4%. Every 0.1% C approx. corresponds to 1.7% cementite.

PROCEDURE:-

1. Clean the objective and the eyepiece of the optical metallurgical microscope

2. Take the prepared specimens.

3. Place them one by one under the optical metallurgical microscope.

4. Observe the microstructure of each of the specimens carefully.

Low Carbon steel -

Mechanical Treatment – Hot rolled

Heat Treatment – Annealing

Average composition– 0.18 % carbon and 0.50%manganese.

Magnification-200X.

Etchant – Nital

Description

A typical two phase structure is observed in which ferrite is bright phase . Ferrite
occupies about 75% of the total volume and pearlite(Dark phase) is in the balance.
Grains of ferrite phase arepolygonal and equiaxed;pearlite is unresolved.

Applications

It is used in making dogs pins,machineryparts,special bolts,gears,pistonrings,cam

shaft, crank shaft,etc.

MEDIUM CARBON STEEL

Mechanical Treatment – Hot rolled

Heat Treatment – Annealing

Average composition – 0.3 to 0.7 % carbon .

Magnification-200X.

Etchant – Nital

Description

A typical two phase structure is observed in which ferrite is bright phase . Ferrite
occupies about 50% of the total volume and pearlite(Dark phase) is in the balance.
Grains of ferrite phase are polygonal and equiaxed ; pearlite is unresolved.
Applications

It is used in making axel shafts, crank shafts, cam shaft, railway wheel,etc.

HIGH CARBON STEEL

Mechanical Treatment – Hot rolled

Heat Treatment – Annealing

Average composition 0.7 % to 2% carbon

Magnification-200X.

Etchant – Nital

Description -

A typical two phase structure is observed in which ferrite is bright phase . Ferrite
occupies about 10% of the total volume and pearlite(Dark phase) is in the balance.
Grains of ferrite phase are polygonal and equiaxed ; pearlite is unresolved.

Applications-

It is used to make hammers andnails , drill bits ,saws, etc.

The structures under microscope are look like as follows –

1) Low carbon steel –

2) Medium carbon steel –

3)High carbon steel –

Result -

Hence we have studied various kinds of steel specimens by observing it under

microscope along with their properties ,compositions and distinct phases in them.

Conclusion-
Questions:
1) Draw iron –iron carbide equilibrium diagram.

2) Described the various phases existing in the iron –iron carbide equilibrium diagram.
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3) Write down the general equation for three types of transformations occurring in iron –
iron carbide equilibrium diagram.
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4) Write down the critical temperatures and phase changes at that temperature.
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5) Application of low carbon steel, medium carbon steel and high carbon steel.
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 Draw microstructure and name phases

Specimen material: _____________

Composition: __________________

____________________________

Any mechanical or heat treatment:

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Etchant used:________________
Remarks:_____________________________________
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Specimen material:___________________

Composition:________________________

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Any mechanical or heat treatment:

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Etchantused:__________________________
Remarks:____________________________________________________________
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Experiment No-06
Title: Study of the microstructures of the Non-Ferrous alloys
Conducted Date:
 Experiment No-06
Title:
Study and Drawing of Microstructure of Non Ferrous Metals.
Objective:
To study and draw the microstructures of α-brass, α-β brass, Aluminum bronze, Tin-
bronze and a bearing metal.

Equipment:
Optical Metallurgical Microscope

Materials:
Prepared specimens of α-brass, α-β brass, Aluminum bronze, Tin-bronze and a bearing
metal.

Theory:
Metallic materials when considered in a broad sense, may be divided into two large
groups , ferrous and non-ferrous. The ferrous materials are iron-based and the non-
ferrous materials have some element other than iron as the principal constituent.

Copper & its Alloys:

 The properties of copper are:
1. Good ductility & malleability.
2. High electrical and thermal conductivity.
3. Non magnetic.
4. Can be easily alloyed with other metal.
5. Good corrosion resistance.
 Various alloying elements are added to copper to improve or add some properties.
 Major alloying elements that are added include:
Zn,Sn,Al,P,Pb,Be,Fe,Si,Ni,Mg and Mn.
 Some of the important alloys discussed below:

A] Brasses:
Brasses are alloys of copper and zinc. The equilibrium diagram of the copper-zinc system
is shown in Fig. The equilibrium solubility of Zn in Cu is around 38% and is sharply
influenced by the cooling rate. Under the conditions of usual cooling rates
encountered in industrial practice, the solubility limit may go down to 30%. With Zn
additions exceeding the solubility limit, a second phase β (beta) is formed. Beta
intermediate phase exhibits order-disorder transformation between 453 and 470°C.
 Below this temperature, the structure of β is ordered (indicated as βˈ) and above this,
It is disordered. With more than 50% Zn, another phase γ (intermediate phase) is
formed.

Fig.1: Cu-Zn equilibrium diagram and mechanical properties of brasses

The mechanical properties of brasses depend on the amount of zinc in the alloy i.e. the
properties depend on the type and amount of phases. Therefore, the properties are
closely related to the equilibrium diagram. The tensile strength and ductility of
brasses increase with increasing amount of zinc upto about 30% i.e. the solubility
limit. (Refer fig no.1)
 Classification:

The commercial brasses divided into two groups:

1. Brasses for cold working (α-brass)

2. Brasses for hot working (α-β brass)

1].α-Brasses:
 Composition: 36%Zn, 64%Cu.
 Properties:
1. Good corrosion resistance.
2. Soft, ductile, malleable.
 Applications:

Suitable for cold working, wire drawing, presswork

Types of α-Brasses:

 Cap Copper
 Composition: 95-98%Cu, 5-15%Zn.
 Properties:
1. Ductile and malleable
 Applications:

Used for caps of detonators in ammunition factories

 Gliding Metals:
 Composition: 85-95%Cu, 5-15%Zn.
 Properties:
1. They have different shades of colors depending on zinc percentage.

 Applications:
1. Bullet envelops
2. Drawn containers, condenser tubes, coins and needles.
3. Dress jewellery because of color like gold.
 Cartridge Brass (Refer fig no.2)
 Fig 2: Microstructure of cartridge brass

 Composition: 70%Cu, 30%Zn.

 Properties:
1. It has maximum ductility and malleability amongst all the brasses.
 Applications:
1. Used for forming by drawing, stretching, trimming, spinning and
presswork operations.
2. Cartridge cases.
3. Radiator fins.
4. Lamp fixtures.
5. Rivets and springs.

 Admiralty Brass:
 Composition: 76%Cu, 22%Zn, 2%Al.
 Properties:
1. Good corrosion resistance.
 Applications:
1. 69%Cu, 30%Zn, 1%Sn is used for condenser tubes and heat exchangers in
steam power plants.
2. 76%Cu, 22%Zn, 2%Al is used widely for marine applications.

2] α-β Brasses:

 Composition: 60-68% Cu, 32-40%Zn

 Properties:
1. Hard and Strong as compared to α- brasses.
2. These two phase alloys become single-phase β (disordered) alloys at
higher temperature. Disordered β has more ductility and malleability as
compared to ordered β (i.e.βˈ). Therefore α-β brasses are hot worked at a
temperature of above 600°c. Their corrosion resistance is poor compared
to alpha (α) brasses.
 Applications:
1. Suitable for casting purposes.

Types of α-β brasses….

 Muntz metal(Refer fig no.3)

 Composition: 60% cu, 40% zn

 Properties:

1] The alloy becomes single phase at about 700°c.

 2] It can be hot worked, extruded or rolled in temp. Range of 600-800°c.

3] Hot worked 60-40 brass shows a tensile strength of 35 to 40 kg/mm2and

hardness of 100-120 VPN

Fig 3:Microstructure of Muntz metal

 Applications:
Used for utensils, shafts, nuts & bolts, pump parts, condenser tubes and similar
applications where corrosion is not too severe.

 Naval brass:
 Composition: 60% cu, 39% zn, 1% sn.

 Properties:
1) Good corrosion resistance to marine environment.

 Applications:
1) Used for marine hardware, propeller shaft, piston rods, nuts and bolts and
welding rods
 leaded brass:
Lead is added in small amount to improve machinability of brasses and such a
brass is called as leaded brass.

 Composition: 1-3 % pb+ muntz metal or 1-3% pb + naval brass i.e. 61.5% cu,
35.5% Zn, 3% Pb.

 Properties
1) Good machinability due to presence of Pb.
 Applications:
Used for hardware, gears, automatic high speed screw machine parts
 Brazing brass:
 Compositions: 50% Cu, 50% Zn.
  Properties:
This brass is brittle due to presence γ phase and can be crushed to powder
manually or mechanically for its use in powder form.

 Applications:
Used in joining of commercial brasses
B] Bronzes…
Bronzes are the alloy of copper containing element other than zinc. In these alloys
zinc may be present in small amount. Originally the name bronze was used to denote
copper - tin alloys.

CLASSIFICATION
Commercially important bronzes are described below.…

1] Aluminum bronze:

Fig 4: Cu-Al equilibrium diagram

Al bronzes are the alloys of copper and Al in which copper is the best metal and Al is
alloying element.
The maximum solubility of Al in Cu is 9.4% at 565c and eutectoid transformation
occurs at 11.8% Al.(Refer fig no.4)

 Composition:
Commercial Al bronze contain Cu + Al(4-11%). Other element such as Fe, Ni,
Mn and Si may be added to these bronzes for improvement of certain properties.
  Properties:
1) Good strength, ductility and toughness.
2) Good bearing properties.
3) Good corrosion resistance.
4) Good fatigue resistance.

 Applications:
1) Bronzes available in sheet, plate and tube form(containing low % of Al 4-
7%) are used in jewelry. Cigarette cases, heat exchangers, chemical plants
etc.
2) Hot worked alloys are used for pump casting, valve fitting, propeller,
cylinder heads, gears etc.

2] Tin bronze:

Fig 5: Cu-Sn equilibrium diagram

Tin bronzes are the alloys of copper and tin. Copper –rich portion of copper tin
equilibrium diagram which covers industrial alloys is shown in fig. The solubility of
tin in copper is 13.5% at 798°c, increases to 15.8% at 586°c and remains constant up
to 520°c, decreases 11% at 350°c, and to about 1% at room temp. A peritectic
 reaction occurs at 798°c in alloys containing 13.5 to 25% tin resulting in the
formation of β intermediate phase.(Refer fig no.5)

Tin bronzes are divided into four groups on the basis of their contents :
1) Alloys up to 8% tin.
2) Alloys between 8-12% tin.
3) Alloys between 12-20% tin.
4) Alloys between 20-25% tin.

Some of the other important tin- bronzes are…

 Coinage bronze
 Gun meta
 Phosphorous bronze

3] Silicon Bronze:
Silicon bronze are alloys wherein, copper is the base metal and silicon is the major
alloying element. The maximum solubility of silicon in copper is 5.3% at 845°c and
decreases to less than 4% at room temperature.

Composition:
Cu: 94.5 to 99% ; Si :1 to 5.5%

Properties:
1. High corrosion resistance, tensile strength ,toughness.
2. They can be further cold worked to improve mechanical properties.
3. They are cheaper than Sn Bronzes.

Application:

Bolts, rivets, springs, pressure vessels.

C] Bearing Materials (Sliding bearings)

These materials are used to transmit loads to a shaft rotating relative to the bearing. Sliding
bearing are also called as plain or journal bearing.
CLASSIFICATION

1] White metal alloys:

The microstructure of Babbitt consists of hard cuboids of Sn-Sb in a soft matrix of
eutectic. In addition to this the microstructure may consist of hard needle of Cu-Sn
and hard star shaped crystals of cu3Sn.

It is mainly used for lorry diesel engine crank shafts.

2] Copper lead alloys:

Copper lead bearings are widely used in automotive and aeronautic applications. lead is
insoluble in copper and hence the microstructure consists of soft particles of lead distributed
in the hard matrix of copper.

3] Silver bearings:

Silver is plated with lead to reduce the risk of seizure. Such bearings are called as
silver bearings. They are used for heavy load conditions such as in aircrafts.

4] Porousself lubricating bearings:

These bearings are manufactured by powder metallurgy. Porous bearings are made
from copper or iron base powders with as much as 40-50% porosity and are
impregnated with oil.
They do not require any external lubrications hence are called as self lubricating
bearings.

5] Dry and anti-corrosive bearing:

To avoid contamination of food, textiles etc. with oil and for inaccessible positions
where frequent lubrication is not possible dry bearings are used.

Properties:

1) Low coefficient of friction.

2) Excellent corrosion resistance.

Applications:

It is mainly used in food and textile industries.

Conclusion:
Thus we have studied the composition, characteristics and application of important non
ferrous materials.

Questions:-
1) Explain the ferrous and non ferrous material.
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2) Explain briefly Brass.
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3) Write down the application of brass.
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Draw microstructure and name phases

Specimen material: _____________

Composition: __________________

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Any mechanical or heat treatment:

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Etchant used:________________
Remarks:_____________________________________
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Specimen material:___________________

Composition:________________________

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Any mechanical or heat treatment:

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Etchant used:__________________________
Remarks:_____________________________________
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Experiment No-07
Title: Heat treatment of Plain Carbon Steel and determination of relative
hardness

Conducted Date:
 Experiment No-07
Aim:Study of effect of Annealing & Normalizing on properties of the steel
Apparatus:Heat treatment furnace,Rockwell Hardness Tester
Theory:Annealing in general, involves heating to sufficient high temperatures Holding at
this temperature & finally cooling at a very slow rate. The temperature to which steel
is heating & holding time are determined by various factors such as the chemical
composition of the steel, size & shape of steel component & final properties desired.
Annealing can form either the final treatment or a preparatory step for further
treatment.
The various purposes of this treatment are
i) To relive internal stresses developed during solidification, machining, forging, rolling
or welding etc.
ii) To improve or restore ductility or toughness
iii) To enhance machinability.
iv) To eliminate chemical non-uniformity.
v) To refine grain size
vi) To reduce gaseous content in steel.
Types of Annealing 1. Full Annealing 2. Isothermal Annealing [Link] Annealing
[Link] Annealing 5. Re crystallization Annealing
Procedure:
Annealing
1. Clean the given sample
2. Place the sample in the furnace and heat it to upper critical temperature.
3. Cool the sample slowly in the furnace itself
4. Check its Hardness in the Rockwell Hardness Tester .

Normalizing
1. Clean the given sample
2. Place the sample in the furnace and heating steel to about 400 - 500 c above upper critical
temperature ( A 3) and hold for proper time.
3. Cool the sample in air
4. Check its Hardness in the Rockwell Hardness Tester .
Observation Table
Sample No Type of Hardness Rockwell
Hardness
1 Furnace
Cooled/Annealing
2 Normalizing/ Air cooled
3 Hardnening
Process(Water/ Oil
Cooled)

Questions:-
1) What is the purpose of Hardening.
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2) What is the difference between Annealing and Normalizing

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 Miniature Commitment -1
Aim:Study of Creep and Fatigue Test
Mode- Online/ Virtual Mode
Courtesy- IIT Bombay

Creep is progressive i.e. permanent and time dependant deformation of a

material at a constant stress below the yield strength of the material. Creep
is seen in all types of materials and is observed to be severe in materials that
are utilized in applications involving high operating temperatures for long
periods of time. The deformation caused by creep need not always be
catastrophic i.e. if a component is deformed by creep beyond the tolerable
limits of the application, the application as a whole may fail even though the
component has not actually fractured. Also it is not always an undesirable
property, e.g. concrete has inbuilt tensile stresses which may lead to its
fracture however, due to some moderate creep these stresses get relieved
and the structure is saved. It is important to note that the words "permanent"
and "time dependant" are very important since the deformation is not an
elastic one nor is it a brittle [Link] strain keeps on building over a period
of time. Creep though dependant on various factors is generally observed to
increase with rise in [Link] is particularly important for metals
whose operating temperature is greater than 0.4Tm and even amorphous
polymers are sensitive to creep
 Miniature Commitment -2
Aim: Fluorescence Microscope
Mode- Online/ Virtual Mode
Courtesy- IIT Bombay

Principle

The emission of light of higher wavelength after the irradiation of the sample with
known specific wavelength within nanoseconds is called [Link]
instrument called fluorescence microscope is an optical microscope which utilizes
a specific wavelength of light to study the properties of substances by the principle
of fluorescence. Monochromatic light is used to illuminate the specimen which
excites the fluorophore molecules. These fluorophore molecules release low
intensity light of higher wavelengths during relaxation which passes through
dichromatic mirror and emission filter which blocks the excitation light and allows
the emitted light to pass, and enhances the intensity of the emitted light. Hence,
single colure image can be obtained at a time due to the excitation of single
fluorophore. A sample containing different fluorophore are imaged to observed
different features present in the sample and these single colored images are merged
to obtain the multi-colored images.

Excitation and Emission Spectra

(1) The excitation and emission spectra are nearly the mirror image of each other.
(2) Emission spectra shifts towards higher wavelengths.
(3) The difference between the wavelength is called Stoke's Shift.
(4) The intensity of emitted light is generally of 10-6 times of excitation light.
Precautions

(1) Turn-off the ligths of the room during the fluorescence experiment.
(2) Do not expose the fluorophore treated specimen under the specific wavelength
of light as the duration of the fluorescence phenomena is of the order of 10-6-10-9
seconds.
(3) Always use the UV shield while using the eyepiece.

Common Staining Agents used in Biological Studies

Applications
Biological and Life Sciences

(1) To view tissue and their sub-microscopic components and changes their in.
(2) To study bacteria and pathogens and changes their-in.
(3) Protein-protein and protein-cell interaction study.
(4) Movement of virus on a bi-layered membrane.
(5) Crude drugs.

Material Science
To see the various attributes of minerals, crystals, resins, chlorophyll
and inorganic compounds.