Chapter One: Introduction to computer

1.1 What is Computer?

Definition:
 A computer is an electronic device that does arithmetic calculations &logical manipulations at a high
speed.
 A computer is a digital machine that takes data as input, processes them in a predefined manner and
gives the required information in the form of output

The word computer generated from a Latin word “compute” which means “to calculate” and can be
applied to abacus or any adding machine as to the modern computer. A computer is any calculating device
or machine, which is electrical, mechanical or electromechanical.
But that doesn’t mean that computer performs only calculation. However, the term “Computer” has come to
mean a special electronic device having certain definite characteristics. Generally, a computer is an
electronic device that takes an input, process it under a set of instructions called program, produce an output
and store the result for future use. Why we need computer is that if we want some problems to be solved, in
nowadays computers can solve problems if the problem can be solved in to logical steps. From these
definitions, what a computer in general does is that-

 It takes input in various forms from different input units;

 Process it according to a given set of instructions called program;
 Produce an output in required form such as printed on paper or soft copy and gives it to
the end users;
 Storage / keeps the results for future use and later processing and
 Controlling /coordinates all the activities inside the computer.

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Figure1.1. Basic functions of computers
Data- is a collection of facts, unprocessed datum. It can not give a meaning by itself. When symbols
(numbers, pictures, figures etc.) are represented based on a certain rules and standards, it forms data. Data is
an input for information system.

Information-is a processed data that has a meaning to its users. It is informative about something.
Information needs cognitive states of its users i.e. demands awareness of data.

Data Information Information

System

Fig. 1.2 show how data is converted in to information

Why we use computers?

What do we usually think of when we hear the word computer? Well most of us think that it is some kind of
a machine that just simply calculates, make and run programs and that's it. The computer is one of the best
inventions that anyone has ever come up with, why our whole world is practically run by them. From the
increasing use of computers in our lives we might expect a totally computerized future, as these machines
can perform tasks, better and faster, that even a human being cannot do. These tasks are related to different
fields, which directly or indirectly have a great impact on our livings, but without the use of these computers
it would have been extremely difficult or even impossible for us to perform them. The importance of
computers in our lives today is almost an essential key part of the way our lifestyles have evolved. The
followings are some of the capabilities and potential of computers which are reasons for using computers:

- To store and process large amount of information with high speed and accuracy;
- To transmit information across continents via communication channels;
- To perform complex mathematical computations and make comparisons;
- To perform repetitive process with great ease, speed and reliability;
- For research purposes;
- For diagnostic purposes;
- For weather forecasts etc.

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1.2 Historical background of Computers
 Evolution of computers
The invention of Computers is dated back to 3000 B.C. when the first computing device Abacus was
created.
1.3 Generation of Computers
Although computer professionals do not agree on exact dates or specifics, computer developments are often
categorized by generations. Actually there are four generations and major characteristics that distinguish
these generations are the followings;
 Dominant type of electronic circuit elements used.
 Major secondary storage media used.
 Computer language used.
 Types or characteristic of operating system used.
 Memory access time (a time to store or retrieve a word or data from memory).
Computer generations are usually categorized by dramatic improvement in the hardware, typically tenfold
or better increases in speed and reliability.
First generation (1945-1956)
This generation computers used vacuum tubes as components for the electronic circuit. Punched cards were
the main source of inputs, and magnetic drums were used for internal storage. Primitive operating system
was used to process the files. They operate in a speed of milliseconds (thousands of a second) and could
handle more than 10,000 additions each second. Most applications were scientific calculations.
ENIAC and UNIVAC-I were good examples of first generation of computers. The following are the main
Features of the 1st generations of computers.
- Electronic circuit invented in this generation was vacuum tube.
- Later the vacuum tube became the base for development of digital computers.
- Punched cards were used for input/output operations.
- Machine and assembly language were introduced in this generation.
- Computers were used as a machine dedicated to a particular task.
Drawbacks
- unreliable
- Air conditioning was required for cooling the vacuum tubes.
- Huge in size.
- Due to frequently component failure, continuous maintenance was required.
- Costly.
- Limited commercial product.
Second generations (1956-1963)
Transistors were the main circuit components. Invented by Bell Labs, the transistor was smaller, faster and

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more reliable than the vacuum tube. Magnetic tapes, used for main storage, could be concerned in
microseconds (millionths of a second) with more than 200,000 additions possible each second. Business
applications become more common place, with large data files stored on magnetic tape and disk.
The most widely used second generations were:
IBM 1620 –small scientific computers
IBM 1401 –small to medium commercial computers
IBM 7094 –large scientific computer
High level languages COBOL and FORTRAN were introduced during this period. Batch operating systems
are used that permitted rapid processing of magnetic tape files. The following are the main features of IInd
generations of computers.
- Vacuum tubes were replaced by transistors.
- Punched cards and magnetic tapes were used for input/output operations.
- High level languages such as FORTRAN, COBOL, and SNOBOL etc were introduced.
- Smaller, less heat generator & hardware failure, high speed and more reliable as compared with the
first generation.
Drawbacks
- Air conditioning was still required.
- Huge in size.
- Due to component failure, continuous maintenance was required.
- For business purpose, production was still costly.
Third generation (1964-1971)
It was characterized by solid-state logic and integrated circuit (IC) as a main circuit. Computer storage
switched from magnetic tapes to integrated circuit boards that provide modularity (expandable storage) and
compatibility (interchangeable equipment). Software becomes more important with sophisticated time-
sharing operating systems, improved structured programming languages, and new input/output methods
such as optical scanning and plotters.
Example
 IBM system /360 was the dominant
 IBM 1130
Followings are some features of 3rd generations of computers.
- Introduction of microelectronics (Integrated circuit).
- Monitors and keyboards were introduced for input and output operations.
- Sophisticated operating systems such as time-sharing and multi-programming operating systems

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 were introduced. Online and real time operating systems were also introduced.
- More portable as compared with the previous generations.
- Reliability and speed were increased.
- Maintenance cost was low due to less hardware failure.
- Due to general-purpose commercial applications, this system became famous worldwide. In this
generation, manual assembly of component was replaced by machine assembly. Therefore, the
commercial production became cheaper and faster.
Drawback
- Air conditioning was still required for cooling of IC chips.
Fourth generation (1972-1985)
It has greatly expanded storage capabilities and improved circuitry. It has large scale integrated circuits
(LSI) and very large integrated circuit (VLSIC) which has several hundred thousands transistors placed on
one tiny silicon chip. Computer memory operates at speeds of nano-seconds (billionths of a second) with
large computers capable of adding 15 million numbers per second.
Followings are the features of the fourth generations of computers.
- Large scale and very large scale integrated circuits are introduced.
- Further enhancements of input and output devices.
- Introduction of microcomputers.
- Magnetic disks became the primary means of backup purposes (external storage).
- Compact size, faster speed and high reliability.
- Operated by user-friendly softwares.
- Semi-conductor main memory was introduced.
Drawbacks
- Increased cost of software.
- Required skilled manpower.
- Highly sophisticated technology.
Fifth generation computer (1985 onwards)
It is in progress i.e. computer scientists are working for the development of such computers which can think
like human beings. Computer systems, which can solve typical kinds of logical brain based problems
through AI (Artificial Intelligence) techniques, would be known as expert systems. An expert system is an
intelligent software package that attempts to encode the knowledge and decision rules made by human
specialists so that expert system users can use this software in making their own decisions. An architecture,
which makes use of the changes in technology and allows a simple and natural methodology for solving

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problems, is being sought. This generation provides the facilities of knowledge processing in place of data
processing. The followings are some of the areas of AI:
- pattern matching
- voice, character, and image recognition
- natural language processing
- decision support system
- medical diagnosis
These computers will have:
 Intelligent processors, i.e., processors which can draw inferences.
 Users will also be able to interact with them in natural languages such as English, German etc.
 Artificial intelligence
 Large data storage capacity
 Bio and organic chips.
 Decreasing the cost of hardware and softwares.
 Very high processing speed.
Japans and America are working intensively on the project for developing the 5th generation.

Table 1.1 a comparative study of various computer generations

Features Generations of computers

First Second Third Fourth
Circuit element Vacuum tubes Transistors IC (Integrated Circuit) LIC (Large Scale
Integrated Circuit)
Secondary Punched cards & Magnetic tape Magnetic disk Mass storage devices
storage Magnetic drum

Operating Primitive or operators Batch processing Time sharing, Parallel User-friendly

system control processing, real-time

Computer Machine & COBOL, Structured languages Application oriented

language assembly FORTRAN etc
Size Largest larger Medium Smallest
Speed Slowest Slower Medium Faster
Availability Obsolete Obsolete Obsolete Current
Reliability Unreliable Less reliable More reliable Most reliable
1.4 Classifications of Computers
There are different types of computers. Their differences depend on different categories of characteristics.

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A. Classification by the method of operation (processing)
Computers are classified by the type of data they are designed to process. Based on this, they are classified
into three: Analog, Digital and hybrid Computers.
1. Analog computers
Analog computers operate by measuring. They deal with continues variables. They don’t compute directly
with numbers, rather, by measuring physical magnitude such as pressure, temperature, voltage, current etc.
Examples:
 Thermometer
 Voltmeter
 Gasoline pomp – Contains an analog Computer that converts the flow of pumped fuel into two
measurements the price of the delivered gas and the quantity of pumped fuel.
Analog computers are special purpose computers. However, they have limited accuracy.
2. Digital Computers
Digital computers deal with discrete variables; they operate by counting rather than measuring. They
operate directly up on numbers (or digits) that represent numbers, letters, or other special symbols.
Examples:
 Abacus
 Desk & pocket computers
 The general purpose computers
Digital computers have very high accuracy and speed than the analog once.

3. Hybrid computers
The best features of analog and digital computers can be combined into a single device to form a hybrid
computer. Hybrid computers processes the information by collecting input data with analog method, convert
it into digital quantities, processes the digital values and convert the output from digital to analog form.
Example:
In hospital insensitive-care unit, analog devices may measure a patient’s heart function, temperature and
other vital signs. These measurements may then be converted into numbers and supplied to a digital
component in the system. This component is used to monitor the patient’s vital signs and to send an
immediate signal to the nurse’s station if any abnormal readings are detected.
B. Classification by purpose of application
Computers can be applied or used for different purposes. Based upon their application, they are classified as
special purpose and general purpose computers.

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 1. Special purpose computers
They are designed to solve a single type of problem, that is their components and functions are uniquely
adapted to a specific situation involving specific application.
Example:
 The public telephone box
 Traffic control system etc…
Most analog computers are special purpose computers.
2. General purpose computers
They are designed to solve variety of problems through the use of “store program concept”. A program or
set of instructions designed to solve a problem is ready and stored into the memory and then executed by the
computer. The same computer can be applied to solve another set of problem using different program.
General computers are more flexible and versatile.
Examples:

 Super computers.
 Main frame computers.
 Mini computers.
 Micro computer
C. Classification by physical size, price, capacity and performance
At this stage, by a computer we mean that a general-purpose digital computer. General-purpose digital
computers are then classified as follows by their capacity and size.

1. Super computer: - are the fastest, largest and most potential types of computer. They have speed of
hundreds of millions of operation per second, a primary memory capacity of about 80 million characters and
a secondary memory of capacity of about 20 times its primary memory. They are multi-user systems in
intercontinental range.
They can carry out enormously complex scientific calculations. They are used to process huge amount of
data and are commonly used in space technology centers, meteorology stations, astronomical observatories,
inter-continental communications, airline organizations etc.
2. Mainframe computers: - Smaller than in size and capacity, lower in speed & memory capacity
than the super computers. However they are multi-user systems and handle hundreds of users, usually used
in large organizations. The older ones used punched card for data input.
3. Mini computers: - have relatively lower speed, can handle multi-users, are smaller in size than the

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mainframe computers. They use terminals for inputs and output. Mini computers are used in small
organizations.
4. Microcomputers: - are the most widely used type of computers. They are single users, can fit on
desktops, are of varying capacity and easy to handle. Microcomputers are sometimes referred as personal
computers. They have video display unit for output purpose. Data is entered through the keyboard and by
the help of floppy disk.
Basically microcomputers are grouped into three: Laptop, Palmtop and Desktop computers.
Laptop computer are smaller versions of microcomputers about the size of a briefcase designed for
portability. People can easily carry these personal computers with them in their car, on airplane, or when
walking from one location to another.
Palmtop Computer is the smallest microcomputer that is about the same size as a pocket calculator. It is
the most portable computer and is growing in popularity among the latest entries in the microcomputer
market.
Desktop computer is the most widely used type of personal computer (microcomputer). It is the most
widely spread type of computer in our country.

1.5 Characteristics of computer

The characteristics of a computer show the capability and the potential of the computer for processing data.
This saves time, space, money, labor etc.
The following are the basic characteristics of computer.
 Speed
The most important characteristic of a computer is its speed. Computer works only one step at a time. Its
speed is measured by the amount of time it took to perform or carry out a basic operation. Computer speed
measured in terms of micro second (10-6 i.e. one millionths), nano second (10-9 i.e. one billionths), and pico
second (10-12 i.e. one trillionths).
 Storage
You can imagine how much space a paper of seconds or data of a census it needs. Not only the space, but
also the time it took to get or retrieve specific information from such vast amount of data is not negligible.
However, a computer can store such huge amount of information in a few numbers of disks. And the time it
took to retrieve or process single information is not more than a micro or a nano seconds. In general, a
computer has a capacity to store a very large amount of information in organized manner so that accessing
information is very fast.

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 Accuracy
Nowadays, computers are being used for surgical purposes which need almost hundred percent accuracy.
From this we can understand that computer is accurate and consistent. Computers probably do fewer
mistakes and produce more accurate results than human beings unless there is an error in the input data or
unreliable program the computer processes.
 Automatic
A computer is an automatic machine that is once the program and data are loaded into its memory, it carries
out the execution with (little) or no human intervention.
 Versatility
Computer has the potential to perform or solve varieties of tasks and problems, as long as the problem or the
task can be put or reduced in the form of logical steps.
 Diligence
Man suffers from physical and mental fatigue, lack of concentration and laziness which do not permit him
to carry on his task at the same level of speed and accuracy through the entire day. The computer , on the
other hand is capable of operating at exactly the same level of speed and accuracy even if it has to carry out
the most voluminous and complex operations for a long period of time. This means computers can do tasks
for long period of time with out tired and any grumbling.

1.6 APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS

Applications of computers differ from organization to organization or from individual to individual based
on the specific needs of organizations and individuals. Sometimes applications may be associated with the
size of the computer. For example, a supercomputer is not generally used for word processing activity.
Supercomputers are used in scientific applications such as aerodynamics design, processing of geological
data, and collecting and processing weather data, etc. Mainframe computers are used by large organizations
to coordinate and manage vast amounts of data. They can be used by many businesses to update inventory,
schedule production, keep employee records, generate sales and management reports, etc. Minicomputers
are well adapted for functions such as accounting, word processing, database management, etc.
Microcomputers are used in a variety of application. They are the most widely used computer types for
business and personal purpose.
In general minicomputers are used for:

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 - word processing, - graphics,
- computerized worksheet analysis and modeling, - engineering activities and
- education, - personal and home use etc.
- record keeping,

The main areas of computer applications are categorized in to:

a) Commercial or business applications
- Emphasis on data processing.
-It involves the use of computers for clerical, administrative, production and business use.
Example: Text processing, accounting and finance management, inventory control, database management,
statistical analysis etc.
b) Scientific, Engineering and Research applications
- Emphasis on scientific processing.
-Using computers for scientific research, complex mathematical calculations, design work, and
analysis of experimental data/results and control of physical systems.
Examples: space technology, meteorological observatory system, nuclear control system, astronomical
investigations system etc. Let’s see some particular application areas of computers.
Computers in education
- For instruction and administration purpose.
- Can guide a user through a course of instruction.
- Can guide /provide instruction and ask questions of the user.
- CAE (Computer Assisted Education), online teaching, training, conferencing, and distance learning are
good examples of computer applications in the fields of education.
Computers in Medicine
- Used as an aid to medical research by analyzing data produced from the trial of drugs.
- Used as an aid for diagnosis.
- Used to hold details of patients etc.
Computers in manufacturing
- Stock and production control
- Engineering design
- Design, manufacturing and testing processes are all in computerized.

1.7 Limitations of computer

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Although computers can be applied in different areas, there are activities that computers can’t perform. For
example, a computer can’t do the following.
A. Computers can’t decide how to be programmed. It is always humans that are responsible for
programming the computers.
B. Computers do not provide their own inputs unless people provide it with the inputs.
C. Interpretation of data and implementation of decisions is always left for humans. That is, a
computer doesn’t interpret the information it produces and it doesn’t implement decisions based
on the information obtained.
D. It is electricity dependent.

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