Theme 2.

String instruments: organology, morphology, acoustic characteristics,

physical principles of sound production. Main technical difficulties. Resolution
of the balance problems arising from the acoustic differences with the piano.

Index:
Theme 2: String instruments
2.1. Organology
2.1.a. Classification
2.1.b. History
2.1.c. Technical aspects of sound production……………………………………………………..2

2.2. Morphology
2.2.a. Parts..........................................................................................3

2.2.b. Materials..............................................................................4

2.2.c. Dimensions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………4

2.3. Acoustic Characteristics………………………………………………………………………………………….5

2.3.a. Timbre of each of the instruments

2.4. Physical principles of sound production…………………………………….6

2.5. Main technical difficulties.................................................................7

2.5.1. Differences of each of the instruments…………………………………………………………8

2.6. Resolution of the problems of acoustic difference balance with the piano..8

Bibliografía……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..9
The string instruments

In the classical training orchestra, the string instruments that comprise it constitute
the majority. These instruments are: the violin, the viola, the cello, and the double bass. A
Next, the requested points on the subject will be explained.

2.1. Organology
Organology deals with different aspects of instruments: classification, their history and
the technical aspects of sound production.

2.1.a. Classification
String instruments are of utmost importance in music. In them, one can
establish a classification by the way the sound is produced:

• Plucked strings with the fingers (lute, guitar, mandolin - with neck - and lyre, harp)
-without mast) or by a keyboard mechanism (spinet, virginal);
• Strings struck by hand (timpani, cymbals) or by a mechanism
keyboard (clavichord, hammer harpsichord, piano);
• Strings rubbed by a bow (violin, viola, cello, double bass).

2.1.b. History
The string instruments that produce sound by friction appeared in two major
families: the ancient violas that led to the modern family of violins. It seems
It is said that the viola of the 15th century emerged from the medieval 'giga', being thus the mother of all this.
group.
The family of the ancient violas reached its peak especially in the 16th and 17th centuries,
disappearing practically in the middle of the 18th century. They were very common in the centuries
XVII and XVIII the viola da gamba and viola pomposa and braccio. Based on these two
main types (the ones that the performer held with their legs or arms),
they formed the instruments.
The family of violins, consisting of the violin, the viola, the cello, and the double bass,
it began to replace that of the violas in the mid-17th century; its sound is brighter
and less velvety than that of the violas.
These instruments appear as evolved instruments derived from models of the
Violas around 1700. Countries like France and Italy had builders such as the
Amati, Guarnieri, and Stradivari families who perfected them. The need to fill with
string instruments the complete sound extension, from bass to treble, gave rise to a
a large number of varieties, ultimately synthesizing into the four members of the
modern orchestra.
Since the Baroque period, there are many original works for these in classical musical literature.
instruments. In the Austro-Hungarian Empire with Handel, J.S. Bach, in France with Rameau,
the English counterpoint composers such as Byrd, Gibbens, Morlay, and especially in Italy with Vivaldi
and Telemann, these string instruments elevated the category of soloist. Furthermore, they were the
base and contributed to its flourishing to future chamber music.

2.1.c. Technical aspects of sound production

The bowed string instruments produce their sound using both ends.
superior parts of the body in a differentiated way. Like in ancient times, they are divided into two.
groups: those who hold the instrument with the arm and those who hold the instrument
with the legs:
Violin and viola: the musicians hold the instrument with their left arm supported
on the shoulder,
Cello and double bass: the musician holds the instrument between their legs in the
case of the first one, but with the double bass, the instrument is placed on the floor and held with
the left hand.
Each instrument of the violin family presents specific idiomatic characteristics.
derived from their sound emission conditions (size) but the aspects
The sound production technicians are basically the same.
These instruments require the use of the fingers of the left hand to give the
notes and their tuning by placing them on the strings on the neck while the hand
the right takes care of holding and passing the arch at the same height as the bridge.
The bow is responsible for producing the sound: the intensity (with more or less pressure.
about the string), the phrasing and the articulation (maintain or release the friction).

Aside from this, the strings can be plucked by the fingers of the right hand.
provoking the pizzicato; this effect is widely used by composers and provides variety
to the sound of this family.
In addition, the harmonics of these instruments are achieved by pressing with the finger only
slightly the string at the end of the mast and near the bridge.
A very common technique is the vibrato. This technique is achieved with a movement of the
finger on the string plucked by itself, achieving a more expressive sound.
Another feature is that the same note, depending on where it is played, in the positions of the
fingers on the different strings produce various timbres: the same A4 on the A string
The air, when played on different strings, changes timbre.
The instruments of the violin family can also play bicords: two are pressed
strings at the same time and are played with the same bow.

The bow is a tool capable of performing a variety of movements when passing through the
Strings: the tremolo is obtained with a nimble forward and backward movement, the pressure
what is exercised produces dynamic changes, its impact on the tip or on the heel
provokes a variety of timbre, etc.
Also, these instruments have the mute that is used to change the sound quality.
Este objeto pequeño de madera se coloca cerca del puente y oscurece y aterciopela el
sound.
The tuning of the strings, like in guitars, is another resource used by the
composers.
In addition, these instruments use glissando, which involves dragging the
finger along the string while it sounds changing the tuning in an ascending manner or
descendant.
Finally, other ways to achieve effects like striking the bow mango, etc.

2.2. Morphology
In the classical orchestra, the string instruments played with a bow are four and they
they differ by size, registration and sonority. In order from the highest and smallest to the most
large and serious are: violin, viola, cello, and double bass.

2.2.a. Parts
These instruments consist of a body and a bow.
The body is a wooden box, harmonic or resonant board and the neck that joins it to
tuning peg. On the box, the four strings are arranged from the saddle on the
bottom of the box and passing through the bridge, the neck (over the handle) and adjusting
in the tuning pegs (that form the tuning machine). The tuning machine ends with scrolls (decorations of the same)
material). It also has hoops, f-holes, ears, a frame, and a capo. The f-holes are openings in the shape
of letter f or s and are arranged on the sides of the top part of the harmonic cover.
Separated from this part of the instrument is the bow. This wooden rod has four
main parts: the same rod, the nut, the screw, and the bristles (made of horsehair)
(horse). Before touching the strings, they are passed through a special resin called "colophony" to
increase the bow's adherence to the strings.
The screw was invented in the 18th century. It is generally a metal piece that is screwed in.
Inside the heel of the rod to the nut. Its function is to modify the tension of the strings.

2.2.b. Materials
The materials used for the handmade production of these instruments and the
The procedures to be followed for its construction have remained virtually unaltered.
since the times of Antonio Stradivari (1644-1737, Cremona-Italy) and his
contemporary to this day. They are made up of about 70 wooden pieces.
different, glued and fitted. The wood is maple for the bows, and pear or banana tree for the other parts.
for the back, pine for the inside of the rings and spruce for the top. The varnish of the instrument
it is placed ensuring especially its good quality. The strings can be made of steel, of
twisted gut or synthetic materials. The heel of the bow is usually made of ebony,
ivory or mother-of-pearl.

2.2.c. Dimensions/types
The violin is the smallest of the family and its strings are tuned in the following way:
sol3, re4, la4 and mi5. In the market there are four sizes: the whole (which is used by the...
adults), the ¾ (for children between 8 and 12 years old), the ½ (for children aged 7 to 10 years) and
the ¼ (for children aged 5 to 9 years). There are even smaller ones: 1/8 (from 4 to 6 years), 1/16 (from
3 to 5 years), 1/16 and 1/32.

The viola is slightly larger than the violin. It is tuned a fifth lower than
This: has as upper strings the three lowest of the violin and has another lower one.
tuned in C, which results in being tuned exactly one octave higher than the following
instrument of the family. The measurement is given in inches instead of fractions. There is variety
de tamaños para los adultos según el largo del brazo: 12”(53-55 cm.), 13”(55-59 cm.), 14”
(59-63 cm.), 15”(63-65 cm.), 15 ½ (65-67 cm.) y 16”(67”).
The cello consists of four strings tuned to C2, G2, D3, and A3. It encompasses the range of
record of tenor, baritone, and bass male voices. The average European measure
with the average age being the following: 1/10 (3 to 4 years), 1/8 (4 to 5 years), 1/4 (5 to 6 years), 1/2
(6 to 8 years), ¾ (8 to 10 years) and 4/4 for 10 years and older and adults.
Finally, the double bass is the largest and lowest in the family. Its strings are tuned
like this: mi1, la1, re2 and sol2. It sounds the lowest octave of the written note. Its range
total covers two octaves and a minor 13th. The long dimensions of the neck lead to
tune the strings in fourths. The average measurement is ¾, and although there are double basses of 7/8 and
4/4, they are not that common.

2.3. Acoustic characteristics

The bowed string instruments produce their sound thanks to the vibration of their
strings when brushed by the hairs of the bow.
From a musical point of view, the emission of sounds from these instruments is
characterized by the following traits: the strings vibrate due to the rubbing of the bow, allowing
extend this vibration for as long as desired, achieving a connection
continuously; the sound can be modified after it is produced (glissando on the string)
pulsed, intensity regulators (crescendo and decrescendo), produces a variety of
duration and articulation (very brief with the pizzicato, not legato, legato), has
melodic and polyphonic capabilities (thanks to the performance of bicords and strings)
torn) and has timbral varieties: the possibility of producing harmonics (pressing very
above the string at the end of the mast according to the tuning you want to achieve), placement
from the mute, changes of registers of the notes, etc.
From a material point of view, the efes allow communication with the outside of the
air that vibrates inside the instrument's body when it is played. The body of
resonance or the harmonic cover is responsible for amplifying the sound and vibrates when the
strings vibrate thanks to the bridge that transmits these vibrations.

2.3.a. Sound of each of the instruments

Each of the bowed string instruments has timbral characteristics.
the only things that differentiate them from other family members and some possibilities
mechanisms arising from their size and mode of execution.
The sound of the violin is sharp and penetrating, bright and at the same time sweet. It is attributed to passages
of speed due to the swift movement of the fingers over short distances as well.
that the strings are thin and the pressure that needs to be applied to them is little. The sounds
The violin's low notes are expressive and broad.
The sound of the viola is of lesser power in relation to the other instruments.
the family, but its expressive power is fuller and more powerful. Its bass strings give
the melodic passages have velvety sounds and their high strings are more
emotional, pleasant, and deep that the melodic parts of the violin.
The cello is one of the string instruments that brings together the most varied.
nuances. The high notes on the first string lend themselves to singing with more expressive strength,
nobility and intensity like no other. The central region has a full volume facing a
deep low. It can reach acute regions capable of prolonging almost without limits
through harmonic sounds. Due to the greater slowness of the vibration of the notes of
serious record in particular, it is not an instrument that is attributed with agility and speed,
Although since the last century interpreters have developed virtuosity in it.

2.4. Physical principles of sound production

The modes of vibration of the strings are several, but only the most will be considered
important for this topic: longitudinal vibration and transverse vibration. The vibrations
they will be longitudinal when the direction of propagation is parallel to the string and
transverse when the direction of propagation is perpendicular to it. The
vibrations of the strings are produced by standing waves. In them, the vibrations of
all points of the string are in phase agreement or in phase opposition, as a result
from the superposition of waves in the same direction and opposite senses. This is due to that
the vibration alternately reflects at one and the other fixed ends of the string. They are called
nodal points of zero amplitude and antinodes the maximum points of the wave. The points of
fixation will always be the nodes.

When the strings vibrate along their entire length, with a belly in the center and nodes at their ends.
extremes, produce the so-called fundamental sound. The pitch or frequency of sounds
that vibrate transversely and throughout their length was deduced from the observations of the
Greek philosopher Pythagoras formulating the law known by his name.

The frequency of the sound emitted by a musical string is inversely proportional to

its length.
 The length Vibrating length Name

DO 5 ---
5/6 L

MI B 5 3rd person

4/5 L

MI 5 3rd M.
3/4 L

FA 5 4th. J.
2/3 L

SOL 5 5th. J.
1/2 L

DO 6 8va. J.
Two strings subjected to identical tension, of equal density and thickness, whose lengths
string 2 L and L will produce sounds of frequencies n and 2 n, respectively. The longer string
the short will produce the highest sound, in this case the octave of the lowest.

f:n
L

2.5. Main technical difficulties

The skills that string instrumentalists need to develop
fundamentally consist of handling the instrument in its two differentiated parts: the
tuning of the notes with the pressing of the fingers on the left hand and the movement
from the bow with the right hand. The skill of these combinations along with the diversity
Parameters such as speed, jumps, changes, pressure, etc. pose difficulties.
common to the four instruments that make up the violin family.
Next, I will outline the general complications that they have to face.
string players:
-Body position: applied according to the instrument;
Tuning of the notes;
Position of the left limb: hand rotated or twisted according to the instrument, thumb
below and relaxed elbow according to this;

Mechanism: finger joint, interdigital opening, longitudinal displacement

about the mast, speed and rhythm, application of double strings, use of vibrato, of glissando
and of the harmonics;
Position of the right limb to hold the bow and elbow heights according to the string
what a rub;
Arc strike mechanism: flexibility, weight, speeds, combination of different
golpes (martellé, legato, bariolage, etc.), aplicación de dinámica y matices, uso de diferentes
efectos (ponticello, sul tasto, [Link], con la punta, con el talón)

2.5.1. Differences of each of the instruments

The violin requires greater precision in tuning due to the small distances.
The viola involves a greater interdigital opening because the intervals are larger and its
playing is heavier than in the violin. The size is larger and therefore it is more
it's hard to hold it on the shoulder.

The cello requires more finger strength from the left hand to press the strings.
strings because they are bigger and stronger.
The double bass is the most technically difficult due to the strength, the large positions for
the interval distances, the discomfort of holding a huge instrument.

2.6. Resolution of acoustic difference balance problems with the piano

For the pianist, the fingers are the craftsmen and the wrist is the artist; for the violinist, the
the left hand is the artisan and the bow is the artist.
The sound fusion of the piano with string instruments is quite difficult because both
instruments have different ways of producing the sounds of the strings. The main
The pianist's concern must be the homogeneity in the type of attack and a balance of
intensity that always relates to the other instrument. This task must be carried out.
throughout the interpretation with an absolute receptive attitude of both the ear and
from gestures and sight. Through attentive listening, one must seek the sound filling.
timbric and dynamic, which causes one instrument to blend with the other.
The main difference that bowed string instruments must overcome with that of
struck strings is the emission of a connected sound, with vibrato and resonance. The clavichord
and the harpsichord achieved this last aspect thanks to its own production mechanism
sonorous. In contrast, on the piano, it should be played with a touch that is not too direct.
(taking advantage of the double escape to strike the string with less harshness), and sometimes
hold the keys in a somewhat exaggerated way to be able to achieve that
similar to the arches. The piano's sustain pedal is a tool that should be used
practically all the time, conveniently changing it of course so that
do not mix harmonies and melodic lines. Likewise, the legato touch and the staccato
It must be careful both in its emission and in its duration to try to emulate this type.
of attacks with the string instrument.
Referring to the volume, the grand piano has a lid on its soundbox that can
to be placed open in two positions (some have 3) or to be left closed. The pianist must
place this lid according to the sound volume of the instrumentalist and the instrument used
touch them so that both sound equally. The control of this is through the
audition and the dialogue with the other musician so that it is comfortable for both. One of
the determining factors are the room where a recital is rehearsed or performed and the own
sound of the piano.
Both instrumentalists must adapt to the ensemble and produce it according to the duo, the type
of the work, the role of the instrument in relation to the other (sometimes one accompanies and the other
acts as a soloist and other chamber music in equal roles.
The characteristic of string instruments to modify the sound after it is produced is
a difference that the pianist must take into account when interpreting with them.
The intensity regulators crescendo and diminuendo so naturally with the bow must be
treated with care on the piano: the pressing of the keys, the register in which it is
find (the harmonics that intervene), the writing (polyphonic, monophonic or
counterpoint) and the use of the pedal.
The sustain pedal on the piano is a conciliatory element in duet music: it envelops
the sound of the ensemble and harmonizes it. Proper use of the right pedal helps to
unify the differences in attack and phrasing of the piano with the bowed strings.
The mute is a common effect in these instruments, but in them the timbre produces very
different changes. In the piano, the modification is subtle because the hammer strikes two of the
three strings and the string that remains unstruck vibrates by sympathy causing a sound
softer and at the same time of a more muted color. In contrast, in the violin, the mute modifies
substantially the timbre of the instrument, which is why composers use it a lot
little and only in very specific places of contrasting sound changes.
Bibliography
Musical file. Daimon Editions. Manuel Tamayo
El arte del violín. Javier Claudio. Ediciones musicales Mega, 1999.

The piano. Jeremy Siepmann. Musical guides Acento–EMI, 1996. Translation by Jaime
Listen.
Applied Aesthetics to Music. José Forns. José Forns Publishing, 1948, Doctor Letamendi, 1.
Madrid, Spain.