University of Hargeisa

Faculty of Statistics and Data Science

Course Title:

Introduction To Statistics

Chapter 2

Presenting Data in Tables and Charts

Chapter 2-1
 Chapter Goals
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
◼ Create an ordered array and a stem-and-leaf display
◼ Construct and interpret a frequency distribution, polygon,
and ogive
◼ Construct a histogram
◼ Create and interpret bar charts, pie charts, and scatter
diagrams
◼ Present and interpret category data in bar charts and pie
charts
◼ Describe appropriate and inappropriate ways to display
data graphically
Chapter 2-2
 Organizing and Presenting
Data Graphically
◼ Data in raw form are usually not easy to use
for decision making
◼ Some type of organization is needed
◼ Table
◼ Graph
◼ Techniques reviewed here:
◼ Ordered Array
◼ Stem-and-Leaf Display
◼ Frequency Distributions and Histograms
◼ Bar charts and pie charts
◼ Contingency tables

Chapter 2-3
 Tables and Charts for
Numerical Data
Numerical Data

Frequency Distributions
Ordered Array and
Cumulative Distributions

Stem-and-Leaf
Histogram Polygon Ogive
Display

Chapter 2-4
 The Ordered Array

A sorted list of data:

▪ Shows range (min to max)
▪ Provides some signals about variability
within the range
▪ May help identify outliers (unusual observations)
▪ If the data set is large, the ordered array is
less useful

Chapter 2-5
 The Ordered Array
(continued)

◼ Data in raw form (as collected):

24, 26, 24, 21, 27, 27, 30, 41, 32, 38

◼ Data in ordered array from smallest to largest:

21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41

Chapter 2-6
 Stem-and-Leaf Diagram

◼ A simple way to see distribution details in a

data set

METHOD: Separate the sorted data series

into leading digits (the stem) and
the trailing digits (the leaves)

Chapter 2-7
 Example
Data in ordered array:
21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41

◼ Here, use the 10’s digit for the stem unit:

Stem Leaf
◼ 21 is shown as 2 1
◼ 38 is shown as 3 8

Chapter 2-8
 Example
(continued)
Data in ordered array:
21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41

◼ Completed stem-and-leaf diagram:

Stem Leaves
2 1 4 4 6 7 7
3 0 2 8
4 1

Chapter 2-9
 Using other stem units
◼ Using the 100’s digit as the stem:
◼ Round off the 10’s digit to form the leaves

Stem Leaf
◼ 613 would become 6 1
◼ 776 would become 7 8
◼ ...
◼ 1224 becomes 12 2

Chapter 2-10
 Using other stem units
(continued)

◼ Using the 100’s digit as the stem:

◼ The completed stem-and-leaf display:
Data:
Stem Leaves
613, 632, 658, 717, 6 136
722, 750, 776, 827, 7 2258
841, 859, 863, 891, 8 346699
894, 906, 928, 933,
9 13368
955, 982, 1034,
1047,1056, 1140, 10 356
1169, 1224 11 47
12 2
Chapter 2-11
 Tabulating Numerical Data:
Frequency Distributions

What is a Frequency Distribution?

◼ A frequency distribution is a list or a table …
◼ containing class groupings (categories or
ranges within which the data falls) ...
◼ and the corresponding frequencies with which
data falls within each grouping or category

Chapter 2-12
 Why Use Frequency Distributions?

◼ A frequency distribution is a way to

summarize data
◼ The distribution condenses the raw data
into a more useful form...
◼ and allows for a quick visual interpretation
of the data

Chapter 2-13
 Class Intervals
and Class Boundaries

◼ Each class grouping has the same width

◼ Determine the width of each interval by
range
Width of int erval 
number of desired class groupings

◼ Use at least 5 but no more than 15 groupings

◼ Class boundaries never overlap
◼ Round up the interval width to get desirable
endpoints

Chapter 2-14
 Frequency Distribution Example

Example: A manufacturer of insulation randomly

selects 20 winter days and records the daily
high temperature

24, 35, 17, 21, 24, 37, 26, 46, 58, 30,
32, 13, 12, 38, 41, 43, 44, 27, 53, 27

Chapter 2-15
 Frequency Distribution Example
(continued)

◼ Sort raw data in ascending order:

12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58

◼ Find range: 58 - 12 = 46
◼ Select number of classes: 5 (usually between 5 and 15)
◼ Compute class interval (width): 10 (46/5 then round up)
◼ Determine class boundaries (limits): 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60
◼ Compute class midpoints: 15, 25, 35, 45, 55

◼ Count observations & assign to classes

Chapter 2-16
 Frequency Distribution Example
(continued)
Data in ordered array:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58

Relative
Class Frequency Percentage
Frequency
10 but less than 20 3 .15 15
20 but less than 30 6 .30 30
30 but less than 40 5 .25 25
40 but less than 50 4 .20 20
50 but less than 60 2 .10 10
Total 20 1.00 100
Chapter 2-17
 Graphing Numerical Data:
The Histogram

◼ A graph of the data in a frequency distribution

is called a histogram
◼ The class boundaries (or class midpoints)
are shown on the horizontal axis
◼ the vertical axis is either frequency, relative
frequency, or percentage
◼ Bars of the appropriate heights are used to
represent the number of observations within
each class
Chapter 2-18
 Histogram Example

Class
Class Midpoint Frequency
10 but less than 20 15 3
20 but less than 30 25 6
30 but less than 40 35 5 Histogram : Daily High Tem perature
40 but less than 50 45 4
50 but less than 60 55 2 7 6
6 5
5
Frequency

4
4 3
3 2
2
(No gaps 1 0 0
between
0
bars)
5 15 25 35 45 55 More
Class Midpoints
Chapter 2-19
Histograms in Excel

1
Select
Tools/Data Analysis

Chapter 2-20
 Histograms in Excel
(continued)

2
Choose Histogram

(
Input data range and bin
range (bin range is a cell
3 range containing the upper class
boundaries for each class
grouping)

Select Chart Output

and click “OK”
Chapter 2-21
 Questions for Grouping Data
into Classes

◼ 1. How wide should each interval be?

(How many classes should be used?)

◼ 2. How should the endpoints of the

intervals be determined?
◼ Often answered by trial and error, subject to
user judgment
◼ The goal is to create a distribution that is
neither too "jagged" nor too "blocky”
◼ Goal is to appropriately show the pattern of
variation in the data

Chapter 2-22
 How Many Class Intervals?

◼ Many (Narrow class intervals) 3.5

3
◼ may yield a very jagged distribution 2.5

Frequency
with gaps from empty classes 2
1.5

◼ Can give a poor indication of how 1

0.5
frequency varies across classes 0

4
8
12
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
44
48
52
56
60
More
Temperature

◼ Few (Wide class intervals) 12

10
◼ may compress variation too much and

Frequency
8

yield a blocky distribution 6

4
◼ can obscure important patterns of 2

variation. 0
0 30 60 More
Temperature
(X axis labels are upper class endpoints)

Chapter 2-23
 Graphing Numerical Data:
The Frequency Polygon
Class
Class Midpoint Frequency
10 but less than 20 15 3
20 but less than 30 25 6
30 but less than 40 35 5
Frequency Polygon: Daily High Temperature
40 but less than 50 45 4
50 but less than 60 55 2 7
6
5
Frequency

4
3
(In a percentage 2
polygon the vertical axis
would be defined to
1
show the percentage of 0
observations per class) 5 15 25 35 45 55 More
Class Midpoints
Chapter 2-24
 Tabulating Numerical Data:
Cumulative Frequency
Data in ordered array:
12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58

Cumulative Cumulative
Class Frequency Percentage
Frequency Percentage

10 but less than 20 3 15 3 15

20 but less than 30 6 30 9 45
30 but less than 40 5 25 14 70
40 but less than 50 4 20 18 90
50 but less than 60 2 10 20 100
Total 20 100

Chapter 2-25
 Graphing Cumulative Frequencies:
The Ogive (Cumulative % Polygon)
Lower
class Cumulative
Class boundary Percentage
Less than 10 10 0
10 but less than 20 20 15
20 but less than 30 30 45 Ogive: Daily High Temperature
30 but less than 40 40 70
40 but less than 50 50 90 100

Cumulative Percentage
50 but less than 60 60 100
80

60

40

20

0
10 20 30 40 50 60
Class Boundaries (Not Midpoints)
Chapter 2-26
 Scatter Diagrams

◼ Scatter Diagrams are used for

bivariate numerical data
◼ Bivariate data consists of paired
observations taken from two numerical
variables

◼ The Scatter Diagram:

◼ one variable is measured on the vertical
axis and the other variable is measured
on the horizontal axis

Chapter 2-27
 Scatter Diagram Example

Volume Cost per

Cost per Day vs. Production Volume
per day day
23 125 250
26 140
200
Cost per Day

29 146
150
33 160
38 167 100
42 170 50
50 188
0
55 195
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
60 200
Volume per Day

Chapter 2-28
 Scatter Diagrams in Excel

1
Select the chart wizard

2
Select XY(Scatter) option,
then click “Next”

3
When prompted, enter the
data range, desired
legend, and desired
destination to complete
the scatter diagram
Chapter 2-29
 Tables and Charts for
Categorical Data
Categorical
Data

Tabulating Data Graphing Data

Summary Bar Pie

Table Charts Charts

Chapter 2-30
 The Summary Table
Summarize data by category

Example: Current Investment Portfolio

Investment Amount Percentage
Type (in thousands $) (%)

Stocks 46.5 42.27

Bonds 32.0 29.09
CD 15.5 14.09
(Variables are Savings 16.0 14.55
Categorical)
Total 110.0 100.0

Chapter 2-31
 Bar and Pie Charts

◼ Bar charts and Pie charts are often used

for qualitative (category) data

◼ Height of bar or size of pie slice shows the

frequency or percentage for each
category

Chapter 2-32
 Bar Chart Example
Current Investment Portfolio
Investment Amount Percentage
Type (in thousands $) (%)

Stocks 46.5 42.27

Bonds 32.0 29.09
CD 15.5 14.09 Investor's Portfolio
Savings 16.0 14.55
Total 110.0 100.0 Savings
CD
Bonds
Stocks

0 10 20 30 40 50
Amount in $1000's
Chapter 2-33
 Pie Chart Example
Current Investment Portfolio
Investment Amount Percentage
Type (in thousands $) (%)

Stocks 46.5 42.27

Bonds 32.0 29.09 Savings
CD 15.5 14.09 15%
Savings 16.0 14.55 Stocks
Total 110.0 100.0 42%
CD
14%

Percentages
are rounded to
Bonds the nearest
29% percent

Chapter 2-34
 Tabulating and Graphing
Multivariate Categorical Data
◼ Contingency Table for Investment Choices ($1000’s)
Investment Investor A Investor B Investor C Total
Category
Stocks 46.5 55 27.5 129
Bonds 32.0 44 19.0 95
CD 15.5 20 13.5 49
Savings 16.0 28 7.0 51
Total 110.0 147 67.0 324

(Individual values could also be expressed as percentages of the overall total,

percentages of the row totals, or percentages of the column totals)

Chapter 2-35
 Tabulating and Graphing
Multivariate Categorical Data
(continued)

◼ Side by side bar charts

C o m p arin g In vesto rs

S avings

CD

B onds

S toc k s

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Inves tor A Inves tor B Inves tor C

Chapter 2-36
 Side-by-Side Chart Example
◼ Sales by quarter for three sales territories:
1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr
East 20.4 27.4 59 20.4
West 30.6 38.6 34.6 31.6
North 45.9 46.9 45 43.9

60

50

40
East
30 West
North
20

10

0
1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr

Chapter 2-37
 Principles of Graphical Excellence
◼ Present data in a way that provides substance,
statistics and design
◼ Communicate complex ideas with clarity,
precision and efficiency
◼ Give the largest number of ideas in the most
efficient manner
◼ Excellence almost always involves several
dimensions
◼ Tell the truth about the data

Chapter 2-38
 Errors in Presenting Data

◼ Using “chart junk”

◼ Failing to provide a relative
basis in comparing data
between groups
◼ Compressing or distorting the vertical axis
◼ Providing no zero point on the vertical axis

Chapter 2-39
 Chart Junk

Bad Presentation ✓Good Presentation

Minimum Wage Minimum Wage
$
1960: $1.00 4
1970: $1.60
2

1980: $3.10
0
1960 1970 1980 1990
1990: $3.80

Chapter 2-40
listen
No Relative Basis

Bad Presentation ✓ Good Presentation

A’s received by A’s received by
Freq. students. % students.

300 30%
200 20%
100 10%
0 0%
FR SO JR SR FR SO JR SR

FR = Freshmen, SO = Sophomore, JR = Junior, SR = Senior

Chapter 2-41
 Compressing Vertical Axis

Bad Presentation ✓Good Presentation

Quarterly Sales Quarterly Sales
$ $
200 50

100 25

0 0
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4

Chapter 2-42
 No Zero Point On Vertical Axis

Bad Presentation
✓$Good Presentations
Monthly Sales
45
Monthly Sales 42
$ 39
45
36
42
0
39 J F M A M J
or
36 $
J F M A M J 60

40
Graphing the first six months of sales
20
0
J F M A M J
Chapter 2-43
 Chapter Summary
◼ Data in raw form are usually not easy to use for
decision making -- Some type of organization is
needed:
 Table  Graph
◼ Techniques reviewed in this chapter:
◼ Ordered array and stem-and-leaf display
◼ Frequency distributions and histograms
◼ Percentage polygons and ogives
◼ Scatter diagrams for bivariate data
◼ Bar charts and pie charts
◼ Contingency tables and side-by-side bar charts
Chapter 2-44