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BCEDCE 707 PAVEMENT DESIGN
UNIT 3: FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN METHODS
Empirical Methods
An empirical approach is one which is based on the results of experimentation or experience.
Some of them are either based on physical properties or strength parameters of soil subgrade.
An empirical approach is one which is based on the results of experimentation or experience.
An empirical analysis of flexible pavement design can be done with or without a soil strength
test. An example of design without soil strength test is by using HRB soil classification
system, in which soils are grouped from A-1 to A-7 and a group index is added to
differentiate soils within each group. CBR test is widely known and will be discussed.
Empirical Method using Arbitrary Soil Classification Test
Group Index Method
The method based on revised Public Road Administration (PRA) classification which uses
empirical quantity called Group Index. It is claimed to be an inverse measure of the thickness
of sub base material. The higher the GI lower is its strength and greater is thickness of sub
base required. The thickness of base and surface, on the other hand varied according to
volume of commercial traffic expected.
Classification is based only on three soil properties (i) particle size distribution (ii) liquid
limit and (iii) plasticity index. The formula for the Group Index is
Group Index = 0.2a + 0.005 ac + 0.01 bd
Where
a - the portion of the percentage of subgrade soil passing 75 µ sieve.
greater than 35 and less than 75, expressed as a positive whole number
(0 to 40)
b - the portion of the percentage of subgrade soil passing 75 µ sieve
greater than 15 and less than 15, expressed as a positive whole number
(0 to 40)
c - the portion of numerical LL greater than 40 and not exceeding 60,
expressed as a positive whole number (0 to 20)
d - the portion of numerical PI greater than 10 and not exceeding 30,
expressed as a positive whole number (0 to 20)
GI Chart can be referred for assessing the thickness of layers.
Lecture notes on BCEDCE 707 Pavement Design prepared by [Link], Professor/SoCE
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Limitations of the method:
This method does not specify the quality of sub base and base materials.
Exercise on Group Index Method:
A subgrade sample has the following properties:
Soil passing 75 µ sieve = 60 %
Liquid limit = 65 %
Plastic limit = 45 %
Design the pavement section by group index method for heavy traffic with over 400 cvd.
Empirical Method using Arbitrary Soil Strength Test
CBR Method:
CBR Design Method uses correlations between soil CBR results and observed performance.
Its original is based upon correlation of CBR against pavement thicknesses. It was later
justified and corrected by the US Army Corps of Engineers by recalibrating the empirical
results against a soil model of shear failure in the subgrade. This method relies upon an
appropriate CBR estimate for the subgrade soil, and a representative wheel load. The CBR
method, or its derivatives, is still the most common flexible pavement design method in the
world.
Exercises:
1. Design a flexible pavement using CBR curves given the following data: Subgrade
soil (soaked) CBR = 6%, Laterite sub base (soaked) CBR = 18%, Water bound
macadam base CBR = 96%, Number of heavy vehicle per day in October 2009 = 300,
design life = 15 years, annual rate of traffic growth = 7%. The road is proposed to be
completed in October 2014.
2. Soil subgrade sample was collected from the project site and the CBR test conducted
at filed density. The following were the results.
Penetration Load Penetration Load
(mm) (kg) (mm) (kg)
0.0 0.0 3.0 56.5
0.5 5.0 4.0 67.5
1.0 16.2 5.0 75.2
1.5 28.1 7.5 89.0
2.0 40.0 10.0 99.5
Lecture notes on BCEDCE 707 Pavement Design prepared by [Link], Professor/SoCE
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2.5 48.5 12.5 106.5
It is desired to use the following materials for different pavement layers.
(i) Compacted sandy soil with 7% CBR
(ii) Poorly graded gravel with 20% CBR
(iii) Well graded gravel with 95% CBR
(iv) Minimum thickness of BC surfacing may be taken as 5 cm
The traffic survey revealed the present ADT of commercial vehicle as 1200. The annual rate
of growth of traffic is found to be 8%. The pavement construction to be completed in three
years, after the last traffic count. Design the pavement section by CBR method.
Wyoming CBR method:
Design is based on CBR tests and CBR wheel load curves. Items evaluated are: (1) annual
precipitation; (2) water table; (3) frost action; (4) existing conditions of subgrade, including
surface drainage, sub drainage, and snow conditions; and (5) estimated traffic. Traffic is
determined by converting all wheel loads to ESWL by multiplying with equivalent factors.
Lecture notes on BCEDCE 707 Pavement Design prepared by [Link], Professor/SoCE
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Lecture notes on BCEDCE 707 Pavement Design prepared by [Link], Professor/SoCE
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Exercise:
Using Wyoming’s method determine the thickness of a flexible pavement with life
expectancy of 20 years and passing through a terrain having annual precipitation of 50 cm
and ground water table 1m below surface. The area is subjected to medium frost action. The
existing conditions are adverse to drainage. The design daily traffic is 1000 vehicles in both
Lecture notes on BCEDCE 707 Pavement Design prepared by [Link], Professor/SoCE
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the directions, out of which 40% is commercial traffic. CBR value of subgrade for 2.5 mm
penetration = 4. The break-up of the commercial traffic is as follows:
Wheel load (kg) Percent of total Equivalent factor
2268 40 1
2722 20 2
3176 15 4
3630 10 8
4083 6 16
4537 5 32
4991 4 64
North Dakota Cone Method:
A method similar to the CBR method has been developed by the North Dakota State
Highway Department, USA.
Specifications:
The instrument consists of a rod carrying a loading platform at the top and a hardened steel
cone at the bottom. The rod is mounted vertically and slides freely up and down in the collars
of the frame and can be locked in any position as required. The conical tip penetrates the soil
through an aperture in the cast iron base. The loading platform carries a graduated plunger
which enters one of the side supports and permits the reading of the penetration correct to 1
mm.
Lecture notes on BCEDCE 707 Pavement Design prepared by [Link], Professor/SoCE
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Advantages and limitation:
This test is simpler and more rapid than the C.B.R. but its use is restricted to fine-grained
soils and is considered reliable only for clayey soils.
Boyd has developed the North Dakota cone test proposed the following equation for
determining pavement thickness which was obtained by a curve separating failure from non
failures on a graph between subgrade cone bearing value and thickness of construction.
h = 72.45/b0.309
Where h = thickness of pavement (cm)
b = cone bearing value (kg/cm2)
b = P/0.058 p2
Where P = 10 kg and p = corrected penetration for 10 kg load
Correction for zero due to blunt end = C = ∆40 – 2∆10
This correction is to be added with penetration for 10 kg load.
When the cone bearing value is 28 kg/cm2 or more, a standard minimum section 24 cm
thickness is used. This standard section consists of 12.5 cm of sub base, 5 cm of stabilized
aggregate base and 6.5 cm of bituminous concrete wearing surface. Additional sub bases are
required whenever the cone value is less than 28 kg/cm2.
Exercise:
Calculate the total thickness of a flexible pavement by North Dakota cone method given the
following data for the subgrade:
Load on cone (kg) Penetration reading (cm)
5 2.60
10 3.78
20 5.45
40 7.95
Lecture notes on BCEDCE 707 Pavement Design prepared by [Link], Professor/SoCE
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Method based on Performance Serviceability Concept
The Asphalt Institute (TAI) Design Method
The method is unique among all the flexible pavement design methods in that designed
pavement thickness comprises of fully bituminous mixes. TAI defines this pavement as
‘depthfull pavement’. The basis for the design is primarily the analysis of pavement
performance by AASHO road test. Thus indirectly using the performance serviceability
concept was made by adopting a terminal serviceability value of 2.5 to indicate failure. The
use of 8200 kg (18 kips) single axle load repetitions was manifested in the method by Design
Traffic Number (DTN). The DTN denotes the average daily number of equivalent 8200 kg
load repetitions for the design lane using during the design period.
ITN is to be calculated from nomograph. ITN represents the DTN for the first year. An
adjustment was made with adjustment factor [((1+r)n – 1)/20r]. The DTN is to be arrived by
multiplying ITN with adjustment factor.
Full depth pavement thickness is a function of both DTN and the subgrade strength evaluated
in terms of CBR.
Exercise:
A four lane bituminous pavement is to be designed for the subgrade and traffic conditions
given below using The Asphalt Institute method.. Determine (a) full depth design using
bituminous concrete surface, hot mix sand asphalt and emulsified asphalt. (b) Pavement
structure with bituminous surface and untreated granular base and sub base (c) Traffic
analysis period may be taken as 20 years and rate of traffic growth = 4%. Initial daily traffic
= 11000 vehicles. Heavy trucks comprise 20% of the traffic and the average gross weight is
40 kips. The legal axle load is 19 kips. Design CBR is 8%.
Lecture notes on BCEDCE 707 Pavement Design prepared by [Link], Professor/SoCE
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Lecture notes on BCEDCE 707 Pavement Design prepared by [Link], Professor/SoCE
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Lecture notes on BCEDCE 707 Pavement Design prepared by [Link], Professor/SoCE
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Initial Traffic Number – Adjustment factors
Lecture notes on BCEDCE 707 Pavement Design prepared by [Link], Professor/SoCE
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THEORETICAL AND SEMI THEORETICAL METHODS
Kansas Triaxial Method
Method dealing with theoretical stresses in ideal masses using the Boussinesq’s equation was
first proposed by Palmer and Barber abd was later on expanded by Barber. A modification of
a formula developed by these investigators is the basis of Kansas method of design. The
limiting deflection for flexible pavement is assumed as 2.5 mm. The equation for the design
thickness is as follows:
T = {sqrt [3Pmn/2πCS]-a2}{C/Cp}1/3
Where
T = thickness required
Cp = modulus of deformation of pavement or surface course
C = modulus of deformation of subgrade or subbase
P = basic wheel load
m = traffic coefficient based volume of traffic
n = rainfall coefficient based on rainfall
a = radius of tyre contact area corresponding to P
S = permitted deflection of surface (2.5 mm)
Combination thickness, tb = (T-tp)*Sqrt(Cp/CB)
Where
tB = thickness of base
T = thickness of surface
tp = assumed thickness of wearing surface
Cp = modulus of deformation of pavement or surface course
CB = modulus of deformation of base course
Exercise:
Calculate the thickness of sub base, base and wearing course using Kansas triaxial method,
given the following data: Wheel load = 4080 kg, Esubgrade = 90 kg/cm2, Esubbase = 270 kg/cm2,
Ebase = 540 kg/cm2, Ewearing course = 9000 kg/cm2, tyre pressure = 6 kg/cm2, total traffic (vpd) =
5000, average intensity of rainfall = 80 cm and permitted deflection = 2.5 mm. Traffic
coefficient = 1.5 and saturation coefficient = 0.8
Solution:
Thickness of bitumious pavement = T = [sqrt((3Pmn/2πCS)-a2)](C/Cs)1/3 = = 22.19 cm
Lecture notes on BCEDCE 707 Pavement Design prepared by [Link], Professor/SoCE
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Assume thickness of wearing course = 5 cm
Thickness of remaining pavement = 22.19-5 = 17.19 cm
This 17.19 cm of bituminous pavement is to be converted to basecourse.
tb = (T-tp)*sqrt (Cp/CB) = 43.87 cm; Assume thickness of base course = 20 cm
Remaining thickness = 43.87-20 = 23.87 cm
This thickness of 23.87 cm base course to be coverted as subbase course
Equivalent thickness of subbase = tsb = (tB-20)*sqrt (CB/Cp) = 30 cm
Total thickness of pavement = 55 cm
Thickness of surface = 5 cm
Thickness of base course = 20 cm
Thickness of sub base = 30 cm
Lecture notes on BCEDCE 707 Pavement Design prepared by [Link], Professor/SoCE