Chapter 2: Propagation and system planning

October 13, 2025

 Outline and Objective

Objective
By the end of this lecture, you
should be able to understand
propagation, model channels,
and plan mobile networks.
Outline
Radio Propagation:
Channel Models:
System Planning:

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 Introduction
Path Loss and Shadowing in Wireless Channels

Wireless channels are challenging for high-speed

communication.
Channel impairments include:
Noise

Interference

Temporal variations due to user movement

Wireless signal power varies due to environment and
distance.
Signal power varies over distance due to:
Path Loss

Shadowing

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 Introduction
Path Loss

Caused by dissipation of transmitted power and propagation

effects.

Path loss generally depends on distance between transmitter

and receiver.

Variation occurs over large distances: 100–1000 meters.

Sometimes referred to as a large-scale propagation effect.

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 Introduction
Shadowing
Caused by obstacles between transmitter and receiver.

Effects include:
Absorption

Reflection

Scattering

Diffraction

Strong attenuation can block the signal completely.

Occurs over distances proportional to the obstacle size:

Outdoor: 10–100 meters

Indoor: less than 10 meters

Also considered a large-scale propagation effect.

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 Introduction
Multipath

Occurs when multiple reflected, scattered, or diffracted sig-

nal components reach the receiver.

Causes constructive and destructive interference, leading to

rapid signal strength variation.

Variation occurs over very short distances — on the order of

the signal wavelength.

Hence, multipath fading is a small-scale propagation effect.

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 Introduction
Large-scale vs Small-scale Effects

Large-scale effects:
Path loss:
distance-dependent Small-scale effects:
power decay Multipath fading
Shadowing: introduces small-scale variations
attenuation due to Variation over wavelength scale
obstacles. (short distances)
Variation over hundreds Constructive and destructive
of meters interference
distance-dependent
power decay

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 Mobile Radio wave propagation

Wireless propagation describes how electromagnetic waves

travel from transmitter to receiver.

Propagation models
Large-scale path loss model

Small-scale fading model

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 Small-Scale Fading Model

T-R separation distances are small

Heavily populated, urban areas

Main propagation mechanism: scattering

Characterize the rapid fluctuation of received signal strength:

The received power may vary by 30-40 dB when the receiver

is moved by fraction of a wavelength.

This is because the received signal is the sum of many con-

tributions coming from different directions

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 Large-Scale Path Loss Model

T-R separation distances are large, in hundreds of km.

Main propagation mechanism: reflections

Attenuation of signal strength due to power loss along

There is shadowing effect too

Useful in estimating the coverage area of antenna

More important for cell site planning

Includes free space path loss, two-ray model, Hata model,

Okumura model,

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 Free Space Propagation Model
The free space power received by a receiver antenna which
is separated from radiating transmitter antenna by distance
d is given by the Friis free space equation:

2
λ 1

Pr (d) = Pt Gt Gr (1)
4πd L
where:
Pt : transmitted power; Pr : received power;

Gt , Gr : Antenna gains (transmit and receive)

λ: wavelength in meters

L ≥ 1: system loss factor (beyond propagation,hardware/equipment

loss), including path loss, slow fading, and fast fading; L = 1
means no additional loss.

Received power dependence on frequency through λ.

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 Free Space Propagation Model
Gain of the antenna is related to its effective aperture Aε :

4πAε
G= λ2

Aε , related to the physical size of antenna

The wavelength is related to the carrier frequency

c 2πc
λ= f = ωc
where:
f : the carrier frequency in Hertz
ωc : the carrier frequency in radians per second
c: the speed of light in meters/sec
Higher frequency , higher gain for the same size antenna
Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP)=PtGt
Represents the maximum radiated power available from a
transmitter in the direction of maximum antenna gain com-
pared to an isotropic radiator
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 Free Space Propagation Model
Path loss: Represents signal attenuation as a positive
quantity measured in dB
for the free space model when antenna gains are included is
given by (Let L = 1):
   
Pt G t G r λ2
P L(dB) = 10 log Pr = −10 log (4π)2 d2

When antenna gains are excluded (antennas are assumed

to have unity gain,ideal antenna,radiating uniformly in all
directions):
   
Pt λ
P L(dB) = 10 log Pr = −20 log 4πd dB

The Friis free space model is only valid in the far field or
Fraunhofer region (df  D; df  λ),D size of the antenna
What is the impact of operating at higher frequency on
path loss in wireless communication?
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 Radio Wave Propagation Mechanisms
key propagation mechanisms in mobile communication are:

1 Reflection:signal bounces off large surfaces.

2 Diffraction: signal bends around obstacles.

3 Scattering:signal disperses from irregularities objects.

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 Radio Wave Propagation Mechanisms : Reflection

Refection
Occurs when an electromagnetic wave strikes an object much
larger than its wavelength (λ).

Typical reflectors include the earth’s surface, buildings, and

walls.

Perfect conductors reflect nearly all the incident energy.

Reflected waves can combine with the direct wave, causing

constructive or destructive interference.

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 Ground Reflection (2-Ray) Model

Free-space model is often inaccurate for real environments.

Two-ray model adds both direct LOS and ground-reflected

paths.

Receiver gets two signals: one direct, one ground-reflected.

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 Ground Reflection (2-Ray) Model

Predicts signal at the Mobile Station (MS) from the Base

Station (BS).

Accurate for tall antennas (ht > 50 m(i.e., tall towers)) and
certain distance -km Tx–Rx separation.

Two paths: direct line-of-sight and ground reflection.

Energy at the receiver is the vector sum of direct, ELOS and

ground reflected, Eg components

Vector sum => phase difference

Key parameters: Tx height ht , Rx height hr , distance d.

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 Ground Reflection (2-Ray) Model

Assumptions
Antenna heights  λ.
ht , hr  d (Tx–Rx
separation).
Reflected waves at grazing
incidence.
Earth curvature neglected.

Legend
Figure 1: Geometry of the
ht : Tx antenna height two–ray ground reflection
hr : Rx antenna height model.
ELOS : LOS field
Eg : Reflected field
d: Tx–Rx horizontal
separation
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 Ground Reflection (2-Ray) Model
Using the method of images, the path difference∆ is
q q 2ht hr
∆ = d00 − d0 = (ht + hr )2 + d2 − (ht − hr )2 + d2 ≈
d
Approximation results from Taylors series and valid when
d >> ht + hr

Total received power, Pr is given by

2
ht hr

Pr = Pt Gt Gr
d2

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 Ground Reflection (2-Ray) Model

Received power decays with distance d as Pr ∝ d−4 , i.e., 40

dB/decade.

This loss is much faster than free-space path loss.

Received power is frequency-independent.

Antenna heights ht and hr can adjust received power since

antenna gains are usually fixed.

The path loss expressed in dB is

P L(dB) = 40 log d−(10 log Gt + 10 log Gr + 20 log ht + 20 log hr )

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 Radio Wave Propagation Mechanisms : Diffraction

Diffraction occurs at sharp edges or irregularities.

Enables radio waves to bend around obstacles and follow

Earth’s curvature.
Received power drops deeper into obstructed regions.

Diffracted signal often remains strong enough for reception.

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 Knife-edge Diffraction

When Tx and Rx are at different heights with no LOS:

Diffraction occurs over a sharp obstacle or edge.

Typical in microwave links or between base stations.

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 Knife Edge Diffraction Geometry Model..
Geometry where ht = hr and knife-edge obstructs the LOS

Important parameters: d1 , d2 , ht , hr and h

d1 , d2 are distances along LOS path from TX or RX to
obstruction

h is the screening height

Received energy in knife-edge diffraction is determined by
the Fresnel-Kirchhoff parameter, ν,
s
2(d1 + d2 )
ν = h1
λd1 d2

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 Radio Wave Propagation Mechanisms: Scattering
Scattering occurs when object dimensions are much smaller
than the wavelength.

Radio waves hitting rough surfaces spread energy in multiple

directions.

Caused by raindrops, street signs, lamp posts, etc.

Effects of scattering:
Rough surface scattering reduces power in the reflected wave.

Introduces multipath signals from non-specular directions (use-

ful for reception).

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 Path Loss Models

To characterize the signal strength received at the receiver

after undergoing reflection, diffraction and scattering we need
proper propagation model

In general, Radio propagation model can be derived by using

Empirical method; collect measurement and fit curves

Analytical method: model the propagation mechanisms math-

ematically and derive PL equations.

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 Empirical Path Loss Models

Empirical models are designed to better fit measured data

It has many modifications to better fit a given environment

Advantage: Captures all propagation factors (known and

unknown).

Drawback: Environment/frequency dependent; needs extra

measurements for validation.

It includes
Log-distance path loss model

Log-normal shadowing path loss model

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 Log- distance path loss model

Measurement-based propagation models indicate that the

average large-scale path loss is given by
n
d

P L(d) ∝
d0
d
 
P L(dB) = P L(d0 ) + 10n log
d0
Where:
n is the path-loss exponent,indicates the rate at which the
path loss increases with distance. (environment dependent).

d0 is the close-in reference distance.

The bars indicate the ensemble average of all possible values

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 Log- distance path loss model

The value of n depends on specific propagation environment

Based on measurement, typical values are given in the Table

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 Log-normal Shadowing Model

For two points having same separation d, the surrounding

environment may vary drastically
Example: obstructed vs. line-of-sight, scattering,
reflections, etc.

From measurement, at specific Tx-Rx separation, the path

loss is random and distributed log-normally (normal in dB)
 
d
P L(d)[dB] = P L(d) + Xσ = P L(d0 ) + 10n log d0 + Xσ

Xσ ∼ N (0, σ 2 )

where Xσ is a zero-mean Gaussian (normal) distributed ran-

dom variable in dB with standard deviation σ (also in dB).

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 Outdoor Propagation Models

Outdoor propagation occurs over irregular terrain (trees,

buildings, hills, streets, etc.).

Accurate path-loss estimation requires the terrain profile of

the area.
Terrain profiles can range from simple curved-earth to highly
mountainous landscapes.

Several models exist to predict path loss over irregular ter-

rain,e.g., Okumura-Hata model.
Methods differ in approach, complexity, and accuracy.

Most models are based on systematic interpretation of mea-

surement data from the service area.

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 Outdoor Propagation Models: Okumura Model

Widely used for signal prediction in urban areas.

Applicable for:
Frequency: 50 MHz – 1.92 GHz (up to 3 GHz)

Tx–Rx separation: 1 km – 100 km

BS antenna height: 30 m – 1 km

Median path loss (50th percentile):

L50 = LF (d) + Amu (f, d) − G(ht ) − G(hr ) − GAREA

Terms (all in dB): LF (d): free-space propagation loss, Amu (f, d):
median attenuation, G(ht ), G(hr ): antenna height gains, GAREA :
environment gain(open, quasi open, or suburban).
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 Okumura Model: Antenna Height Gains

Base Station height gain:

ht
 
G(ht ) = 20 log , 30 m < ht < 1 km
200

Mobile Station height gain:

  
10 log hr , hr ≤ 3 m
G(hr ) = 3
20 log hr , 3 m < hr < 10 m
3

Amu (f, d) is obtained from Okumura’s measurement plots

for the terrain type.

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 Outdoor Propagation Models: Hata Model

Empirical formulation of Okumura’s graphical path-loss data.

Valid for 150 ≤ fc ≤ 1500 MHz.

Median path loss in urban areas:

Lurban
50 (dB) = 69.55 + 26.16 log fc − 13.82 log ht
− a(hr ) + (44.9 − 6.55 log ht ) log d

Terms (all in dB):

fc : frequency in MHz
ht : BS antenna height (30–200 m)
hr : MS antenna height (1–10 m)
d: Tx–Rx separation (km)
a(hr ): mobile antenna height correction factor

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 Outdoor Propagation:Hata Model
For a small to medium size city, correction factor is:

a(hr ) = (1.1 log fc − 0.7)hr − (1.56 log fc − 0.8)

Large city:
(
8.29(log(1.54hr ))2 − 1.1, fc ≤ 300 MHz
a(hr ) =
3.2(log(11.75hr ))2 − 4.97, fc ≥ 300 MHz

Suburban area modification:

Lsuburban
50 = Lurban
50 − 2(log(fc /28))2 − 5.4

Rural area modification:

Lrural
50 = Lurban
50 − 4.78 log(fc )2 + 18.33 log fc − 40.94

Hata model predictions closely match Okumura’s results for

d > 1 km.
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 Outdoor Propagation Models:
Cost 231 Path Loss Model

Extended Cost-231 Hata model includes adjustments to the

basic equation to account for urban, suburban, dense ur-
ban,and rural propagation losses.

L(dB) = 46.30 + 33.9 log fc (MHz) − 13.82 log ht − a(hr )

+ (44.9 − 6.55 log ht ) log d(km) + Cm

where Cm depends on the environment:

(
0 for medium cities and suburban areas
Cm =
3 for metropolitan areas

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 Indoor Propagation Models

Indoor channels have variability of the environment for much

smaller range of TX- RX separation.

The propagation inside the building is influenced by

Layout of the building

Construction material

Building type (office, factory, residential..)

Like outdoor propagation indoor propagation is also domi-

nated by reflection, scattering and diffraction.

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 Indoor Propagation Models

The indoor path loss commonly follows the distance power

law, which is a way to model how signal strength decreases
as a function of distance

The general formula representing the distance power law for

indoor path loss is:
d
 
P L(d)(dB) = P L(d0 ) + 10n log + Xσ
d0

Where the value of n depends on the surroundings and

building type
Xσ represents a normal variable attenuation in dB having a
standard deviation of σ in dB.
Where σ also depends on the building types.

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 Indoor Propagation Models

In building path loss factors are

Partition losses (the same floor)

Partition losses between floors

Signal penetration into buildings

Because of hard or soft partition the path loss will vary

Material Type Loss (dB) Frequency
All metal partition 26 815 MHz
Concrete Block wall 13 1300 MHz
Empty cardboard boxes 3–6 1300 MHz
Dry plywood (0.75 inch) 1 9.6 GHz
Dry plywood (0.75 inch) 4 28.8 GHz

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 Indoor Propagation Models

Loss between floors

Number of floors Floor Attenuation Loss Frequency
Through 1 floor 12.9 dB 915 MHz
Through 2 floor 18.7 dB 915 MHz
Through 3 floor 24.4 dB 915 MHz
Through 4 floor 27 dB 915 MHz

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 Indoor Propagation Models

The attenuation factor model that is obtained using

measurement in multiple floor of office building is
d
 
P L(d)(dB) = P L(d0 ) + 10nF S log
d0
X
+ F AF (dB) + P AF (dB)

Where
nF S is path loss exponent of the same floor

F AF is Floor Attenuation Factor (FAF) in dB

P AF is Partition Attenuation Factor (PAF) in dB

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 Part 2: Small-Scale Fading and Multipath

Channel Characteristics
System performance
depends on the wireless
channel
Channels are less reliable
due to interference and Channel Models
multipath fading
Propagation causes
Multiple paths have large-scale and small-scale
different attenuation and losses
delay Two main types:
Radio channels are Large-Scale Path Loss
random and time-varying Small-Scale Fading

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 Fading (Small-Scale)

It is rapid fluctuations of amplitude, phase, or multipath

delays of a radio signal over a short time or distance.

Caused by interference of multiple versions of the transmit-

ted signal arriving at slightly different times.

These multipath waves combine at the receiver, producing

variations in amplitude and phase.

Multipath signals can combine destructively, causing signal

fluctuations.

Fading is a problem that must be mitigated!

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 Major Effects of Fading

Envelope Fading: Rapid change in signal strength over small

travel distances or short time periods.

Time Dispersion: Multiple signals arriving at different times

when added together at the antenna, signals are spread out
in time.
This can cause a smearing of the signal and interference
between bits that are received.

Frequency Dispersion: Changes in the frequency of signals.

Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts
on different multipath signals

This Doppler shift is caused by the mobility of mobile which

cause an apparent shift in frequency

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 Factors Influencing Small Scale Fading

Multipath propagation:Presence of reflecting objects and scat-

terers causes
Multiple version of the signal to arrive at the receiver with
different amplitude and time delays

Relevant terms: Delay spread and coherence bandwidth

Speed of the mobile: The relative motion between the BS

and mobile.
Causes Doppler shift (“+” or “-”) at each multipath
component Results in random frequency modulation.

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 Factors Influencing Small Scale Fading

Speed of surrounding objects:

A receiver moving at high speed can pass through several
fades in small period of time.

Causes time-varying Doppler shift on the multipath compo-

nents

If the surrounding objects move at a greater rate than the

mobile, then this effect dominates the small-scale fading and
vice versa

or If objects in the radio channel are in motion, they induce

a time varying Doppler shift on multipath components.

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 Factors Influencing Small Scale Fading

Transmission Bandwidth of the signal:

The channel bandwidth can be quantified by the term coher-
ence bandwidth, Bc
Coherence bandwidth measures the maximum frequency dif-
ference for which signals are still strongly correlated in am-
plitude

If BW of the signal is greater than the coherence bandwidth,

the received signal will be distorted (filtered)

If the transmitted signal has a narrow bandwidth as com-

pared to the channel, signal will not be distorted in frequency

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 Doppler Shift
Relative transmitter-receiver motion
Assume: Transmitter and receiver move relative to each other
with a constant effective velocity v [m/s].

How fast the fading varies depends on fD .

The faster the motion the more rapid the fading variations.
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 Doppler Shift

2π∆l 2πv∆t
∆φ = = cos θ
λ λ
1 ∆φ v
fd = · = · cos θ
2π ∆t λ

where
v : velocity (m/s),

λ : wavelength (m),
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 Fading parameters

Power Delay Profile: Shows received signal power vs. time

delay.

Delay Spread: Time difference between earliest and latest

multipath signals.

Coherence Bandwidth: Frequency range over which the chan-

nel is flat.

Doppler Spread: Frequency shift range due to motion.

Coherence Time: Time duration over which the channel

doesn’t change significantly.

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 Multipath Fading

Multipath fading is due to the constructive and destructive

combination of randomly delayed, reflected, scattered, and
diffracted signal components

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 Flat vs. frequency selective fading

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 Flat vs. frequency selective fading

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 Part 3:Fading Mitigation techniques

To improve received signal quality in hostile mobile radio

environment, we need fading mitigation techniques.

The three different techniques are

Channel Equalization

Diversity

Channel coding, . . .

Each can be used independently or in tandem

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 Fading Mitigation: Equalization

Equalization compensates for inter-symbol interference (ISI)

created by multipath with time dispersive channels

ISI arises from frequency-selective fading.

If BS > Bc of the radio channel

Equalizers must be adaptive since the channel is generally

unknown and time varying
linear and nonlinear equalizers.

Equalization is any signal-processing method that reduces

ISI.

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 Fading Mitigation:Equalization

Adaptive equalizers operate in two modes:

training

tracking

Three factors affect the time span over which an equalizer

converges:
Equalizer algorithm
Determines how fast and accurately the equalizer learns
and adapts.

Equalizer structure
The design or type of equalizer, which affects complexity
and capability.

Time rate of change of the multipath radio channel

Faster channel changes require quicker equalizer
adaptation.

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 Fading Mitigation :Equalization

Adaptive equalization – Training mode

Initially, a known, fixed length training sequence (TS) is sent
by the transmitter so that the receiver’s equalizer may aver-
age to a proper setting.

TS is a pseudo random signal or a fixed, prescribed bit pat-

tern

Immediately following the TS, the user data is sent

The training sequence is strong enough to help the equalizer

adapt, even under the worst channel conditions

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 Fading Mitigation :Equalization

Therefore, when the training sequence is finished, the filter

coefficients are near optimal
The equalizer has learned how the channel behaves,

So the filter settings (coefficients) are now almost correct (op-

timal) to reduce distortion.

After training, the equalizer is well-adjusted and ready to

correctly receive real user data

An adaptive equalizer at the receiver uses a recursive algo-

rithm to evaluate the channel and estimate filter coefficients
to compensate for the channel.
The adaptive equalizer continually adjusts its filter to
correct channel effects.
.

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 Fading Mitigation :Equalization

Adaptive equalization – Tracking mode

When the data of the users are received, the adaptive algo-
rithm of the equalizer tracks the changing channel

As a result of this, the adaptive equalizer continuously changes

the filter characteristics over time

Equalizers are widely used in TDMA systems

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 Fading Mitigation :Equalization

Equalization – Combating Multipath / Delay Spread

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 Fading Mitigation :Diversity

Diversity exploits the random nature of radio propagation by

finding independent (or at least highly uncorrelated) signal
“channels or paths” for communication

Idea: “don’t put all of your eggs in one basket”

Reduce probability of deep fades by creating L independent

copies of the signal.

In fading channels, a signal power will fall below any given

fade margin at finite probability exists.

Assumption: Individual channels experience independent fad-

ing events

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 Fading Mitigation :Diversity
Send copies of a signal using multiple channels
Time, frequency, space, antenna

If one radio path undergoes a deep fade, another independent

path may have a strong signal

By having more than one path to select from, SNR at a

receiver may be improved (by as much as 20 dB to 30 dB)

Combining: What to do with those independent signals once

we get them?

Reception methods of space diversity includes :

Selection combining

Scanning or feedback combining

Maximal-ratio combining

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Equal gain combining
 Fading Mitigation:Diversity

Selection Combining:
The receiver branch, having the highest instantaneous SNR,
is connected to the demodulator.

The antenna signals themselves could be sampled and the

best one sent to a single demodulation.

Simple to implement but does not use all of the possible

branches.

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 Fading Mitigation:Diversity

Scanning Diversity:
Scanning all the signals in a fixed sequence until the one with
SNR more than a predetermined threshold is identified.

The best of M signals is received until it falls below thresh-

old and the scanning process is again initiated.

Simple to implement, requires only one receiver.

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 Fading Mitigation Techniques:Diversity

Maximum Ratio Combining:

The received signals are weighted with respect to their SNR
and then summed

Principle: Combine all the signals from all of the M – branches

in a co-phased and weighted manner so as to have the highest
SNR at the receiver at all times

The control algorithms for setting the gains and phases for
MRC are similar to those required in equalizer

Need time to converge and performance is as good as the

channel

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 Fading Mitigation :Diversity

Equal Gain Combining:

The branch weights are all set to unity but the signals from
each are co-phased to provide equal gain combining diversity

Cophased signals are then add together

All the received signals are summed coherently.

This allows the receiver to exploit signals that are simulta-

neously received on each branch

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 Fading Mitigation: Channel Coding

Used for error control, classified into:

Block Codes

Convolutional Codes
Block Code Examples:
Forward Error Correction (FEC) codes

Hamming Codes

Golay Codes

Cyclic Codes (e.g., BCH)

Reed–Solomon Codes
Convolutional Codes
typically decoded with Viterbi algorithm

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 Fading Mitigation: Channel Coding

Channel coding provides error detection and correction.

Errors in received data may occur due to:

Noise

Cross-talk

Obstacles and fading

These impairments can corrupt the transmitted data.

The receiver must:

Detect corrupted data (error detection)

Recover the original message (error correction)

These processes are collectively known as error control mech-

anisms.
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 Fading Mitigation:Types of errors in digital data

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 Fading Mitigation: Error Detection

To detect errors at the receiver, extra bits are added to the

transmitted data.

These bits help verify whether the received data is the same
as the transmitted data.

If the check at the receiver fails, it indicates that the data is

corrupted.

Common error detection methods:

Parity Check

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

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 Fading Mitigation: Parity Check

A parity bit is added to the data to ensure the total number

of 1s is either:
Even (Even Parity), or

Odd (Odd Parity)

For Even Parity:

If the number of 1s in data is even → add parity bit = 0

If the number of 1s is odd → add parity bit = 1 (to make it

even)

At the receiver, parity is checked.

If parity does not match → error is detected.

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 Fading Mitigation: Parity Check

Example:look at the ff even parity check system adding

extra bit with digital value 1 to make number of 1’s even.
Question: What would change if Odd Parity is used
instead?

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 Fading Mitigation: Parity Check Mechanism

The receiver (Rx) counts the number of 1s in the frame.

If the number of 1s is even and even parity is used, the

frame is considered not corrupted and is accepted.

If the number of 1s is odd and odd parity is used, the frame

is also considered not corrupted.

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 Fading Mitigation: Parity Check Mechanism

At the receiver (Rx), the total number of 1s in the frame is

counted.

Even Parity:
If the number of 1s is even → No error detected (frame
accepted).
If the number of 1s is odd → Error detected.

Odd Parity:
If the number of 1s is odd → No error detected (frame
accepted).
If the number of 1s is even → Error detected.

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 Fading Mitigation:Problem with this detection method

Single-bit error:
If a single bit flips during transmission, the receiver can detect
it by counting the number of 1s.

If only one bit is wrong, parity will catch it because the total
number of 1s will no longer match the rule.

Multiple-bit errors:
If more than one bit is in error, the receiver may fail to detect
the error.

This method is therefore not reliable for multiple-bit errors.

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 Fading Mitigation:Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

CRC is a method to detect if the received frame contains

valid data.

It uses binary division of the data bits being sent.

The divisor is generated using polynomials.

The sender performs a division operation on the data bits

and calculates the remainder.

The remainder is appended to the actual data bits before

transmission.

The combination of data bits + remainder is called a

codeword.

The sender transmits the data as the codeword.

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 CRC Example
Example: see the ff for a given polynomial 101 and data bits
11001 try for different data bits and different polynomial

Steps:
1 CRC is a different approach to detect if the frame received
contains valid data.

2 The divisor is generated using polynomials.

3 The sender performs a division operation on the bits being

sent and calculates the remainder.

4 Before sending the actual bits, the sender adds the remainder
at the end of the actual bits.

5 Actual data bits plus the remainder is called a codeword.

6 The sender transmits data bits as codeword.

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 CRC at Receiver (Rx)

The receiver performs the same division operation on the

received codeword using the same CRC divisor.

If the remainder is all zeros, the data is accepted: No

error.

Otherwise, there has been some data corruption during

transit.

Hence, errors can be detected.

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 CRC Example

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 Error Correction

Two main strategies to handle transmission errors:

1 Backward Error Correction (Retransmission)
Receiver detects errors and requests retransmission

Simple but depends on feedback channel

2 Forward Error Correction (FEC)

Receiver uses error-correcting codes to fix errors

Useful where retransmission is costly (e.g., wireless)

Key Difference:
Retransmission relies on sender

FEC corrects errors at receiver without resend

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 Summary

There is no fading-free wireless communication, but the level

of fading may vary, causing errors in the received signal.

Efficient mitigation, error detection, and correction methods

should be designed.

Different methods can be applied to address these problems.

A combination of methods may be used for better reliability.

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 System Planning: Mobile Radio Link and Network
Design

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 Mobile Radio Link Design

The radio link budget calculates the signal power at the

receiver and ensures the link meets the required quality.

Ensures reliable communication between BS and MS.

Essentially: “Will this transmitter reach this receiver with

enough strength?”

Check if a single link works reliably over a certain distance.

Key factors:
Transmit power and antenna gains

Path loss, shadowing, and fading

Receiver sensitivity and noise figure

Fade and interference margins

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 Mobile Radio Link Design

Key outcomes:
Coverage distance, transmitter power, link margin

Design objectives:
Coverage, capacity, QoS

Statistical models used:

Path loss (Okumura-Hata, COST-231)

Shadowing (Log-normal)

Fading (Rayleigh, Rician)

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 Conclusion

Mobile radio link design ensures reliable communication through:

Accurate coverage and capacity planning

Use of statistical models for realistic channel behavior

Proper link budget with fade margins for QoS

Effective planning leads to:

Reduced call drops and outages

Optimized base station deployment

Improved user experience

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 Radio Network Planning

Radio network planning involves designing and optimizing

base station locations to ensure reliable coverage, sufficient
capacity, and consistent quality of service across the
network.
Focus Areas:
Number and location of base stations (BTS)

Frequency/channel allocation to minimize interference

Handover planning (mobility management)

Capacity planning (users per cell)

Scalability for future growth

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 Principles of Radio Network Planning

Ensure coverage, capacity, QoS, and cost efficiency.

Planning Steps:
1 Define coverage area and estimate traffic demand

2 Select an appropriate propagation model (urban, suburban,

rural)

3 Estimate cell radius using link budget calculations

4 Plan frequency reuse and allocate channels

5 Optimize network for cost, scalability, and QoS

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 Outputs and Tools

Typical Outputs:
Base station location maps

Frequency and channel plans

Predicted coverage maps (using propagation models)

Capacity and traffic analysis

Tools/Models:
Propagation models: Okumura-Hata, COST-231,..

Network simulators: Atoll, MATLAB, Python

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 Radio Link Design vs Radio Network Planning

Radio Link Design

Focuses on a single communication link (Tx–Rx)

Calculates link budget, path loss, fading, and fade margin

Ensures reliable signal strength and QoS for one link

Radio Network Planning
Focuses on the entire cellular network

Determines base station locations, coverage, and capacity

Ensures overall QoS, traffic handling, and user experience

Summary:
Link Design , Technical reliability of one link

Network Planning , Strategic performance of whole network

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 Assignment: Mobile Radio Link Design

Task:
Calculate the link budget for a mobile communication
system (Tx → Rx).
Use MATLAB / Python ..
Deliverables:
Link Budget Calculation Table
Graph of Received Power vs. Distance
Objective:
Analyze how system parameters affect coverage and QoS.

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 Thank You!

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