Lecturer Olonde Peter Okoth
Unit Code: SMA 3101
Unit Name: Basic Mathematics
SMA 3101
Course Description/Outline
Sets,
Elementary logic,
Mathematical proofs,
Number systems,
Complex numbers,
Relations and functions,
Elementary functions and their graphs,
Polynomials in one variable,
Partial fractions,
Permutations, Combinations, Trigonometry.
SETS
Introduction
Definition: A set is defined as a collection of distinct, well-defined objects considered as a single entity. These
objects, known as elements, can be anything from numbers and letters to shapes and variables. Sets are
typically represented using capital letters and can include any number of items, such as whole numbers or
types of birds.
Elements
The terms or items present in the set are called elements or members of that set. The elements are
represented by lowercase letters.
The first set has 6 terms, but the second set has an uncountable number of terms. The three dots together are
called ellipses, ‘…’ which means ‘continue on.’
Sometimes, the ellipsis is used in the middle of terms to avoid writing many terms. For example, in the set C =
{a, b, c, …, z}, there are 26 letters, and thus there are 26 terms in set ‘C.’
If ‘A’ is a set containing elements ‘a’ and ‘b,’ A = {a, b}.
Here, we also use the symbol ‘∈’ (read as ‘belongs to’) to represent the element ‘a’ in the set ‘A.’
Since ‘a’ is in the set ‘A,’ but another element ‘c’ is not in the set ‘A,’ we can write a ∈ A and c ∉ A, read as ‘a
belongs to A’ and ‘c does not belong to A.’
• The objects in a set are called elements or members.
• Sets are usually denoted by capital letters like 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, and their elements are written inside curly
brackets.
Example:
• 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4}→ Here, 1,2,3,4are the elements of the set 𝐴.
• 𝐵 = {red,blue,green}→ A set of colors.
Key Points:
1. Well-defined → You can clearly tell whether an object belongs to the set or not.
o Example: {all even numbers less than 10} = {2,4,6,8}.
2. Distinct → No repetition of elements inside a set.
o Example: {1,2,2,3} = {1,2,3}.
of sets (e.g., finite, infinite, null, universal, etc.)
Standard Sets
• Set of natural numbers; ℕ = {1, 2, 3, …}
• Set of whole numbers; 𝕎 = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}
• Set of integers; ℤ = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
• Set of rational numbers; ℚ = { | ‘x’ and ‘y’ are integers and y ≠ 0}
• Set of irrational numbers; ℚ’ = {x is not rational}
• Set of real numbers; ℝ = ℚ ∪ ℚ’
Rational numbers are numbers that can be written in the form
𝑝
where:
𝑞
• 𝑝and 𝑞are integers (whole numbers, positive or negative, including zero),
• 𝑞 ≠ 0(the denominator cannot be zero).
Examples:
1 3 10
• , − 4, = 2, −7, 0.
2 5
Key points:
5
• Every integer is a rational number (because, for example, 5 = 1).
• Rational numbers include fractions, finite decimals (like 0.75), and repeating decimals (like 0.333... or
2.141414...).
• They do not include numbers like 𝜋or √2, which cannot be expressed as fractions of integers (those are
irrational numbers).
Irrational Numbers
𝑝
An irrational number is a number that cannot be expressed as a fraction 𝑞 , where 𝑝and 𝑞are integers and 𝑞 ≠
0.
• Their decimal expansions go on forever and never repeat.
Set of Irrational Numbers
The set of irrational numbers is the collection of all numbers that are not rational.
𝕀 = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∣ 𝑥 ∉ ℚ}
This means:
• 𝕀is a subset of the real numbers ℝ.
• Together, rational numbers (ℚ) and irrational numbers (𝕀) make up the entire set of real numbers.
Examples of Irrational Numbers
• Square roots of non-perfect squares: √2, √3, √5
• Famous constants: 𝜋, 𝑒
• Non-repeating, non-terminating decimals: 0.101001000100001. ..
So, the set of irrational numbers is basically all real numbers that are not rational.
Types of Sets
Empty Set (Null Set)
A set that does not contain any element is called an empty set or null set. It is represented using the symbol
‘ɸ,’ read as ‘phi.’
For example, Set A = { }
Singleton Set (Unit Set)
A set that contains only one element is called a singleton or unit set.
For example, Set A = {0} and Set B = {9}
Finite Set
A set that contains a finite or countable number of elements is called a finite set.
For example, Set B = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100}
Infinite Set
A set containing an infinite number of elements is called an infinite set.
For example, the set of negative integers is {…, -4, -3, -2, -1}
Equivalent Set
If two sets contain the same number of elements, even if the elements are different, they are called equivalent
sets.
For example, if A = {-8, -4, -2, 0} and B = {p, q, r, s}, since n(A) = n(B), sets A and B are equivalent.
Equal Set
If two sets contain the same elements, they are called equal sets.
For example, if A = {4, 5, 6}, B = {4, 5, 6}, and C = {5, 6, 4}, then sets A, B, and C are equal (A = B = C)
irrespective of the order of the elements.
Unequal Set
Two sets are said to be unequal if they have at least one unique element. For example, if A = {4, 5, 6} and B =
{2, 3, 4}, then set A and B are unequal, which is written as A ≠ B.
Overlapping Set
If A and B are two sets and at least one element from A is present in B or vice versa, then the two sets A and B
are said to be overlapping.
For example, if A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, then elements 3 and 4 are common in both sets A and B.
Thus, A and B are overlapping sets.
Disjoint Set
If A and B are two sets with no common elements in between, then sets A and B are called disjoint sets.
For example, if A = {m, n, s, t} and B = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, then set A and set B have no common elements in
between. They are disjoint sets.
Subset and Superset
If A and B are two sets such that every element in A is also present in B, then set A is a subset of set B,
represented by A ⊆ B. Here, B is known as the superset of set A, which is represented as B ⊇ A.
For example, if A = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}, since all the elements of A are
present in B, A is a subset of set B, written as A ⊆ B. Also, set B is the superset of set A (B ⊇ A.)
Again, if X = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Y = {1, 2, 3, 4}, and Z = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, then every element of X is present in Y,
whereas element 5 of the set Z is not in set X. Thus, set X is a proper subset of set Z.
In general, A is a proper subset of B if and only if every element of A is also in B, but there is at least one
element in B that is not present in A. It is represented as A ⊂ B.
Power Set
A power set is a set of all subsets that the set could contain.
For example, if A = {0, 1}, the power set of A is represented by P(A). Here, P(A) = {ɸ, {0}, {1}, {0, 1}}
Universal Set
A universal set, represented by the letter ‘U,’ is the collection of all the elements relevant to a certain condition.
For example, if U is the set of real numbers, the sets of natural numbers and rational numbers are the subsets
of this universal set.
Key points:
1. Well-defined: It must be clear whether an object belongs to the set or not.
o Example: {𝑥 ∣ 𝑥 is an even number less than 10} = {2,4,6,8}.
2. Distinct elements: A set cannot have duplicates.
o Example: {1,2,2,3} = {1,2,3}.
3. Unordered: The order of elements does not matter.
o Example: {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} = {𝑐, 𝑏, 𝑎}
Common Set Terminology:
• Element notation: x ∈ A means "x is an element of set A"; x ∉ A means "x is not an element of A".
• Cardinality: The number of elements in a set, denoted as n(A) or |A|.
The number of elements present in a set is called the cardinal number, cardinality, or order of a set.
For example, the cardinality of the set ‘A’ of natural numbers A = {1, 2, 3, 4} is 4, which is written as
n(A) = |A| = 4
• Subset: A set whose elements are all contained within another set.
• Universal set: The set that contains all possible elements under consideration.
• Empty set: A set with no elements, denoted as {} or ∅.
Example Sets:
• Natural numbers: ℕ = {1, 2, 3, …}
• Even numbers less than 10: E = {2, 4, 6, 8}
• Vowels in English: V = {a, e, i, o, u}
Key Characteristics of Sets:
• Well-defined: Every element is clearly identifiable as either belonging or not belonging to the set.
• Distinct elements: No repetition; each element appears only once.
• Notation: Sets are usually written using curly braces {}. For example, the set of odd numbers less than
10 is written as:
SET THEORY SYMBOL
Symbol Meaning Example
∈ "is an element of" 3 ∈ {1,2,3,4}
∉ "is not an element of" 5 ∉ {1,2,3,4}
⊂ Proper subset (every element of 𝐴is in 𝐵, but 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵) {1,2} ⊂ {1,2,3}
⊆ Subset (every element of 𝐴is in 𝐵) {1,2,3} ⊆ {1,2,3}
⊃ Proper superset {1,2,3} ⊃ {1,2}
⊇ Superset {1,2,3} ⊇ {1,2,3}
∪ Union (all elements in 𝐴or 𝐵or both) {1,2} ∪ {2,3} = {1,2,3}
∩ Intersection (elements common to both) {1,2} ∩ {2,3} = {2}
∖or − Difference (elements in 𝐴but not in 𝐵) {1,2,3} ∖ {2} = {1,3}
∅or ∅ Empty set (no elements) {𝑥 ∣ 𝑥 2 + 1 = 0} = ∅
𝑈 Universal set (all possible elements under discussion) If 𝑈 = {1,2,3,4,5}, then 𝐴 = {2,3}
𝐴𝑐 or 𝐴‾ Complement of a set (elements in 𝑈but not in 𝐴) If 𝑈 = {1,2,3,4,5}, 𝐴 = {1,2}, then 𝐴𝑐 = {3,4,5}
( A )
𝑃(𝐴) Power set (set of all subsets of 𝐴) 𝑃({1,2}) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {1,2}}
Representing in Set Theory
There are some different set notations used to represent sets.
Semantic or Statement Form
Semantic notation describes a statement to represent the elements of a set.
For example, a set A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} in semantic form is written as {a set of whole numbers less than
8}
Roster Form
This is the most common way of representing sets. In roster notation, the elements are enclosed within curly
brackets and are separated by commas.
For example, the set of whole numbers less than 8 is represented in roster form as B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
Set Builder Form
In set-builder notation, a rule or statement describes the common property of all the elements.
For example, a set of whole numbers less than 8 is represented as B = {x | x is a whole number and x < 8}
SET OPERATIONS
Union
The union of sets, represented by A ∪ B, lists all the elements in sets A and B or the elements present in both
sets A and B.
For example, if A = {4, 5} and B = {5, 6, 7}, then A ∪ B = {4, 5} ∪ {5, 6, 7} = {4, 5, 6, 7}
Intersection
The intersection of sets, represented by A ∩ B, lists the common elements of sets A and B.
For example, if A = {4, 5} and B = {5, 6, 7}, then A ∩ B = {4, 5} ∩ {5, 6, 7} = {5}
Difference
The set difference represents the elements in set A that are not present in set B. It is represented by A – B.
For example, A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}. A – B = {1, 2}
Complement
The complement of a set A, denoted by A’, represents all elements in the universal set that are absent in set A.
Also, A’ is represented as U–A, the difference between the elements of the universal set and set A.
Union
The union of sets, represented by A ∪ B, lists all the elements in sets A and B or the elements present in both
sets A and B.
For example, if A = {4, 5} and B = {5, 6, 7}, then A ∪ B = {4, 5} ∪ {5, 6, 7} = {4, 5, 6, 7}
Intersection
The intersection of sets, represented by A ∩ B, lists the common elements of sets A and B.
For example, if A = {4, 5} and B = {5, 6, 7}, then A ∩ B = {4, 5} ∩ {5, 6, 7} = {5}
Difference
The set difference represents the elements in set A that are not present in set B. It is represented by A – B.
For example, A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 6}. A – B = {1, 2}
Complement
The complement of a set A, denoted by A’, represents all elements in the universal set that are absent from set
A. Also, A’ is represented as U–A, the difference between the elements of the universal set and set A.
Cartesian Product
The Cartesian product of two sets, A and B, written as A × B, is the product of two non-empty sets. Here, the
ordered pairs of elements are obtained, which means the first element is obtained from the first set and the
second element from the second set.
For example, {5, 6} × {7, 8} = {(5, 7), (6, 7), (5, 8), (6, 8)}
Symmetric Difference
The symmetric difference between two sets, A and B, represented by A Δ B, represents the remaining
elements after removing the common elements from the union of the two sets.
Mathematically, it is written as
A Δ B = (A ∪ B) – (A ∩ B)
⇒ A Δ B = (A – B) ∪ (B – A), which represents the elements of only set A and only set B.
Here is a summary of the commonly used set operations:
Set Operation
Representing with Venn Diagram
Sets are often represented pictorially using a Venn diagram for ease of understanding. It also illustrates how
the given sets relate to each other. In a Venn diagram, the elements of each set are enclosed in a circle.
Sometimes, a rectangle surrounds the circles, representing the universal set.
Here are the commonly used set operations with their Venn diagrams:
SOLVED EXAMPLES