Module 08
Safety and
Security
CGEO793
The Geography of
Toronto
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Topics and Learning Objectives
Topics
This module will cover the following topics:
• Facts about crime in Toronto
• How geography impacts safety and security
• The issue of the US border
• How safety and security issues have changed over time
• Toronto’s high-profile crimes and criminal trials
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Topics and Learning Objectives
Learning Objectives
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
• Describe basic facts about crime in Toronto
• Describe how geography impacts safety and security
• Describe how the proximity to the US border impacts crime
• Describe how safety and security issues have changed
• Describe some of Toronto’s high-profile crimes and criminal trials
3
Readings/Videos/Multimedia Recommended
Toronto residents How current homicide
weigh in on Crime rates in Toronto
& Policing compare to last year
TPS Annual Statistical Reports
Something to think about:
4
How does the TPS Annual Statistical Report compare with news coverage?
Safety and Security Facts and Figures
5
Safety and Security
in Canada
In 2013, the police-reported
crime rate was at its lowest
point since 1969.
Why has this happened?
Source: Canada's crime rate: Two decades of decline 6
There is general agreement in
Safety and Security in Canada the literature that the
crime-prone years are between
Several factors have been cited as the ages of 15 and 24.
possible explanations including:
● an aging population
80% of the crimes the elderly commit
are property crimes, such as shoplifting.
Source: Canada's crime rate: Two decades of decline, Canadian Sentencing Practices in Relat 7
Safety and Security in Canada
Several factors have been cited as
possible explanations including:
● changing policing practices and
strategies
Using data and analytics, police forces
can identify crime hotspots and allocate
resources more effectively.
Source: Canada's crime rate: Two decades of decline 8
Safety and Security in Canada
Several factors have been cited as
possible explanations including:
● the rise of technology
Technology has also enabled law enforcement agencies to
develop advanced tools for crime prevention and
investigation, such as digital forensics and surveillance
systems.
Source: Canada's crime rate: Two decades of decline, 9
Safety and Security in Canada
Several factors have been cited as global
possible explanations including: pandemic
financial
crisis
● shifts in unemployment
Unemployment negatively affects the
disposable income of families, erodes
purchasing power, diminishes employee
morale, and reduces an economy's output.
Source: Canada's crime rate: Two decades of decline, 10
recession
Unemployment rates in Canada
Safety and Security in Canada
Several factors have been cited as
possible explanations including:
● decreased alcohol consumption
Alcohol has been identified as an
aggravating factor in 30% to 65% of
violent crimes in Canada.
Source: Canada's crime rate: Two decades of decline 11
Safety and Security in Canada
Several factors have been cited as
possible explanations including:
● changing neighbourhood
characteristics
Improved access to public transit, increased green spaces, and better urban planning have
contributed to safer communities. Immigration has also had a positive impact, as the integration of
law-abiding immigrants into neighborhoods has led to long-term reductions in property crime rates.
Source: Canada's crime rate: Two decades of decline 12
Safety and Security in Canada
Several factors have been cited as
possible explanations including:
● changing attitudes towards
illegal and risky behaviour
Public campaigns and education programs have raised awareness about the consequences
of risky behaviors, such as impaired driving or drug use, leading to more responsible
decision-making.
Source: Canada's crime rate: Two decades of decline 13
Facts about Safety and
Security in the City of
Toronto
How do these statistics
compare to your perception of
crime in the city?
Source: TPS Annual Statistical Report, 14
Facts about Safety and Security in the City of Toronto
Homicide
In 2023,
Toronto had 73
homicides with
a rate of 2.4.
See how this
compares with
top US cities
with much
smaller
populations?
Note: Rochester is highlighted only because
the report came from a school in that city. 15
Source: TPS Annual Statistical Report,
2023 Homicide Statistics for 24 U.S. Cities
Facts about Safety and Security in the City of Toronto
Assault
How does this compare
to the Population
Pyramids we looked at
the other day?
Source: TPS Annual Statistical Report, 16
Facts about Safety and Security in the City of Toronto
Hate Crimes
The reporting of Hate Crimes in Toronto
follow the increasing trend found world wide.
Source: TPS Annual Statistical Report, 17
Hate crime, England and
Wales, 2012 to 2023
Source: Visualizing two decades 18
of hate crimes in the US
Yeah, but Toronto is really dangerous…isn’t it?
Overall, Toronto is a very safe city. There are times though that people may feel that
isn’t the case. Why?
● The media often focuses on crime stories because violence sells. Such news
stories attract viewers and readers.
● People are more aware of incidents happening in real-time because of social
media. Thanks Facebook.
● If someone or someone they know has been a victim of crime, it can make
them feel that crime is increasing, even if statistics don't support this.
● Politicians and public figures sometimes emphasize crime to push agendas.
● In uncertain times, people may feel more vulnerable and anxious, leading
them to believe that crime is on the rise.
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Safest Cities in the World 2024
The Economist Intelligence
Unit’s Safe Cities Index
(SCI) was used to rank 60
destinations around the
world across 57 indicators
covering their digital
security, health security,
infrastructure, and personal
safety. Based on this, cities
are given a score between 0
and 100.
Source: Safest Cities in the World 2024 20
Why Geography Matters
21
Many of Toronto’s residents live in high density areas
The concentration of people in
downtown neighborhoods like the
Entertainment District or financial
hubs may lead to higher rates of
property crimes, pickpocketing, and
public disturbances due to nightlife
and tourism.
As of the 2021 Census, the
downtown core of Toronto had
a population of approximately
237,698 people.
22
Toronto has significant suburban sprawl
● Outlying areas with less population
density may see different crime
patterns, but that doesn’t mean
they are less frequent or prevalent.
● Suburban areas can have
problems with vehicle theft and
break & enter incidents, often
because of lower foot traffic and
less surveillance.
23
Toronto has an extensive transit system
Areas near subway stations,
GO Transit, and bus hubs
may experience higher rates
of petty crimes such as theft
due to the high volume of
commuters.
Well-connected areas might
inadvertently facilitate
movement for individuals
involved in illegal activities.
Source: 'What is safety?': Transit users call for action at town hall following rash of TTC violence 24
The Waterfront Areas are popular
● These areas attract tourists and
large gatherings, which can lead to
public safety concerns like
vandalism, drug use, or assaults
during events.
● Proximity to the lake and industrial
areas such as the Port of Toronto
may be linked to organized crime,
smuggling, or illegal trade.
25
Neighbourhood economic disparities
● Toronto has obvious contrasts
between affluent neighborhoods
(e.g., Rosedale) and less affluent
ones (e.g., parts of Scarborough or
Jane and Finch).
● Economic disparities can correlate
with differing crime rates, with
economically disadvantaged areas
potentially seeing more violent or
survival-related crimes.
26
Diversity
● The diverse cultural composition
of Toronto neighbourhoods can
sometimes lead to unique
patterns of crime related to
inter-group tensions.
● On the other hand, they can also
foster stronger community-based
crime prevention initiatives.
● Diverse neighbourhoods may also
create challenges for reporting
crimes or accessing resources.
27
Toronto has many green spaces and public parks
● Parks and ravines (e.g., Don
Valley or High Park) may serve as
venues for drug-related activities,
assaults, or unauthorized
gatherings due to their relative
seclusion.
● Crimes in green spaces might
fluctuate with the seasons, peaking
in warmer months when these
areas are more frequented.
28
Climate and Seasonal Variation
● Cold weather and snow may deter
certain types of street crimes but
could lead to increased indoor
crimes like domestic violence.
● Warmer weather and festivals can
lead to increased instances of
public disturbances and
alcohol-related offenses.
29
Toronto has many natural barriers and infrastructure
● The city's natural and infrastructural divides
can shape where crimes occur by creating
isolated zones or "hidden pockets" with
less visibility and fewer law enforcement
patrols.
● Crime Prevention Through
Want to learn more about how
Environmental Design: Well-lit areas see
design can discourage crime?
fewer crimes compared to dimly lit or poorly
Click here.
maintained sections of the city.
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Toronto is a tourist hotspot
● Popular locations like the CN Tower or
Eaton Centre may attract pickpockets,
scams, and other opportunistic crimes
simply because they are high traffic
areas.
● Large gatherings like the Toronto
International Film Festival (TIFF),
sporting events and concerts can see
spikes in petty crime and
crowd-related incidents.
31
Toronto is in close proximity to other cities
● Highways connecting Toronto to
cities like Montreal or Detroit
influence the flow of organized
crime.
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More about the proximity to the border
33
Not just for quick trips to Target and Trader Joe’s
● The U.S.-Canada border plays a
significant, though indirect, role in
shaping crime in Toronto.
● Its importance lies in the border's
facilitation of cross-border crime,
organized criminal activity, and the
movement of goods and people.
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Drug Trafficking
● The U.S.-Canada border is one of
the primary routes for drug
trafficking. It is a major point of entry.
● Drugs like cocaine and
methamphetamine are often
smuggled from the U.S. into Canada,
while cannabis moves in the
opposite direction, despite its
legalization in Canada.
● Toronto, as a major urban center,
acts as a hub for distribution.
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Below statistics represent calls to the
Human Trafficking hotline, not the overall numbers which
would be significantly higher.
● The proximity of Toronto to the U.S.
border enables the smuggling of
individuals for labour or sexual
exploitation. Traffickers exploit the
relatively porous border for illegal
movement.
● Toronto becomes a hotspot for
trafficked individuals, whether for forced
labor or exploitation in illegal industries.
Source: Human Trafficking Trends in Canada 36
Firearms Smuggling
● Strict gun laws in Canada contrast
with more lenient laws in many
U.S. states. This discrepancy leads
to firearms being smuggled from
the U.S. into Canada, where they
often end up in the hands of gangs
or organized crime groups in
Toronto.
● Many firearms used in shootings in
Toronto can be traced to smuggling
operations linked to the border.
Source: 'How gold becomes guns': heist spotlights illegal US-Canada gun trade 37
Organized Crime and Smuggling
● Organized crime groups such as
biker gangs, mafias, or cartels
often operate across the
U.S.-Canada border. These groups
are involved in smuggling drugs,
weapons, counterfeit goods, and
even wildlife.
● Toronto often becomes a central
point for distributing smuggled
goods and laundering illicit money.
38
Local Crime and Gang Activity
● Some Toronto-based gangs have
affiliations with U.S. groups,
influencing the flow of illegal
weapons and drugs into the city.
● The interconnectedness of crime
networks across borders increases
Toronto's exposure to criminal
trends originating in the U.S.
39
Border Enforcement Challenges
● Despite stringent security measures, the
long and relatively open U.S.-Canada
border makes it difficult to completely
prevent illegal activities. This ease of
crossing benefits smugglers and
traffickers.
● Canadian law enforcement agencies
face resource challenges in patrolling
the border, indirectly affecting urban
centers like Toronto by allowing
contraband to reach the city.
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Safety and Security over the years
41
Early Crime in Toronto (19th Century)
● In the early 1800s, as Toronto
transitioned from a colonial outpost
to a growing, busy settlement, crime
was often associated with the
rough-and-tumble life of settlers, the
fur trade, and Indigenous resistance.
● Early forms of crime in Toronto when
it was known as "York," focusing on
minor offenses like theft, smuggling,
and alcohol-related offenses.
42
Development of the Police Force (1834)
● Toronto established its first formal
police force in 1834.
● Local militia and constables played
an important role in controlling
crime before the formation of a
formal police force was established
● Social disorder was a real concern
in those early years. Rowdy
behavior in taverns, street brawls,
and public drunkenness was
common.
43
Immigrant Populations & Crime in the Late 19th
Century
● As waves of Irish, Italian, Jewish, and other
European immigrants arrived in Toronto
during the late 1800s, ethnic and cultural
tensions contributed to criminal activity. Racial
tensions and perceptions of immigrant groups
as being linked to crime were a concern.
● This was also the beginnings of organized
crime in the city, especially in relation to illegal
activities like bootlegging, gambling, and
prostitution.
44
Prohibition and the Rise of Organized Crime
(1910s-1930s)
● During the Prohibition era in the
1920s, smuggling and bootlegging
alcohol became major sources of
revenue for organized crime
syndicates in Toronto.
● This period saw the rise of
notorious figures, and how these
criminals navigated the city's laws
and maintained power.
45
The 1940s-1960s: Crime, Youth, and Social Change
● Post-WWII, Toronto experienced a youth
crime wave. There was an explosion in petty
crime, vandalism, and gang activity.
● The Baby Boom Generation led to the
growth of new forms of delinquency, often
linked to discontent with changing societal
values and the rise of counterculture.
46
The 1970s-1990s: Drugs, Gangs, and the Rise of the
"Toronto Mafia"
● The introduction of crack cocaine in the 1980s
transformed criminal behavior in Toronto, with
drug-related violence escalating in certain
neighborhoods. The city witnessed the rise of street
gangs, including those tied to the Jamaican "posse"
culture.
● Organized crime continued to thrive, with a focus on
illegal gambling, drugs, and money laundering. The
operations of groups like the Calabrese, Sicilian, and
other Mafia families became intertwined with the
city’s criminal underworld.
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Policing and Crime Prevention in Modern Toronto
Current Issues:
● With the rise of the digital age, cybercrime has become a new frontier
in criminal activity. Toronto's role as a major financial hub also makes
it a target for financial crimes, such as fraud, identity theft, and
hacking.
● The explosion of opioid-related crime, including overdose deaths,
trafficking, and associated violence.
● The increasing visibility of youth gangs in Toronto, with specific
attention to gun violence, turf wars, and the spread of criminal
networks among young people.
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Toronto’s High-Profile Crimes
and Criminal Trials
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The Toronto "Black Hand" Murders (Early 1900s)
In the early 20th century, the Italian Mafia "Black Hand" extortion ring operated in
Toronto, targeting Italian immigrants. The "Black Hand" used threats and violence
to extort money from people, and several murders occurred as a result of these
activities.
Why this was significant: This event is part of the early history of organized
crime in Toronto, illustrating how immigrant communities could be both victims
and perpetrators of crime. It also marked the beginning of Toronto’s long history of
mafia influence, especially by Italian crime families.
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The "Scarborough Rapist" Case (1980s-1990s)
Between 1980 & 1990, a serial rapist, later identified as Paul
Bernardo, terrorized the Scarborough area of Toronto,
committing numerous assaults on young women. His crimes
escalated, culminating in the brutal murder of three girls, Kristen
French and Leslie Mahaffy and his sister in law, Tammy
Homolka. Bernardo was eventually convicted and sentenced to
life in prison.
Why this was significant: The case is infamous for the chilling
nature of the crimes, as well as for the lengthy and complex
investigation. It also drew attention to the phenomenon of serial
crimes and the difficulties in apprehending such offenders.
Did You Know? The Bernardo Case started
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many Crime Analysis Units in Ontario.
The 2005 "Guns and Gangs" Crisis
In the early 2000s, Toronto faced a surge in gun violence and
gang-related activity, particularly in neighborhoods like
Regent Park and Jane & Finch.
Why this was significant: This period marked a significant
moment in the city’s history, as it revealed the extent of gang
violence in Toronto. It led to an increased focus on gun
control, gang prevention programs, and the broader
socio-economic factors contributing to youth crime.
52
The "Toronto 18" Terrorist Plot (2006)
In 2006, a group of young men (many of them from the
GTA) were arrested in a plot to commit terrorist attacks
on Canadian soil, including bombings of government
buildings and military targets. The group was linked to
al-Qaeda and had received training in Pakistan.
Why this was significant: The "Toronto 18" case was
one of Canada’s most significant domestic terrorism
cases, raising concerns about radicalization, national
security, and the role of intelligence agencies in
preventing terror attacks.
53
The Murder of Tim Bosma (2013)
Tim Bosma, a Hamilton man, was murdered after he took two men
on a test drive of a truck he was selling. The case grabbed attention
due to the brutality of the crime, and the suspects' disturbing
background. Dellen Millard, one of the men involved, was convicted
of the murder, and it was later revealed that he had also committed
other killings.
Why this was significant: This case was part of a series of killings
tied to Dellen Millard, who was later convicted for the murders of his
father, a former girlfriend, and others. It sparked debates about the
rise of serial killers and the nature of violent crime in modern
Canadian society.
54
The Killing of Andrew Loku (2015)
In 2015, Andrew Loku, a 45-year-old man of African
descent, was shot and killed by a Toronto police officer
after Loku allegedly advanced on officers holding a
hammer. The incident sparked protests and raised issues
about police use of force.
Why this was significant: This case became part of the
broader debate on police practices in Toronto, contributing
to discussions about racial profiling, police accountability,
and the need for mental health training in law
enforcement.
55
Racial Profiling and Over-policing of Communities of
Colour: The Carding Controversy
● Historically, the Toronto Police engaged in
a practice known as "carding" or "street
checks," where officers would stop
individuals (predominantly Black and
Brown people) without reasonable
suspicion and collect personal data.
● Although being officially discontinued in
2017, carding disproportionately targeted
Black Torontonians and perpetuated
distrust between the police and the
communities they were meant to serve.
Source: Here’s What You Need to Know About Carding 56
The 2018 Van Attack
In April 2018, a man named Alek Minassian deliberately drove
a rented Ryder van onto a sidewalk on Yonge Street in
Toronto, killing 10 people and injuring 16 others. The attack
was one of the deadliest mass killings in Canadian history.
Why this was significant: The attack was widely publicized
due to its shocking nature. Minassian's motive appeared to be
linked to his beliefs about the "incel" movement (involuntary
celibates), highlighting the growing concerns around online
radicalization and hate-driven violence.
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What’s next?
Before next class:
• Answer Discussion Question 08.
Introducing the Toronto Police Service Public Safety
Data Portal
What does safety and security look like in your
neighbourhood?
• Answer Exit Survey 08.
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