MODALS
MODALS FUNCTIONS EXAMPLES
Obligation Muslims must pray five times a day.
must Certainty He has a big car; he must be rich.
must have Certainty (past) He is late; his car must have broken down.
mustn’t Prohibition You mustn’t use your phone in class.
have to Obligation Citizens have to abide by the laws of their country.
He had to overwork as all his colleagues were on
had to Obligation (past)
vacation.
don’t have to No obligation It isn’t far; she doesn’t have to take a taxi.
No obligation He didn’t have to explain again as the lesson was too
didn’t have to (past) easy.
can Ability My brother can jump two metres.
Permission You can use a calculator during the test.
Possibility Take your umbrella, it can rain later.
Inability I can’t see very well in this fog.
can’t Prohibition Muslims can’t eat ham.
Impossibility She’s too old; she can’t be pregnant.
can have Possibility (past) I can have seen him, but I forgot.
Impossibility
can’t have (past)
She’s too smart; she can’t have made such a mistake.
Ability (past) We couldn’t buy it as we didn’t have enough money.
could Possibility I’m not sure, but she could be at work now.
You could have had an accident last night but thank
could have Possibility (past)
God.
Possibility I don’t know but the train may come late.
may Permission May I use your telephone please?
She may have missed the bus. That’s why she’s
may have Possibility (past)
absent.
might Possibility I don’t know but the train might come late.
You might have had an accident last night but thank
might have Possibility (past)
God.
Advice Mothers should breastfeed their babies.
should Probability They departed early; they should be at home now.
You should have bought a new car, not a second-hand
should have Regret (past)
one.
needn’t No obligation I needn’t tell him; he already knows.
No obligation You needn’t have bought so much food; the guests are
needn’t have (past) few.
Perfect/past models are always followed by past participles.
You could have had an accident last night but thank God.
Present modals are followed by bare infinitive (without to).
I don’t wear that jacket anymore, you can have it.