POLITICAL SCIENCE NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

UNITED NATIONS AGENCIES

United Nations Head Quarters Mandates/Salient Features
Development Group
Agencies
United Nations New York City • Publishes Human Development Report annually.
Development Programme • It is developed by economist. Mahbub Ul Haq of
(UNDP) Pakistan and based on the work of Amartya Sen.
• Help countries achieve MDGs and SDGS
United Nations Nairobi, Kenya • Coordinates environmental activities of UN.
Environment Programme • Assist developing countries in implementing
(UN Environment) environmentally sound policies and practices
• It is one of several Implementing Agencies for
the Global Environment Facility (GEF)
United Nations Children's New York City • Provides Long term assistance to children and
Emergency Fund (UNICEF mother in developing countries.
• Take contributions from government 8 well as
private donors.
• Got Nobel Peace Prize in 1965.
Political Science by PS Yaduvanshi JRF Ph: 8559876786 Telegram: PSYJRF
World Health Organization Geneva, • Publishes World Health Report
(WHO) Switzerland • Conducts World Health Survey.
• Started World Health Day (7 April of every year)
International Labour Geneva, • A nation can be a member of ILO w/o being a
Organization (ILO) Switzerland member of UN.
• It registers complaints against entities that are
violating international rules. It does not impose
sanctions on government.
• Got Nobel Peace Prize in 1969
International Geneva, • It is an intergovernmental public-private
Telecommunication Union Switzerland partnership organization.
(ITU) • Its membership includes 193 Member States and
around 700 public and private sector companies.
• Coordinates the shared global use of the radio
spectrum, assigning satellite orbits.
• Works to improve telecommunication
infrastructure in the developing world.
• Develops international standards.
United Nations Head Quarters Mandates/Salient Features
Development Group
Agencies

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 POLITICAL SCIENCE NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

UNHCR (The UN Refugee Geneva, • Mandated to protect and support refugees

Agency) Switzerland at the request of a government or the UN itself
• It assists refugees in their voluntary repatriation,
local integration or resettlement to a third
country.
• Initially it was established to help people
displaced by World War II.
World Meteorological Geneva, •Specialised agency of the United Nations for
Organization (WMO) Switzerland meteorology (weather and climate operational
hydrology and related geophysical sciences.
It maintains the database of cyclone/
hurricane/typhoon names
• Greenhouse Gas Bulletin In its annual report
• It runs Global Atmosphere watch Programme to
provide scientific data and information on the
chemical composition of the atmosphere
International Fund for Rome, Italy •Specialized agency dedicated to eradicating rural
Agricultural Development poverty in developing countries
(IFAD) • India is a founding member.
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Food and Agriculture Rome, Italy • It leads international to defeat hunger.
Organisation (FAO) • Serves both developed and developing countries
• FAO acts as a neutral forum where all nations
meet as equals to negotiate agreements and
debate policy.
• Also a source of knowledge and information
Agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices
The World Food Rome, Italy • The world's largest humanitarian organization
Programme (WFP) addressing hunger and promoting food security.
United Nations Industrial Vienna, Austria •Mandate is promotion and acceleration of
Development Organization industrial development in developing countries
(UNIDO) • It also promotes international industrial
cooperation
United Nations Conference Geneva, • A permanent intergovernmental body.
on Trade hand Switzerland • It's goal is to maximize the trade, investment
Development UNCTAD and development opportunities of developing
countries

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 POLITICAL SCIENCE NET/JRF/UPSC BY PS YADUVANSHI JRF

Other UN Agencies Headquartes Function and Objective

International Maritime London, UK •It has responsibility for the safety and security of
Organisation (IMO) shipping
• It works for the prevention of marine pollution
by ships
The World Intellectual Geneva, • To encourage creative activity
Property Organisation Switzerland • To promote the protection of intellectual
(WIPO) property throughout the world.
UNESCO Why in news? Paris • building of peace,
USA has decided to • eradication of poverty,
withdraw from UNESCO, •Sustainable development
accusing the body of anti- • intercultural dialogue through education,
Israel bias sciences, culture, communication and information
Political Science by PS Yaduvanshi JRF Ph: 8559876786 Telegram: PSYJRF
UN Office for Disaster Risk Geneva, •NISDR was established in 1999 as a dedicated
Reduction (UNISDR) Switzerland secretariat to facilitate the implementation of the
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
(ISDR)
• It serve as the focal point in the United Nations
system for the coordination of disaster reduction"
UN Human Rights Council Geneva, •The council is 47-member body. So, not all UN
(UNHRC) Switzerland members are automatically member of UN HR
Council
• It makes decisions ranging from exposing
violations to recommending that the Security
Council make a referral to the International
Criminal Court. The council doesn't have the
authority to take action but can set up special
rapporteur with the mundane to investigate and
report human rights abuses.

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 EXAM GUIDE

2022 EDITION
UGC-NET
POLITICAL SCIENCE

 Fact Sheets covering entire

Political science syllabus

 Theme wise questions asked in

past year papers

 5 sets of Sample Papers with

Answers and additional
Information

By the Author of
POL SC HELP
 SPARE FEW MIN TO READ HOW BEST TO USE THIS GUIDE

DEAR STUDENTS…WELCOME BACK!

This guide is the outcome of more than 6 month’s endeavour. It is based on the theme wise
analysis of all past year papers of UGC-NET. Information in the guide are customized to
include all the themes/topics asked in past year papers.
What it contains?
 Arranged in FIVE parts:
 Part I: More than 50 theme wise fact sheets, in tabular form, containing key facts &
information covering the syllabus of Political Science as subject domain.
 Part II: Most unique part: Theme wise questions asked in past year papers
 Part III: 5 sets of sample question papers, of 100 each, with Answer Hints.
o Answer hints with additional information
o MCQs selected after analysing past year papers of UGC-Net
o Most relevant MCQs for UGC-NET.
 Part IV: Tips and tricks to prepare for and tackle MCQs.
 Part V: Unique Resource: PDF of all the PPT videos of theme wise past year paper
analysis
Please Note the highlighted and coloured facts:
 Underlined and Bold: Important
 Violet coloured texts: Asked earlier
 Bold Violet: Very Important
How to use the Guide for the best results?
 Read carefully all the key points given in tabular form at least 4-5 times
 Watch the related Pol Sc Help theme wise PYQ videos for more information about the
past year questions.
 Highlight the most important information, in your view, and revise them on daily
basis; at least 10-12 times before the exam.
 Make a mental map of information; for example: thinkers who gave Elite theory-
Mosca, Pareto, C wright Mill ; thinkers who gave modernisation theory- Lucian Pye,
Rostow, David Apter, Edward Shils, Organski, and so on.
 Try the MCQ sample paper in exam mode- in one go, within 2 hour, without seeing
Answer or visiting google
 Revise your own notes, the guide, and the PYQ (given in pdf form) as many times as
possible, may be 10-11 times!
 Most important be cool & confident, enjoy the process.
GOOD WISHES!

2
 INDEX
(WHERE IS WHAT?)
Section Content/Fact Sheets
1 Fact Sheets- Political Theory 4
Fact Sheets- Constitution 28
Fact Sheets- Indian Polity 50
Fact Sheets- Comparative Politics 78
Fact Sheets- Public Administration 88
Fact Sheets- International Relation 101
Fact Sheets- Western Political Thoughts 210
Fact Sheets- Indian Political Thoughts 249

Section 2 Fact Sheets PYQA : Theme Wise Analysis of 267

Past Year’s NET Papers

Section 3 Sample Papers: 5 Sets 321

Section 4 Answer Keys with Addl. Info 456

Section 5 Tips & Tricks to crack MCQs 506

Section 6 PDF of Pol Sc Help Theme Wise Past Year 510

Paper Analysis Video Lectures

3
 SECTION 1

THEME WISE
FACT SHEETS

4
FACT SHEETS PT:
POLITICAL
CONCEPTS &
THEORY

5
 FACT SHEET PT.1: DEFINITIONS OF POLITICAL CONCEPTS

Concept/Term Different definitions

Politics  Politics is the art of the possible- Otto Von Bismarck

 Politics is about who gets what, when and how- Harold Lasswell
 Politics as capacity of acting in concert- Hannah Arendt
 Politics as authoritative allocation of value - David Easton
 politics is an ethical activity concerned with creating a ‘just
society’ and ensuring ‘good Life’ of the community- Aristotle
 Politics is power-structured relationships, arrangements whereby
one group of persons is controlled by another- Kate Millet
 Politics is about ‘attending to the general arrangements of a set of
people whom chance or choice have brought together’- Oakeshott
 How Heywood gave different dimensions of Politics
 Politics as that which concerns the state
 Politics is conduct of public Life
 Politics is conflict resolution in public domain
 Politics as conflict (among differing interests) in public
domain

 Oft-repeated  Harold Lasswell’s politics as who gets

questions from this what, when and how?
theme  Who said politics is the study of influence
and influential? Harold Lasswell
 David Easton: Politics as authoritative
allocation of value

6
Power  Most popular definition of power: A has power over B to the
extent that A can get B to do something which B would not have
done otherwise- Robert Dahl
 Power as currency/money: Power is to politics as money is to
economy; Like money, power also circulates in society- Talcott
Parsons
 Power as creating action in group by communication to realize
the public realm - Hanah Arendt
 ‘Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely’-
Lord Acton
 Power as normalization and subjection through governable
identities- Foucault
 Power as Cultural Hegemony- Antonio Gramsci
 Power as structural arrangement in which perceptions of people
are shaped to perpetuate domination without any observable
conflict- Steven Lukes
 Extractive vs Developmental Power; Extractive power- Power
over, power to get other do something; Developmental Power-
ability to fulfils one’s own self-appointed goals- C.B.
MacPherson

 Oft-repeated questions from this theme in NET exams:

 Power as Currency- Talcott Parson
 the action frame of reference- Talcott Parson
 Radical view of power, 3rd dimension of power- Steven Lukes
 Knowledge-power relation- Foucault
 Lord Action’s quote : Power tends to corrupt; absolute power
corrupts absolutely
 “anything that establishes and maintains the control of man over
man”- Hans Morgenthau
 Who defined national interest in terms of power? Hans
Morgenthau
 “the power of man over the minds and actions of other men”-
Hans Morgenthau”
 Power is central to Realism in IR
 Offensive Neo-realism- maximisation of power

7
Justice  Justice as harmony of soul and each individual and class
performing its duty to best of their abilities and aptitudes- Plato
 Justice as 'fairness’ in distribution of income, wealth, rewards,
honours, political offices, punishments etc, based on the principle
of equity- proportional and arithmetic equality- Aristotle
 Justice as Fairness in distribution of resources, awards, honours,
and political offices- John Rawl
 Entitlement Theory of Justice: distribution of holdings in a society
is just if everyone in that society is entitled to what he has- Robert
Nozick
 Justice by practical reasoning; justice as fair procedure (Niti) vs
justice realized (Nyaya)- Amartya Sen
 Justice as perfect obligation- [Link]
 Justice as mutual advantage- David Gauthier

Oft-repeated questions from this theme in NET exams:

 Justice as 1st virtue of any social order- John Rawls
 Fairness- the essential virtue of Justice
 Rawl’s theory of justice: end-state theory, patterned
distribution, welfare state, based on the difference principle,
distributive justice, positive or modern liberalism, normative
theory, but based on rationalism and core thoughts of
liberalism, revived the social contract tradition
 The Idea of Justice as fairness in Rawlsian theory flows
from individual.
 Plato’s Justice: one man- one work; one class- one duty;
functional division of society
 Nozick’s theory of Justice: Entitlement theory of justice,
procedural theory, libertarian account of justice, included
‘rectificatory justice’
 Justice as mutual advantage- David Gauthier
 First Virtue of society- Justice- John Rawls
 First virtue of Justice- Fairness- John Rawls
 Justice is doing one’s own duty as per one’s station of life-
Plato

8
Rights  A person has a right to X when if and only if others have moral
obligation to provide or allow him/her X- Immanuel Kant
 Rights are entitlements to act or be treated in a particular way-
Andrew Heywood
 One man’s capacity of influencing the act of others, not by his own
strength but by the strength of the society – Holland
 A right is a claim recognized by society and enforced by the state-
Bosanquet
 Rights are those conditions of social life without which no man
can seek, in general, to be himself at his best- Harold Laski
 Every state is known by the rights it maintains- Laski
 Rights are what we may expect from others and others from us,
and all genuine rights are conditions of social welfare- Hobhouse
 Rights are ‘trump’ (of individuals against society/state)- Ronald
Dworkin
 rights are the conditions in which individuals are able to conceive
and realize ‘the good’ for themselves and others- [Link]
 A person has a right to X when his or her interest in X is
sufficiently important for others to have duty to provide or allow
him/her X- Interest based theory of Rights

Oft-repeated questions from this theme in NET exams:

 Who called natural rights as nonsense upon stilts?-
Bentham
 “Rights properly so-called are creations of law properly so
called”- Bentham
 Legal Rights- Bentham
 Natural Rights: Propounded by John Locke
 3 generations of Rights- 2nd Gen rights- socio-economic
rights- right to health, education, housing, etc
 1st Gen Rights- civil liberties, political rights; 3rd Gen-
Group and cultural rights
 Latest Right- Right to Development- Soft Law
 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) adopted
on 10 Dec, 1948, has 30 articles
 “Every state is known by the rights that it maintains”-
Laski

9
  Rights as Trump – Ronald Dworkin
 Strong rights: which cannot be taken away for common
welfare
 Weak Rights: The rights that can be curtailed to achieve
the common welfare
 Functional theory of Rights- Laski
 Herbert Spencer combined natural rights with
physiological metaphor in his organismic theory of state.
 Liberal Theory of Minority Rights: Will Kymlicka

Liberty/Freedom Freedom is obeying laws reflecting general will of the political

community- Rousseau
It is a positive power of doing or enjoying something worth doing
or enjoying – Moral Freedom ( [Link])
A free man, is he, that in those things, which by his strength and wit
he is able to, is not hindered to do what he has a will to- Hobbes
freedom is state in which man is not subject to coercion by
arbitrary will of others- Fredrich Hayek
Man is free to act without subject to arbitrary will of another within
allowance of moral law- John Locke

Oft-repeated questions from this theme in NET exams:

Isaiah Berlin:
 Differentiated negative and positive liberty
 Supported negative liberty
 Compared positive liberty to slippery slope towards
totalitarianism
 Positive liberty- concept of the divided self
Ancient vs Modern Liberty: Benjamin Constant
[Link]
 Wrote ‘Ón Liberty’
 ‘Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual
is sovereign’
 Supported negative liberty
 Harm Principle
 Self and other regarding actions; state only to intervene in
‘other regarding actions’

10
  Montesquieu’s theory of separation of powers emphasises
primarily on Liberty
 Negative Liberty: Night-watchman, Lissaze- faire, or minimalist
state
 Positive Liberty: Welfare state; interventionist state
 Rousseau, Green, Hegel- supported positive liberty

Definition and How Prominent thinkers viewed State:

Theories of State
 State is the highest form of political association aiming at the
highest of goods- Aristotle
 State is March of God on earth- Hegel
 State represents complete and highest Good- Plato
 Political association set up as a result of social contract to
preserve life and maintain peace & order- Hobbes
 Political association or commonwealth set up as a result of social
contract to protect and further natural rights- Locke
 State represented General will of the body politic set up as a result
of the Social Contract- Rousseau
 the state was an artificial means of producing a unity of interest
and a device for maintaining stability; it is a means for attaining
the greatest happiness of the greatest number-Jeremy Bentham
 state as 'the people' affairs, who are united by a common
agreement about law and rights and by the desire to participate in
mutual advantage'- Cicero
 state as an end in itself existing for its own preservation
 and for its own advantage- Machiavelli
 a 'lawful' government of several household s, and of their common
possessions, with sovereign powers- Jaen Bodin
 'a partnership in all science, a partnership in all arts, a
partnership in and in all perfection... a partnership not only
between those who are living, but those who are dead, and those
who are to be born’- Edmund Burke
 'a body of persons, recognized by each other as having rights, and
possessing certain institutions for the maintenance of those
rights’- [Link]
 ‘positive instrument which helps the individual achieve progress
and enjoy liberty’- [Link]

11
  State is the instrument to protect and further the interest of the
whole Bourgeoisie class- Karl Marx
 Human community that claims the monopoly of the legitimate use
of physical force/violence within a given territory- Max Weber

Theories of State Divine Origin theory of State: Divine Right theory of Kingship
 the state was established and governed by God, the King is
the representative of God. King has the divine right to rule
and he is accountable only to God, none other.
 Proponents: Manu, St. Thomas, James-1, Bousset, Robert
Filmer
Historical/Evolutionary Theory:
 State evolved naturally due to political nature of humans as
long and gradual socio-natural evolutionary process.
 Proponents: Garner, Gettel, [Link], Maclver
 Aristotle and Hegel also gave historical, natural, organic,
and integrative theory of state
Social Contract Theory of Origin of State
 State is the result of a social contract among individuals who
surrendered their individual rights and power into a
commonwealth to form a political community and came out
of the state of nature
 Proponents: Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau
Marxist Theory of State
 Instrumentalist view: State as the instrument to protect and
further the interest of the whole Bourgeoisie class
 Proponents: Karl Marx, Engels, Ralph Miliband
 Structuralist view: State is a social mechanism through
which capitalist social structure and relation of productions
are continuously re-produced.
 Proponents: Louis Althusser, Nicos Poulantzas
Pluralist Theory of State
 State is associations of associations
 State is one among many associations
 State like a neutral referee managing interests of many
associations/groups
 Proponents: Robert Dahl, R.M. MacIver, David Truman,
Harold Laski, Seymour Martin Lipset

12
Important  State represents the highest Good- Aristotle
perspective/phrases  State is necessary Evil- Classical Liberalism
about state
 State is unnecessary Evil- Anarchism
 State is one among many associations- Pluralism (R.M. MacIver)
 State is instrument of class domination- Marxism
 Everything in the State, nothing outside the State, nothing against
the State- Fascism (Benito Mussolini)
 State is March of God on earth- organicism (Hegel)
 State is individual writ large- Plato

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 FACT SHEET PT.2: DEMISE OF POLITICAL THEORY: DEBATES

Theme/topic Important facts/info

Meaning  With the advent of Behavioural revolution in political science,
during 1950s, more importance was given to facts, observations,
data, quantification, developing testable hypothesis/theory by
using ‘scientific methods’. Positivism and empiricism were the
hallmark of the Behavioural revolution.
 Under the influence of Behavioural revolution, many thinkers
declared death or demise of political philosophy and Normative
Political Theory. Till then Political Theory was mostly political
philosophy which was bent heavily towards normative-
philosophical approach.
Thinkers declaring  David Easton- ‘The Decline of Modern Political Theory(1953)’
death or demise of  Alfred Cobban – ‘The Decline of Political Theory( 1993)’
political Theory
 Dante Germino - Beyond Ideology: The Revival of Political
theory( 1967)’
 Daniel Bell- The End of Ideology: On the Exhaustion of Political
Ideas in the Fifties (1960)
 Peter Laslett: ‘ Political Theory is dead’
 Robert Dahl also declared death of political theory
 Reimer- ‘Political theory in doghouse’

Note: when declaring demise death of political theory, these

thinkers considered political theory as political philosophy.
4 factors for decline  The Decline of Modern Political Theory, in Journal of Politics (
of political theory- 1953)’- David Easton gave 4 factors for decline of political theory;
David Easton they were:
o 1. Historicism 2. Moral Relativism 3. Confusion
between Science and Theory 4. Hyper Factualism

Thinkers who • Isiah Berlin

supported revival of • Leo Strauss: brought values back to political science
political theory
• George H. Sabine
• Hannah Arendt
• Eric Vogelin- ‘the New Science of Politics’- ‘political
science and political theory is inseparable’

14
 • David Easton- ‘We cannot shed
our values in the way we remove our coats’
• John Rawls: Revived Normative political theory with his
‘Theory of Justice’
• Oakeshott
• Robert Nozick
• Herbert Marcuse

David Easton’s 8 (1) Regularities; (2) Verification; (3) Techniques; (4)

characteristics Quantification; (5) Values; (6) Systematisation; (7) Pure Science;
features of and (8) Integration
Behaviouralism
Easton’s 7 credo of 1. Substance 2. change 3. Brute reality 4. fact-value synthesis 5.
relevance of Post- protect human values 6. action orientation 7. Political scientists as
behaviouralism actors of social change

15
FACT SHEET PT.3: OTHER THEMES IN POLITICAL THEORY ASKED IN NET
EXAMS
Themes Addl. Info:
Post- behaviouralism Its features- both qualitative and quantitative; action’
and ‘relevance’; No to value neutrality, less Eurocentric
Post- Positivism Observations and data collection process is Not value-
neutral;

theories, hypotheses, background knowledge and

values of the researcher can influence what is being
observed;

Balance between quantitative and qualitative methods.

knowledge is conjectural(speculative) and hence reality

can be known only imperfectly

Post-Marxism Rejects economic determinism of classical Marxism

Support structuralist view of the capitalist state
Was first propounded by Ernesto Laclau and Chantal
Mouffe in 1970s
Influenced by poststructuralism and postmodernism
Neo-Marxism Reformulated classical Marxism by incorporating
elements from critical theory, psychoanalysis, or
existentialism
Dependency theories, progressive comparativists, etc.
are influenced by Neo-Marxism
Proponents: Eric Fromm, Herbert Marcuse, Jurgen
Habermas
Immanuel Wallerstein, A.G. Frank
Basic tenets and terms related to  Individualism
Liberalism  Natural Rights
 Negative Liberty
 State as necessary evil
 Minimalist state
 Private property
 Constitutional Government
 Tolerance

16
  Universalism

Basic tenets and terms related to  Free market Economy

neo-Liberalism or libertarianism  Low taxation
 No to distributive justice
 Nightwatchman state
 No to Welfare State
 Market over state
 Individual freedom is prime

Difference between classical and Unlike classical liberalism, modern liberalism supports
modern liberalism distributive justice and welfare state

17
 FACT SHEET PT.4 : MAJOR POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES

Ideologies Core Theme and Features Main Thinkers

Liberalism  Individual freedom (of  Classical vs  Classical:
choice) and autonomy, modern liberalism Locke, Hobbes,
Individualism  Classical- minimal Aadam Smith,
 Prefer ‘Rights’ over state ( state as Thomas Paine
‘Common Good’: Moral necessary evil),  Modern: John
primacy of claim of Inviolable Rawl,
individual against claims of property rights, [Link],
society/state universalism Laski, Dworkin,
 Inviolable natural rights of  Modern: Welfare Hobhouse,
Life, Liberty, Property state, distributive [Link],
G.D.H Cole,
 Melioristic: social institutions justice, [Link],
and political arrangements multiculturalism
Bentham
can be improved  Modern
Liberalism also  Libertarian-
 Tolerance Robert Nozick,
called Positive
 Universalism: universal liberalism. Fredrich Hayek,
nature of human, equal Milton Friedman
human worth, universal  Libertarianism-
human rights revival of classical
liberalism- neo-
liberalism : Free
market Economy,
Low taxation,
Nightwatchman
state, Market over
state,Individual
freedom is prime

Marxism  Analyse political  Multiple strands  Classical: Lenin,

phenomenon from class lens  Classical Marxism Mao Zedong,
 Historical Materialism: Rosa
 Neo-Marxism Luxemburg,
Changes in economic base
(mode of production) of  Neo-classical Alexandra
society brings about changes  Gramscianism Kollontai,
in its socio-political-cultural [Link]
(superstructure); civilization

18
 progresses through this  Neo- Marxist:
dialectical process Louis Althusser,
 Perpetual class struggle- Justin
exploited vs exploiter; Rosenberg,
change in mode of Immanuel
production changes the class Wallerstein,
characteristics Andre Gunder
Frank
 master/slave, lord/serf,
capitalist/labour  Neo-classical
Marxism-
 Capitalist system is
Gerald A.
exploitive, keep surplus
Cohen, Adam
labour as profit, alienate
Przeworski, John
workers, and faces regular
E. Roemer and
crisis
Erik Olin Wright
 Vision of state less, class
 Gramscianism (
less, property less communist
Post- Marxism):
society
Ernesto Laclau ,
 ‘From each according to his Robert W. Cox ,
ability, to each according to Chantal Mouffe
his needs’- in final stage of
 Critical
Communism
Theory-
Frankfurt school
thinkers- though
they are against
both Marxism
and Liberalism
but Neo-
Marxism may be
included under
the umbrella of
critical theory
Conservatism  Preserving ideas, institutions  Branch of classical  David Hume
and socio-cultural traditions. liberalism  Edmund Burke
 Belief in Hierarchy, order,  In economy-  Hobbes
and authority, social conservatives are
traditions, customs, norms quite liberal  Locke

 Organicism: Society as  But conservative  Michael

organic entity- has evolved in socio-cultural Oakeshott
over centuries of social domain  Joseph de
customs/practices/traditions  More popular and Maistre
 State required for social order electorally  Metternich

19
  Only gradual and calibrated successful than  Benjamin
change in social liberal parties Disraeli
practices/traditions  Called right wing  Karl Popper-
 Pragmatism- Truth lies in ideology piecemeal social
concrete experience than engineering
moral preposition  Contemporary
 …prefer the familiar to the times- Quintin
unknown, to prefer the tried Hogg, Margret
to the untried, fact to Thatcher,
mystery, the actual to the Angela Merkel,
possible, the limited to the Marine Le Pen,
unbounded, the near to the Ronald Reagon
distant…( about
conservativism by Oakeshott)
Post-  No objective truth, against  Post-structuralism  Richard Asley
modernism the Binary ( good vs bad)  De-constructivism  Jenny Adkins
 Knowledge is not simply a  Critical theory  Foucault (Post-
cognitive factor, it is also structuralism)
normative and political  Subjectivity
 Truth is  Derrida (De-
 Power & knowledge linked constructivism)
and support/constitute each subjective,
other depends on the  Lyotard- against
perspective of the meta-narratives
 Reality socially constructed subject(observer)  Baudrillard
 Rejects meta narratives  Timeline-
(grand narratives or  Richard Rorty
beginning 1970s
narratives of narratives)  Slavoj Žižek
 Critical of classical  Gilles Deleuze
liberalism, and positivism,  Nietzsche
superiority of science, (Nihilism)
modernity discourse
Anarchism  Against any form of formal,  Utopic ideologies  William
external, and hierarchical  Stateless, authority Godwin-
authority in managing socio- less blissful social Philosophical
political arrangements life Anarchism
 Organisation of society on a  Gandhiji-  Peter Kropotkin-
voluntary cooperative basis enlightened communal
without force/coercion Anarchism anarchism
 Belief in virtuous(good)  Pierre-Joseph
human nature, which can Proudhon -
manage both individual & Mutualism

20
 social life without any  Mikhail
external formal authority Bakunin
 State is unnecessary evil revolutionary
Anarchist
 Accept authority of experts
and moral authority of  Leo Tolstoy-
collective decision Pacificist
Anarchist
 Mutualism : socialist,
federated, and non-  Gandhiji-
hierarchical authority-less enlightened
society holding property for Anarchism
common use and earnings;
individuals enjoy rights and
oblige to allow others the
same- reciprocity

Feminism Given in separate fact sheet.

21
 FACT SHEET PT.5 : APPROACHES TO POLITICAL THEORY

Approaches Important facts/meaning Main thinkers/activists- their

contributions

Normative  Also called philosophical approach  Plato- Ideal State

Approach  Raises normative question- ‘Why  Saint Augustine- ‘City of
should I obey the state?’, ‘How should God’
rewards be distributed?’ and ‘What  Thomas Aquinas: 5 proofs of
should the limits of individual freedom God
be’? ‘How good life of community be
ensured?’  John Rawls- Normative
theory of Justice but based on
 Focus: moral, ethical, just political rationalism
arrangements
 Robert Nozick- Entitlement
 What ‘should be’ rather than what ‘is’ theory of Justice
 Value loaded, prescriptive, political  Leo Strauss: brought value
philosophy back in Political theory
 Rationalism: sources of knowledge  Hanah Arendt- power as co-
transcendental (other worldly), based creation
on logic and abstract reasoning
 Macheal Sandel-
 Deductive or top down approach of Communitarian
investigation/theorising
 [Link]- moral freedom
 Vision of an ideal society and political
arrangements  Charles Taylor-
Communitarian

Empirical  Analyse and describe political  Aristotle- 1st empirical

Approach phenomenon ‘as it is’, factual analysis of Constitutions
 Uses methods of scientific observation,  David Hume: philosophy as
quantitative analysis, testing hypothesis the inductive, experimental
 2 pillars: Behaviouralism and Logical science of human nature
Positivism  Francis Bacon: father of
 Objective, factual, value-free, scientific empiricism

 Attempt to build scientific political  Auguste Comte- father of

theory (science of politics) Positivism and inventor of the
term sociology
 Empiricism: Sensory experiences the
only source of knowledge  John Locke: Tabula Rasa-
human brain at birth like
 Inductive or bottom up approach of white slate
investigation/theorising

22
  David Easton- father of
empirical approach- gave
system theory
 Karl Popper- scientific theory
are falsifiable
 Robert Dahl- Pluralist thinker
 Seymour Lipset- Pluralist
thinker
 Gabrieal Almond- structural-
functional approach
 Jean Blondel
 Peter Laslett
 Herbert Simon- logical
positivism

Historical  Genealogy: Uses history as genetic  Karl Marx- Historical

Approach: process of evolution of political Materialism
phenomena.  Hegel: historical evolution of
 History used as vast repository of test idea
cases to be used to theorizing for  Machiavelli- used this
present and future. approach in ‘the Prince’
 Studying past to understand the causes  Skocpol- ‘States and Social
of political phenomenon in present. Revolutions: a Comparative
 More weightage to individual human Analysis of France, Russia
agency than societal structure and and China’
institutions  Ram Manohar Lohia –
 Adopts normative philosophical ‘Wheels of History’
approach  Vivekanand- ‘Cycle of Caste
rule’
 Oakeshott- ‘What Is History?’

Critical  Critical of the mainstream thinking and  All post-modernist thinkers-

Approach theories Foucault, Derrida, Lyotard,
 Want to overturn existing socio- Baudrillard, Nietzsche
political arrangements/structures.  Note: many critical thinkers
 Aim for societal transformation, human are also are critique of both
emancipation, decreasing domination modernity and post-modernity
and increasing freedom

23
 Emerged in connection with the many  All thinkers of Frankfurt
social movements- feminist, School (Neo-Marxism): Ernst
environmentalist, anti-domination, Bloch, Walter Benjamin, Max
Subaltern, etc. Horkheimer, Erich Fromm,
 Include radical feminism, green Herbert Marcuse, Habermas
politics, eco-feminism, constructivism,  All radical feminists- Kate
post-structuralism, deconstructivism Millet, Rebecca Walker, Eve
and postcolonialism, etc. Ensler, Shulamith Firestone,
 Adopt post-positivist approaches, Sandra L Whitworth etc.
discourse analysis, and deconstruction  Post-colonial thinkers- Samir
 Align itself with sub-altern, Amin, Edward said, Andre
marginalized and oppressed groups Gunder Frank, Franz Fanon,
Chandra Mohanty
 Reveal inequalities, injustice, and
asymmetries that mainstream  Subaltern thinkers: Ranajit
approaches intend to ignore Guha, David Arnold, Dipesh
[Link]
Chatterjee, Sudipta Kaviraj,
Gayatri Spivak
 Ecofeminism: Vandana Shiva,
Maria Mies, Ariel Salleh,
Mary Mellor, Ana Isla

24
 FACT SHEET PT. 6: FEMINISM- IN MULTIPLE WAVES

Feminist Important facts Main thinkers/activists- their contributions

wave

1st wave  Also called Liberal  Marry Wollstonecraft: ‘Vindication of the

Feminism rights of women- 1792’
 Timeline: 19th & early 20th  Fanny (Frances) Wright
century  J.S. Mills: ‘Subjugation of women-1869’
 It demanded Equal rights for  Harriet Taylor
women in public
sphere/political  Raja Ram Mohan Roy

 Focus- education, job, equal  Pandita Ramabai- ‘the high caste Hindu
pay, voting rights, property women’- 1887
rights, legal rights, equality
in marriage, family, society

2nd Wave  Also called radical feminism  Simone de Beauvoir: ‘the second sex’ –
 Timeline: 1960s-70s women are not born but made-1949

 Questioned socially  Shulamith Firestone: ‘The Dialectic of sex-

constructed gender notions 1970’
of masculinity and  Kate Millet: ‘Sexual politics-1971’
femininity, patriarchy, and  Germaine Greer- ‘The Female Eunuch’-
reproductive role 1972
 Reshape society and
restructure its institutions
 Slogan- ‘Personal is
political’; ‘women are
made, not born’
 Universal sisterhood,
included black/coloured
women

3rd  May be called post-modern  Rebecca Walker- ‘Becoming the Third

Wave feminism, eco-feminism, Wave’
transfeminism, etc.  Eve Ensler- ‘Vagina Monologues’
 Timeline: 1990s-2010  Amy Richards- ‘Opting In’
 Demanded freedom to  Naomi Wolf- ‘The Beauty Myth’.
control their bodies and their
lives  Susan Faludi- ‘Backlash’

25
  Intersectionality- women  Germaine Greer-‘The Whole Woman’
experience "layers of  Carol Ann Duffy- ‘The World's Wife’
oppression" – caste, class,
colour, gender, race
 Fighting classism, racism,
sexism by overturning the
notions of gender, race,
class, and structure &
symbols supporting them.
 Raised issues of violence
against women, women's
reproductive rights, sexual
liberation, derogatory terms
for women, transgender
rights, etc.

4th Wave  Timeline- since 2012  Rebecca Solnit- ‘Men Explain Things to Me
 Focus: focus on (2014)’
empowerment of women,  Jessica Valenti- ‘Sex Object: A Memoir
against sexual harassment, (2016)’
body shaming, and rape  Laura Bates- ‘Everyday Sexism (2016)’
culture, etc.
 Use of social media
 Me Too movement

Marxist Class and private property,  Friedrich Engles: ‘the origin of family,
or and not gender private property, and state-1884’
Socialist discrimination, are the main  Alexandra Kollontai- ‘Sexual relation and
Feminism issues the class struggle’
Consider mainstream
 Sheila Rawbatham: ‘Women, resistance,
feminism as capitalist or
revolution and hidden form of history-1943’
Bourgeoise feminism- limited
to white women  Martha Nussbaum-‘Sex and Social Justice’

Eco- Examine socio-political  Susan Griffin-‘Woman and Nature’

Feminism arrangements from the  Maria Mies-‘Ecofeminism’ ( with Vandana
perspective of connections Shiva
between women and nature
 Mary Mellor: ‘Feminism & ecology’
Gendering Nature
 Sallie McFague
Eco-Feminism was coined by
French feminist Françoise  Vandana Shiva
d’Eaubonne in 1974  Greta Gaard

26
 Feminist perspective of Green  Judi Bari- Earth First!
politics that calls for an
egalitarian, non-patriarchal,
non-exploitative,
collaborative social order.

Feminism  Critical feminist Theory – Sandra Whiteworth

in UGC  Social Constructist feminist– Elisabeth Prugl
NET Past
year  Post Structuralist feminist – Charlotte Hooper
Papers  Post Colonialist feminist – Chandra Mohanty
 Susan Miller Okin- Feminist conception of Justice
 J. Ann Tickner- Re-formulation of 6 Principles of Morgenthau
 Feminists argue that women’s values are based primarily on prescribed
social role
 Vandana Shiva- Ecofeminist
 Juliet Mitchell: Socialist feminist

27
 FACT SHEETS- CONST :
CONSTITUTION AND
POLITICAL PROCESSES IN
INDIA

28
 FACT SHEET CONST 1: CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Aspect Facts

Content 25 Parts, 448 Articles, 12 Schedules, 5 Appendices, and 105 Amendments.

Parts & Part Subject matter Articles

Articles-
I The Union and 1 to 4
subjects
its territory
II Citizenship 5 to 11

III Fundamental 12 to 35
Rights(FR)
IV DPSP 36 to 51

IV A Fundamental 51 A (inserted 42nd Amendments- 1976)

duties

V Union or 52-151
Central
Government
President 52-72

Council of 74-75
Minister and
PM
The Union 124- 147
Judiciary
Comptroller 148-151
and Auditor-
General of
India(CAG)
Union 79-122
Parliament
VI State 152-237
Government

Governor 153-162
Council of 163-164
Minister and
CM

29
 The State 168-212
Legislature

High Courts 214-232

VII No Part VII,
yes; it was
related to
States in the B
part of the First
schedule, was
repealed by 7th
Amendment
VIII The Union 239-242
Territories
IX Panchayati Raj 243 to 243-O
System(PRI)

IX A The 243-P to 243-ZG

Municipalities
IX B Cooperative
Societie

X The Scheduled 244 to 244-A

and Tribal
Areas
XI Relations 245 to 263
between the
Union and the
States

XIV Services Under 308 – 323

the Union and
the States
XV Election- 324 to 329-A
Election
Commission

XVII Official 343 to 351

Language
(Hindi)
XVIII Emergency 352 to 360
Provisions

30
 National 352
Emergency

State 356
Emergency
Financial 360
Emergency
XX Amendment of 368
the
Constitution

Schedules First Schedule States and UTs

Second Salaries of Presidents and other high offices of Union of

Schedule India

Third Schedule Forms of Oaths or Affirmations for union/state ministers,

Legislature (MP/MLA), candidate for election, Judges of
SC/HC, CAG etc.
Note: Forms of Oaths or Affirmations for President, Vice
president, Governor are in specific articles- 60, 69, 159
respectively.
Fourth Schedule Allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha to the states and UTs.

Fifth Schedule Administration of scheduled areas and scheduled tribes- 10

states

Sixth Schedule Administration of tribal areas in the states of Assam,

Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram.
Seventh Division of powers between the Union and the States
Schedule List I (Union List), List II (State List) and List III
(Concurrent List).
Presently, the Union List contains 100 subjects (originally
97), the state list contains 61 subjects (originally 66) and the
concurrent list contains 52 subjects (originally 47).
Eighth Schedule Languages recognized by the Constitution
Originally, 14 languages but presently there are 22
recognized languages

Ninth Schedule Acts and Regulations (originally 13 but presently 282)

related to Land reforms and other matters which cannot be
challenged in court
Inserted by 1st Amendment, 1951

31
 For implementation of Land Reforms after abolition of
Zamindari System
Now, it has also come under Judicial Review

Tenth Schedule Anti-Defection Laws- disqualification of the MPs/MLAs

on the ground of defection
added by the 52nd Amendment Act of 1985
Eleventh Panchayati Raj System
Schedule added by the 73rd Amendment Act of 1992
29 subjects for Panchayats

Twelfth Municipalities
Schedule added by the 74th Amendment Act of 1992
18 subjects for Municipilaties

Amendments Important Main changes/facts/related to

Amendments
1st- 1951 Reasonable restrictions on freedom of speech
(Public order, Friendly relations with foreign states,
Incitement to an offence)
Ninth Schedule added- Land Reforms Acts
Inserted Article 31A: acquisition of Pvt. property by
Govt
17th Amendment- Amended 31 A and 9th schedule
1964 Golaknath case was against these amendments
24th Amendment- Parliament got right to amend any part of Constitution
1971 including Fundamental Rights (article 368)
To counter SC ruling in the Golaknath case-1967
25th Amendment- Inserted 31 C: exempted any law giving effect to the
1971 article 39(b) and 39(c) of DPSP from judicial review,
even if it violated the Fundamental Rights
Both 24th & 25th SC struck down a part of the amendment in
amendment was ‘Kesavananda Bharati’-1973- case.
attempt by Indira
Gandhi Govt to make
India a socialist state.
They, however,
culminated into ‘Basic
Structure’ Doctrine

32
26th Amendment- Abolition of privy purse paid to former rulers of
1971 princely states

31st Amendment-1973 Increase size of Parliament from 525 to 545 seats

35th and 36th Sikkim incorporated into India and became a State
Amendment-1975
39th Amendment- Placed restrictions on judicial scrutiny of post of
1975 Prime Minister.
In 1976, SC struck it on violation of basic structure.
42nd Amendment- Passed during Emergency
1976 Called mini-Constitution- so many changes
Curtailment of fundamental rights
SC, in Minerva Mills Inserted 51 A: fundamental duties Inserted "Socialist,
case, quashed the Secular, Integrity" in Preamble.
amendments to
Most of changes were reverted by 44th amendment-
Articles 31C and 368
1978
on basic structure
doctrine.
44th Amendment- After emergency by the Janata Govt
1978 Reverted most of changes of 42nd amendments
Tighter conditions for emergency, protection of
Fundamental Rights and human rights
52nd Amendment- Anti-defection laws- disqualification on ground of
1985 change of party (defection)
Added 10th Schedule
56th Amendment- Formation of Goa State
1987

61st Amendment-1989 Reduced voting age to 18 years

69th Amendment- legislative assembly and council of ministers for

1991 National Capital Territory of Delhi.
Inserted articles 239AA- Governance of NCT of
Delhi
73rd Amendment- Panchayati Raj System
1992 Inserted 243 to 243-O
74th Amendment- Constitutional status to Municipalities
1992 Inserted 243-P to 243-ZG

33
 86th Amendment- Right to Education- 6-14 year children
2002 Inserted article 21-A
91st Amendment-2004 Restrict the size of council of ministers to 15% of
legislative members

93rd Amendment- provision of reservation (27%) for Other Backward

2006 Class (OBCs) in govt and educational institutions
99th Amendment- National Judicial Appointments Commission
2015 (NJAC)for Judge’s appointments
Was struck down by SC on violation of basic structure
of Constitution.
101st Amendment- GST (Goods and Services Tax) introduced
2017

103rd Amendment- 10% reservation to Economically Weaker Sections

2019 (EWSs)
104th Amendment- Abolished nomination of 2 Lok Sabha seats to Anglo-
2020 Indians
Extended reservation for 10 years

105th Amendment- Latest Amendment

2021 Restores the power of the State Governments and
Union Territories to identify and specify Socially and
Economically Backward Classes (SEBCs)
Note:
1. G. Rohini Committee is related to this matter (issue
of sub-categorisation of OBCs)
[Link] using this power, many states, such as Bihar, are
intending to do caste survey to know numbers of
different caste

The Aspect Fact/features

Constituent
Constituted under The Cabinet Mission Plan 1946
Assembly
How its members by indirect election by the members of the Provincial
were elected? Legislative Assemblies under the Government of
India Act, 1935
How many members? 389 (292- British Provinces; 93 - princely states; 4
from the chief commissioner provinces)

34
After partition, how 299
many members?

When first meeting? 9 December 1946

Last Meeting? 24 January, 1950; the signing day

Adopted on 26 November 1949

Implemented on 26 January 1950

How many to total 11 sessions; two years, eleven months and seventeen
sittings and time? days

Important  Drafting Committee – B. R. Ambedkar.

Committee  Union Power Committee – Jawaharlal Nehru.
 Union Constitution Committee – Jawaharlal Nehru.
 Provincial Constitution Committee – Vallabhbhai
Patel.
 Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights,
Minorities and Tribal and Excluded Areas –
Vallabhbhai Patel.
 Steering Committee: Rajendra Prasad
 Order of Business Committee - K M Munshi
 The Oligarchy (by Granvile Austin): Nehru, Azad,
Rajendra Prasad, Patel
President Provisional: Dr. Sachchidanand Sinha
Permanent: Dr. Rajendra Prasad

Objective Resolution Was presented by Nehru on 13 December 1946; was

adopted on 22 January 1947

Famous quotes  Article 356 is like ‘safety valve’ and would reamin a
dead letter- Ambedkar
 Article 32 is the heart and soul of the Constitution –
Ambedkar
 “If things go wrong in the new Constitution, the
reason will not be that we had a bad Constitution,
what we will have to say that Man was vile”-
Ambedkar
 “Constitutional morality must be held higher than
public morality”- Ambedkar
 Indian constitution as a ‘seamless web’- Granville
Austin
 Indian Constitution as a social Document- Granville
Austin

35
  ‘India’s Constitution was born more in fear and
trepidation than in hope and inspiration’- Paul Brass
 “ But in the long run, it would be in interest of all to
forget that there is anything like majority or minority
in this country and that in India there is only one
community…”- Patel
 Directive Principles of State Policy are like “pious
aspirations”- Ivor Jennings

Constitution Special Majority Majority of 2/3rd members present and voting

al GK and supported by more than 50% of the total strength of
Trivia the house.
This type of majority is used for most of the
Constitutional amendment and impeachment of
Judges.

Very special majority Two thirds of the total membership of the House
required for impeachment of President
Note: Very special majority is only required for this
purpose

Grounds of President: violation of the Constitution

Impeachment Judges: ground of proved misbehaviour or incapacity.

President hands over Vice President and vice-versa

resignation to?
Speaker hands over Dy. Speaker and vice-versa
resignation to?
SC/HC Judges hands President
over resignation to?

FR vs DPSP; which is In general FR but DPSP 39(b) and 39(c) is superior to

superior? FR 14, and 19.
Which case gave Keshavnanda Bharti case- 1973
‘Basic Structure’ Parliament cannot change the Basic Structure or basic
doctrine? feature of the constitution.
In Which case first Sajjan Singh v. State of Rajasthan -1964
mention of ‘Basic
Structure’?
Which case decided Berubari case (1960)
‘preamble Not part of
Constitution’?

36
 But SC, in Keshavnanda Bharti case- 1973,
overturned earlier decision and stated that preamble is
part of Constitution.
In the 1995 case of Union Government Vs LIC of
India also, the Supreme Court has once again held that
Preamble is the integral part of the Constitution but is
not directly enforceable in a court of justice in India
Which article is used Article 13(2) – “The State shall not make any law
by the courts for which takes away Fundamental Rights and any law
Judicial Review? made in contravention of this clause shall, to the
extent of the contravention, be void”

Which article became Article 31(c) inserted by 25th Amendments-1971- this

battle between FR gave primacy to DPSP over FR
and DPSP? This article led to long battle between SC and
Government.
Which article saw Article 21- Right to Life ( Right to education, Right
most Judicial to privacy, right to shelter, right to pollution free
Activism environment, etc. all were declared FR under article
21)

Lok Sabha Vs Rajya Both have equal powers Except in:

Sabha 1. Money Bill- can only be introduced in LS, RS
very limited power of amendments
2. No confidence motion can only be presented
in LS

Special powers of 2 powers- not available to LS

Rajya Sabha 1. It can allow legislation by parliament on State
list subjects
2. It can pass resolution to create All India
Service

Who declares/certify The Speaker of Lok Sabha

a bill as Money Bill?
Who is the The Vice President
chairperson of Rajya
Sabha?

Important DPSP Distributive Justice, social control of production:

article 39(b), 39(c)
Organisation of village panchayats- article 40
Right to work- article 41

37
 Provision for just and humane conditions of work and
maternity relief- article 42
Living wages for workers, Worker’s participation in
management: article 43
Participation of workers in management of industries-
article 43A
Promotion of co-operative societies- article 43B
Uniform civil code: article 44
Organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry-48
Environmental protection: article 48A
Protection of monuments and places and objects of
national importance- article 49
Separation of judiciary from executive- article 50
Promotion of international peace and security: article
51

6 FR Right to equality: article 14 to 18

Right to Freedom: article 19 to 22
Right against exploitation: article 23 to 24
Right to freedom of Religion: article 25 to 28
Cultural & Educational Rights: article 29 to 30
Rights to constitutional remedies: article 32

Article 32 vs 226 32: writ petition in SC against violation of FR

226: writ petition in HC against violation of FR as well
as any other constitutional/legal rights
Hence, scope of 226 is wider than 32

Constitutional GOI Act 1909: Morley-Minto reform- separate

reforms before 1947 electorate for Muslims
Government of India Act 1919-
called Montague-Chelmsford reform- Dyarchy in
provinces ; Sikhs got special electorates
GOI Act 1935: Mini Indian Constitution- Provincial
Autonomy ; created the Federal Court
Cabinet Mission Plan 1946- Constituent assembly

Which article protect Article 31B

9th Schedule from
Judicial Scrutiny?

38
 Emergency Many of the emergency provisions taken from the
Weimer Constitution, Germany
National Emergency-352- 3 times- 1962, 1971, 1975
 Can be extended by 6 months at a time by
Parliament
 Maximum duration- unlimited
Financial Emergency-360- never invoked
 Maximum duration- unlimited
State Emergency-356- more than 100 times!
• Maximum duration- 3 years

Which landmark case SR Bommai case (1994)- after that invoking 356 came
restricted use of under strict judicial scrutiny
article 356?
What name India and Bharat ( Article 1)
constitution give to
India?

When preamble was 1976-42nd amendments- ‘Secular, Socialist, Integrity’

amended? were added.
When Fundamental In 2002, through 86th amendments, 11th duty was
duty was expanded? added.
FR available to both Right to equality before law (14), right to life (20, 21),
citizens and right to freedom of religion (25,26,27,28)
foreigners
On which grounds On grounds of sovereignty and integrity of India, the
right to freedom is security of the State, friendly relations with foreign
restricted? States, public order, decency or morality or in relation
to contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an
offence

Which FR are group Article 29, 30: Rights to Minorities to protect their
rights? language, Script, culture and establish and administer
educational institutions.

Very Article 1 India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of State

Important
14 Right to equality
Articles
19 Right to Freedom
21 Right to Life & Personal Liberty

39
22 Protection against arrest and preventive detention in
certain cases
Called ‘the necessary evil’
25 Right to freedom of religion

31 B shields legislation from being declared

unconstitutional and void by putting them into ninth
schedule
32 Right to constitutional remedy, filing writ petition in
SC if FR are violated

51A Fundamental Duties

74 President to act in accordance with of advice Council

of Ministers with the Prime Minister at the head.
78 PM: role, function, duties

76 Attorney General (AG) of India

109, 110 Money Bills

110-Definition of “Money Bills”.
109-Special procedure in respect of Money Bills

112 Budget-Annual financial statement

124 Establishment and constitution of Supreme Court-

judges appointment, removal
143 Power of the President to consult and take advise
from the Supreme court

148 Comptroller and Auditor-General ( CAG)

153 Governor (in each State)

243- PRI 243 A-Gram Sabha

243K. Elections to the Panchayats.
Note : Panchayats- 234A to 243 O
Municipilaties-243P to 243 ZG

226 Writ petition in HC for violation of FR and legal rights

280 Finance Commission

312 All India Services

315 Public Service Commission (UPSC)

40
 324 Election Commission of India

352 National Emergency

356 State Emergency

360 Financial Emergency

359 Suspension of Fundamental Rights, except 20 & 21,

during emergencies

257, 365 257: centre can give directions to State

365: failure to comply with the direction mean
constitutional breakdown, article 356 may be invoked
368 Amendment: Power of Parliament to amend the
Constitution
370, 371, 371 (A-J) Special provisions for many states
Article 370: J&K ; now repealed
Article 371 – Maharashtra and Gujarat
371 A: Nagaland; 371 B : Assam ; 371 C: Manipur;
371D & E – Andhra Pradesh; 371 F-Sikkim; 371G –
Mizoram; 371H – Arunachal Pradesh; 371 I – Goa ;
371J- districts of Hyderabad-Karnataka region

Odd Articles which were asked- better to remember them

Odd Articles 50 Separation of judiciary from executive

which were
60 Oath or affirmation by the President
asked
61 Impeachment of the President

69 Oath or affirmation by the Vice-President

72 Power of President to grant pardons, etc., and to

suspend, remit or commute sentences
Note Art.161: Pardoning power of Governor

86 Right of President to address and send messages to

Houses.
102 Disqualifications for membership of the
Parliament/house
Note: Article 103: President is the final authority to
decide on this matter
108 Joint sitting of both Houses in certain cases

41
 Note: No joint sitting for amendment Bills

122 Bar the courts to inquire into proceedings of

Parliament
123 Ordinance: Power of President to promulgate
Ordinances during recess of Parliament.
Note: Art. 213: Ordinance by Governor
141 Law declared by Supreme Court to be binding on all
courts.

142 provides discretionary power to the Supreme Court as

it states that the Supreme Court in the exercise of its
jurisdiction may pass such decree or make such order
as is necessary for doing complete justice in any cause
or matter pending before it.
Recently, the SCI used this power to release A G
Perarivalan, who had served over 30 years of life term
in the Rajiv Gandhi killing case.
144 Civil and judicial authorities to act in aid of the
Supreme Court

159 Oath or affirmation by the Governor

165 Advocate-General for the State.

201 Bills passed by State Legislature is reserved by a

Governor for the consideration of the President,

214 High Courts in states

231 Establishment of a common High Court for two or
more States
233 Appointment of district judges

239 Administration of Union territories

Note Art. 239AA: Special provisions with respect to
Delhi

243 ZH to 243 ZT Co-Operative Societies

244 Administration of Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas.

249 Power of Parliament to legislate with respect to a

matter in the State List in the national interest

42
 250 Power of Parliament to legislate with respect to any
matter in the State List if a Proclamation of
Emergency is in operation

253 Legislation for giving effect to international

agreements
263 Inter-State Council.

300A Right to Property: Persons not to be deprived of

property save by authority of law.

312 All-India services

323A Administrative tribunals.

329 Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters.

330 Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and

Scheduled Tribes in the House of the People.
331 Representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the
House of the People.
Now repealed by 104th amendment
338 National Commission for Scheduled Castes

338A National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.

338B National Commission for Backward Classes

340 Appointment of a Commission to investigate the
conditions of backward classes.
343 Official language of the Union.

What are Not well defined; includes:

‘Basic  The supremacy of the constitution.
Structure
/feature’  A republican and democratic system.
 The secular character of the Constitution.
 Separation of powers among 3 organs of the state
 Independence of Judiciary
 The federal character of the Constitution.

Constitution  Article 21- Judicial Activism

in UGC NET  Sequence of 6 freedom under article 19: speech and expression, assemble
PYQs peaceably, form associations, move freely, reside and settle any part of India,
practise any profession

43
 Article 123: Ordinance by President
 President’s power: Disqualify MP on the recommendation of EC- art. 102,
103
 Articles related to PRI- 243 A to 243 O
 Removal of EC- on the recommendation of CEC; CEC- like Judges
 Words in Preamble
 Landmark cases related to status of preamble: Berubari (preamble Not part
of Constitution) and Keshavananda (preamble is part of Constitution)
 5 Writs- matching, conditions for issuing Writ of certiorari
 Veto powers of Indian President, Pocket Veto
 Article 231. Establishment of a common High Court for two or more States.
 Article 233. Appointment of district judges.
 Members of Cabinet Mission
 Original Jurisdiction of SC- art 32 and centre-state and federal disputes;
 Governors, The Comptroller and Auditor General of India, the Judges of the
Supreme Court and the Attorney General of India and the Central Vigilance
Commissioner of India are appointed by the President by a warrant under his
hand and seal,
 Government of India Act 1919- features
 5 subjects transferred from state to Concurrent list by 42nd Amendment-1976
o Education
o Forests,
o Weights & Measures,
o Protection of Wild Animals and Birds, A
o administration of Justice
 Article 1: India as union of State
 Article 144. Civil and judicial authorities to act in aid of the Supreme Court
 Regarding FR and DPSP- multiple times, facts/features, relation, articles
 Article 368: Amendment power of Constitution – facts
 Article 70: empower the Parliament to make provisions for a contingency
when the offices of both the President and the Vice-President fall vacant
 Granville Austin Books : The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of A Nation
(1966) and Working in a Democratic Constitution: A History of the Indian
Experience
 Election Commission of India(ECI)- Bulwark of free and fair election-
Rudolph & Rudolph

44
 Grounds of imposing president’s rule in states under article 356
 Chronology and features of pre-independence constitutional reforms
 Constitutional vs statutory vs other bodies/commissions
 Basic structure doctrine- Keshavananda Bharti case
 Article 312: All India Services- exclusive power of Rajya Sabha
 All India serives mentioned in Constitution- IAS, IPS, Indian Judicial
Service (IJS)
 91st amendments- limits the number of Ministers – 15% of total no. of
legislature
 61st amendments- lowering of voting age
 Public Accounts Committee (PAC)- 22 members (15- LS, RS-07)
 Estimate Committee- largest committee- 30 members only from LS
 Inter-state council- article 263- who appoints- President; set up in 1990; PM
is the chairperson
 Main functions/role of Inter-state council- center-state relation
 Zonal Councils, set up as per state reorganisation Act, Union Home Minister
is the chairperson
 Oligarchy in the constituent Assembly- Nehru, Patel, Prasad, Azad (Granvile
Austin)
 ‘India’s Constitution was born more in fear and trepidation than in hope
and inspiration’- Paul Brass
 Article 31 B- protect Acts in 9th Schedule from Judicial review
 86th amendments-2002- RTE- 11th duty (duty of parents towards education
of children)
 State Election Commission- conducting elections of Panchayats
 3 times National Emergency ( Art. 352)- 1962, 1971, 1975
 Most important characteristic of a Parliamentary Government- Collective
responsibility of the Executive to the Legislature
 The Constituent Assembly was setup under the Cabinet Mission Plan-1946
 1989- Lok Sabha rules amended to provide for Department Related
Parliamentary Standing Committees
 Government of India Act, 1935 created the Federal Court in India
 Indian federalism as “bargaining federalism”- Morris Jones
 About Rajya Sabha- condition and tenure of members, powers, roles
 ‘We are under the Constitution but the Constitution is what the judges say it
is’- India and USA

45
 Art. 51A (Fundamental Duties) and Art. 300A (right to property) were added
later on ; 51 A- 42nd and 300A 44th Amendments
 Any fifty Members of the Electoral College may propose name of a
candidate for the Office of President of India
 Who among the following former Presidents of India kept pending the
‘Indian Post Office Amendment Bill’?- Gyani Zail Singh, who used his
Pocket Veto
 Art. 356 as a “safety valve” and a dead letter- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
 Correct sequence regarding the passage of the Budget- General Discussion,
Voting on Grants, Appropriation Bill, Finance Bill
 Regarding Money Bill (article 110)- originate only in LS, Speaker certifies
 Art. 170 and 171: Numbers of MLA and MLC
 Article 335- Reservation for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in
the services
 Art. 280- Finance Commission; Art. 359: suspension of FR during
Emergency
 Inspirations/provisions of Indian constitution from different nation’s
constitution- DPSP- Irish, Emergency- Germany, FR-USA,
Liberty/equality- French, residuary powers with union- Canada, etc.
 Nos. of members of different parliamentary committee
 The Fundamental Rights guaranteed by Articles 14, 20, 21, 21A, 22, 23, 24,
25, 26, 27 and 28 are available to all persons whether citizens or foreigners.
 FR only to Indian- Art. 15, 16, 19, 29, 30
 First Law officer- Attorn General- art. 76
 Article 317: Removal and suspension of a member of a Public Service
Commission. No impeachment required.
 Maximum period of Emergency under Art 356- 3 years; under 352/360-
unlimited
 About amendment procedure under art 368- no joint sitting
 Conditions of Parliament legislating for states/on state list items
 Numbers of members in the constituent Assembly of India
 Fundamental Duties- part IV, art. 51 A
 Ordinance and Pardon powers of President/governor- facts
 Nehru Report- 1928; chairperson- Motilal Nehru
 Tension areas in centre-state relation: Art. 356, Role of Governor, Fiscal
federalism

46
 Article 257: The executive power of the Union shall also extend to the giving
of directions to a State
 Art. 365: state emergency if state does not follow center’s directions as per
art. 257
 PRI under 73rd amendments extended to 5th schedule areas by PESA -1996 ;
but it is not applicable to 6th schedule areas
 36th amendment- Sikkim state; 97th- cooperative society; 99th- NJAC
 LS seats: 543- 79- SC, 41- ST; 423- unreserved;
 6th Schedule states: Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram.
 Art. 105- Parliamentary privileges
 Extension of FR under Right to life- Art. 21: right to pollution free air, road,
reputation, shelter, privacy, education, etc.
 Art. 19(2): Reasonable restriction on Right to Freedom: subject to
sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations
with foreign States, public order, decency or morality or in relation to
contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offence
 SAARC Bommai case-1994- Misuse of Art. 356 and Centre-state relation
 Shankari Prasad Case- SC declared that amending powers of Parliament
under Art. 368- Unlimited
 Golaknath Case: Parliament cannot amend FR
 Keshavananda Bharti- Parliament can amend any provision but cannot
change basic structure of the Constitution
 Bi-cameral Legislature: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Telangana,
Maharashtra, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh.
 Art. 359: Rights under Art. 20, 21 cannot be suspended during Emergency
 Sikh got separate electorate – GOI 1919
 Depressed classes (scheduled castes), women and labour (workers) got
separate electorate – GOI 1935
 Article 86. Right of President to address and send messages to Houses

47
 FACT SHEET CONST 2: CATCHY AND IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES IN
CONSTITUTIONAL DEMOCRACY

Term Meaning Addl. Info

Filibuster A filibuster is a tactic employed in the Though originated in Senate

United States Senate to prevent or in USA, used in all
delay voting on any bill/proposal. democracies.
Most common form of filibuster is
unnecessary lengthy debates by the
Senators.

Gerrymandering Gerrymandering is a practice intended While demarcating (called

to gain an unfair electoral advantage delimitation) constituencies,
for a particular party by manipulating some areas may be
the geographical boundaries of included/excluded
electoral constituencies. intentionally to suit
caste/religion arithmetic of
the constituency.

Guillotine Guillotine refers to the exercise of 1. It is a French word faster

passage of bills/proposals en- masse way of execution.
(in a block) due to time limit. 2. Generally used by the
Speaker of the House, to
pass Demands for Grants, as
part of Budget, at the last
allotted day, in block,
without any discussion.

Zero Hour  It is the time gap between the 1. It is entirely Indian

end of Question Hour (which is Parliamentary Innovation.
of 1 hour from 11 am to 12) 2. It may last for about one
and the beginning of the hour, from 12 to 1 PM,
regular business of the House. before the House breaks for
 MPs can ask any question of lunch.
public importance during the
zero hour at short notice.

Whip  Official directions issued to Members voting against

members of Legislature to vote party line may lose their
on party line membership

No Confidence  To remain in power the If passed, the Government

Motion Cabinet/Government must loses confidence of the
house and has to resign

48
 obtain the confidence of the
Lok Sabha
 May be moved by opposition

Cut Motion It is the proposal in the Lok Sabha to If the motion is

cut (reduce) the Demands for grants by adopted(passed), it amounts
Government ministries during the to a no-confidence vote, and
Budget session. Government will fall.

Adjournment Normal business of the House is

Motion suspended to discuss urgent matter of
public interest

Yield the floor Stopping one’s speech to allowe other Popular in US Senate where
speakers to speak the members may speak for
indefinte time.

Laid on the floor Denote submission of important CAG, CEC, Finance

of house reports, and subordinate legislation in Commission, etc. submit its
the Parliament by the executive. annual report to te President,
who get them laid on te floor
of the house

Starred Question Those questions during the question Supplementary questions

hour which is replied orally by the may be asked.
concerned minister. Startted questions are given
more importance.

UN- Starred Those questions during the question Supplementary questions

Question hour which is replied in written form can not be asked.
by the concerned minister.

49
 FACT SHEETS- IND
POL: INDIAN POLITY
POLITICAL PROCESS

50
 FACT SHEET IND POL.1: POLITICAL PARTIES: *7 NATIONAL
PARTIES

Name Founded Founder Prominent leaders- Interesting Facts

in current
Congress 1885 [Link] Sonia Gandhi, Rahul Congress dominance-
Gandhi 1951-1967
Divided 1969-
Congress (O) and
Congress(R)
NCP, TMC, YSR
congress, etc split
from Congress

BJP 1980 Atal Bihari Narendra Modi, Amit New Avtar of

Bajpai and Lal Sah, Rajnath Singh, Bhartiya Jan Sangh,
Krishna Advani Nitin Gadkari founded in 1951 by
Syama Prasad
Mukherjee

Communist 1925 SA Dange, [Link], Binoy Symbol: Ears of Corn

Party of [Link], SV Viswam, K. and Sickle
India(CPI) Ghate, and Subbarayan Largest opposition
others. party to Congress in
1st Lok Sabha
[Link] formed CPI
in Tashkent in 1920

CPI-M 1964 A. K. Gopalan Sitaram Yechury, Symbol: Hammer,

Jyoti Basu, E. M. Prakash Karat, Manik Sickle and Star
S. Sarkar, Pinarayi Split from CPI on
Namboodiripad Vijayan issue of Indo- China
war
CPI- pro Soviet, pro-
congress

Bahujan Samaj 1984 Kanshi Ram Mayawati Symbol- Elephant

Party( BSP)

51
 Trinamool 1998 Mamta Banerjee Mamta Banerjee, Symbol- Flower and
Congress(TMC) Derek O’Brien Grass
Split from Congress
Ruling West Bengal
since 2011

National 1999 Sharad Pawar, Sharad Pawar, Supriya Symbol: Clock

Congress P.A. Sangma, Sule, Praful Patel Split from Congress
Party(NCP) Tariq Anwar on issue of foreign
origin person as PM
*Note: National People’s Party(NPP) was recogbised by the ECI as 8th national Party in
2019, but still on ECI website only 7 national parties are shown. You may decide if MCQs
asked about NPP or nos. of recognised national parties.

52
 FACT SHEET IND POL. 2: REGIONAL AND STATE PARTIES

Name Founded Founder Prominent leaders- Interesting Facts

in current
Telugu Desam 1982 N. T. Rama Rao Chandrababu Naidu Symbol: hut, wheel
Party (TDP) (NTR) and plough
Colour: Yellow
Was largest
opposition party in
8th Lok Sabha( 1984
to 1989)
Dravida 1949 C. N. Annadurai [Link], T. R. Symbol: rising sun
Munnetra Karunanidhi- long Baalu Split from DK,
Kazhagam serving leader founded by Periyar
(DMK) E. V. Ramasamy

All India Anna 1972 M. G. O. Panneerselvam Symbol: two-leaves

DMK Ramachandran(MGR) (OPS), E. Split from DMK
(AIADMK) J. Jayalalithaa- long Palaniswami
serving leader ( EPS)

Samajwadi 1992 Mulayam Singh Mulayam Singh Symbol: cycle

Party (SP) Yadav Yadav, Akhilesh
Yadav

Rashtriya 1997 Lalu Prasad Yadav Lalu Prasad Yadav, Symbol- Lantern
Janata Dal( Tejaswi Yadav
RJD)

Shiromani 1920 SGPC, Master Tara Prakash Singh Badal, Symbol- Flower and
Akali Dal Singh, Sardar Sukhbir Singh Badal, Grass
(SAD) Sarmukh Singh Harsimrat Kaur Badal Second-oldest party
Chubbal, etc. in India

Rashtriya Lok 1996 Ajit Singh, son of Jayant Chaudhary Symbol: hand pump
Dal (RLD) legendary farm leader
Charan Singh
Indian 1996 Devi Lal Om Prakash Chautala, Symbol: Spectacles
National Lok Abhay Chautala Currently ruling
Dal (INLD) Haryana with BJP

53
Jharkhand 1972 Binod Bihari Mahato Sibu Soren, Hemant Symbol: Bow &
Mukti Morcha Soren Arrow
(JMM) Currently ruling
Jharkhand state

Janata Dal 1999 H. D. Deve Gowda H. D. Deve Gowda, H. Symbol: Lady

(Secular) D. Kumaraswamy Farmer Carrying
Paddy on her Head
Telangana 2001 K. Chandrashekar K. Chandrashekar Rao Symbol: Motor car
Rashtra Rao , K. T. Rama Rao Led the Telangana
Samith(TRS) state formation
movement
Ruling Telangana
since its formation
Justice Party 1916 Dr C. Natesa Mudaliar E. V. Ramasamy; T. Oldest of the
M. Nair, P. Theagaraya regional parties
Chetty and Alamelu E. V. Ramasamy ,in
Mangai Thayarammal 1944, converted
Justice Party into DK

54
FACT SHEET IND POL.3: PRESIDENTS AND VICE PRESIDENTS OF
INDIA
Name Tenure Vice President Unique facts
Dr Rajendra 1950- Dr. Radhakrishnan Differed on many issues with Nehru
Prasad 62 Govt, especially on Hindu code bill
and suggested that president is not
entirely bound by advice of council
of minister

Dr. 1962- Dr. Zakir Hussain Teachers' Day is celebrated on his

Radhakrishnan 67 birth anniversary ( 5th Sept)
Dr. Zakir 1967- V.V. Giri 1st President to die in office
Hussain 69 Was VC of Jamia Millia University
V.V. Giri 1969- Gopal Swarup Pathak He won president election by
74 defeating official Congress candidate
as Indira Gandhi called for
‘Conscience Vote’.
Congress split into Congress(R) and
Congress (O) on this issue in 1969
Fakhruddin Ali 1974- [Link] 2nd President to die in office
Ahmed 1977 He signed Emergency in 1975
Neelam Sanjiva 1977- 1. [Link] President during Janata Government
Reddy 82 2. Mohammad He was the official Congress
Hidayatullah president defeated by [Link] in
1969
In 1979, accepted Charan Singh,
PM’s advice on dissolution of Lok
Sabha even when the PM had no
majority in the Lok Sabha
Giani Zail Singh 1982- R. Venkataraman In 1986- did not give assent to postal
87 bill by using his pocket veto; postal
bill would have allowed Government
to read private letters/mails on
security grounds.
R. 1987- Shankar Dayal Worked with four PM (Rajeev
Venkataraman 92 Sharma Gandhi, V.P. Singh, Chandra Shekhar
and P V Narasimha Rao) and
appointed three of them.

55
 Start of Coalition Governments

Shankar Dayal 1992- K. R. Narayanan Returned two executive orders to the

Sharma 97 cabinet
13 days Bajpai Government in 1996
K. R. Narayanan 1997- Krishan Kant Most assertive President
2002 Returned proposals of cabinet for
imposition of emergency in UP and
Bihar
Made mandatory to produce letters of
support from alliance partners as
proof of majority for PM claimant
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul 2002- Bhairon Singh Missile man, DRDO scientist,
Kalam 2007 Shekhawat architect of 2nd Pokhran Test
Returned office of profit bill to
cabinet
His birthday, 15 Oct, is celebrated by
UN as ‘World Students Day’
Pratibha Patil 2007- Hamid Ansari 1st Women President of India
2012
Pranab 2012- Hamid Ansari Refused to sign ordinances on anti-
Mukherjee 2017 corruption law
commuted death sentences of four
convicts against the advice of the
cabinet
Ram Nath 2017- Venkaiah Naidu 2nd President from the ‘Dalit’
Kovind community after K.R. Narayanan

56
 FACT SHEET IND POL.4: DY. PMS OF INDIA

Name Tenure PM, Party

Sardar Patel 1947-50 PM- Nehru, Congress party

Morarji Desai 1967-69 PM-Indira Gandhi, Congress

Charan Singh 1979` PM- Morarji Desai, Janata Party

Jagjivan Ram 1979 PM- Morarji Desai, Janata Party

Y.B. Chavan 1979-80 PM- Charan Singh, Congress Party

Devi Lal 1989-91 PM: [Link], Janata Dal and Chndra Shekhar
Note: He was Dy. PM twice
[Link] 2002-2004 PM- Atal Bihari Bajpai, BJP

Note: Constitution does not mention the post of Dy. PM; hence, Dy. PM takes oath as
union minister.

57
 FACT SHEET IND POL. 5 : IMPORTANT COMMISSION AND
COMMITTEE

Name Formed in Issue Findings/ recommendation

Gorwala Committee 1951 Report on Public
Administration in India

Balwant Rai Mehta 1957 To examine the working Recommended 3-tier Panchayati
Committee of the Community Raj System for Rural India
Development Programme
(CDP)
Santhanam 1962 Anti- corruption  Setting up Central Vigilance
committee Commission (CVC)
 CVC was set up in 1964
Kothari Commission 1964 Advise guidelines and  10+2+3 pattern
policies for the  Women’s education
development of education
in India.  Neighbourhood school system
 Establishment of Indian
Education Service
Sadiq Ali Committee 1964. Panchayati Raj  Was set up by Rajashthan state
Institutions in Rajashthan Govt
Kapur Commission 1966 Killing of Gandhiji Role of Savarkar and his
associates

Khosla Commission- Death of Subhash Both commission rejected any

1970 Chandra Bose conspiracy and rumours of
Mukherjee activities of Bose after the plane
Commission 2005 crash

Rajamannar 1969 Centre-state Relation Set up by DMK Govt in Tamil

Committee Nadu
Tarkunde Committee 1974 Election reforms Election Commission- 3 member
minimum age for voting-18 yrs
Shah Commission 1977 To probe the excesses  Misuse of MISA, and Defence
committed during the of India rules during emergency
emergency  Excess in sterilization program
 Poor role of Bureaucracy

58
Ashok Mehta 1977 Panchayati Raj System  2-tier Panchayati Raj
Committee Institutions
 1st committee to recommend
Constitutional status to PRI
Sarkaria Commission 1983 Centre-state relationship Far reaching suggestions on role of
Governors and use of Article 356

M.P. Thakkar 1984 Killing of Indira Gandhi Conspiracy and persons

Commission responsible for the killing
G.V.K. Rao 1985 Various aspects of PRI  Set up Planning commission
Committee  District as the basic unit of
planning

[Link] 1989 Various aspects of PRI  to consider the type of political

Committee and administrative structure
needed in the District Planning.
Dinesh Goswami 1990 Election reforms  Increasing security deposits for
Committee candidates;
 lowering age bar for fighting
election
 Not more than 2 seats one can
contest
 DPSP to PR
 Anti-defection law
 Government funding of election
expenses

[Link] 1991 Killing of Rajeev Gandhi Conspiracy and persons

Commission responsible for the killing
Liberhan 1992 Babri Masjid demolition Causes and persons responsible
Commission for the Mosque demolition
Srikrishna 1993 1992-93 Bombay riots Conspiracy and persons
Commission responsible for the riots

Ram Nandan Prasad 1993 OBC reservation Creamy layers among Backward
Committee Castes for being eligible for
reservation
Swaminathan 1994 Population policy Stabilizing population,
Committee restructuring family welfare
program

59
Bhuria Committee 1995 Panchayati Raj Extension of PRI in tribal areas
Institution(PRI)

Indrajit Gupta 1998 Election reforms political funding and measures to

Committee discourage criminals from helping
candidates during elections.
Nanavati 2000 1984 anti-Sikh riots Persons responsible for the riot.
Commission

Nanavati-Mehta 2002 Godhra train burning and Causes of both the incidence and
Commission Gujarat Riot-2002 persons responsible.
Kelkar Committee 2002 direct tax reforms increasing the income tax
exemption limit, rationalization of
exemptions, abolition of long term
capital gains tax, abolition of
wealth tax etc

Phukan Commission 2003 Tehelka Tape scandal- Persons involved in the corruption
fake defence deal & incidence
corruption caught on
camera
Jeevan Reddy 2004 Election reforms  Anti-defection measures
Committee  10-fold increase in security
deposits
 Barring criminals from
contesting election.

Swaminathan 2004 Farmer’s issues Minimum support price(MSP)

committee formula
Sachar Committee 2005 Socio-economic and Very poor Socio-economic and
educational condition of educational condition of Muslims
Muslims in India. in India. They are worse off than
Dalits.

M.M. Punchhi 2007 Centre-state relationship  Misuse of 356

Commission  National integration council
 Concurrent list changes only
with State’s consultation, etc.
Srikrishna 2010 Situation in Andhra Related to formation of Telangana
Committee Pradesh state

60
Srikrishna 2017 Personal Data Protection The committee submitted its
Committee report and Draft Personal Data
Protection Bill, 2018;
The bill is yet to be enacted.

G Rohini 2017 Issue of sub- By 105th amendments powers of

Commission categorisation of OBCs the State Governments and Union
Territories was restored to identify
and specify Socially and
Economically Backward Classes
(SEBCs)

61
 FACT SHEET IND POL. 6: BOOKS AND AUTHORS ON INDIAN POLITY AND
POLITICAL PROCESS

Book Author Theme

Democracy and Discontent: Atul Kohli  Political change in India from the
India's Growing Crisis of late 1960s to the late 1980s.
Governability  How declining dominance of
His other books: Congress challenged political
• Poverty Amid Plenty in the order and stability.
New India
• Democracy and
Development in India
• State-Directed
Development
• The Success of India's
Democracy

The Child and the State in Myron Weiner Issue of child labour, migration,
India state politics
His other books: Initiated the study of State Politics
• Party politics in India (1957) in India
• State Politics in India (1968)
• Sons of the Soil: Migration
and Ethnic Conflict in
India(1978)
Religion, Caste, and Politics in Christophe
India Jaffrelot
Hindu nationalist Movement
and Indian Politics

The Politics of India Since Paul Brass

Independence
Caste, Faction, and Party in
Indian Politics
•‘Factional Politics in an
Indian State(1965)’

62
•‘The Politics of India Since
Independence(1990)’
•‘Ethnicity and
Nationalism(1991)’
•‘The Production of Hindu-
Muslim Violence in
Contemporary India (2004)’
•‘An Indian Political Life:
Charan Singh and Congress
Politics, 1937 to 1961 (2011)’

Coalition Politics and E. Sridharan

Democratic Consolidation in
Asia
[Link] government and politics Morris-Jones Explained single party dominance
of India (Congress)
2. Parliament in India Adopted structural-functional
3. Politics Mainly Indian approach

1. Nationalist Thought Partha Chatterjee Indian nationalism as not main but

and the Colonial derivative discourse among many
World: A Derivative sub-national groups/communities,
Discourse which he called fragments of Indian
2. The Nation and its Nation.
Fragments Subaltern thinker

1. The Modernity of Lloyd and Sussane How in India traditional structures

Tradition Rudolph and norms have been adapted or
2. In Pursuit of Lakshmi transformed to serve the needs of a
modernizing society
3. Explaining Indian
Democracy: A Fifty Study of political economy of the
Year Perspective Indian state

Working a Democratic Granville Austin working of the Indian Constitution

Constitution: A History of the from 1950 to 1985
Indian Experience

[Link]'s Political Bhikhu Parekh Also wrote “Rethinking

Philosophy Multiculturalism: Cultural
2. Colonialism, Tradition and Diversity and Political Theory”
Reform: An Analysis of
Gandhi's Political Discourse

63
 1. Understanding Caste: Gail Omvedt She wrote many books on
From Buddha To Ambedkar, Buddhism, Indian
Ambedkar And women’s struggle
Beyond Also wrote “Seeking Begumpura”
2. Reinventing
Revolution: New
Social Movements in
India
The Intimate Enemy Asish Nandy Political, economic, and cultural
domination under colonialism
Caste in Modern India M. N. Srinivas Concepts: Dominant Caste,
Sankritisation

Rajni Kothari Books: Rajni Kothari Coined’ the Congress System’

•Politics in India (1970) Polticisation of Caste
•Caste in Indian Politics Indian State as ‘incremental
(1970) democratic modernization’
•State Against Democracy Indian Society as ‘political society’
(1988) Used structural-functional
•Rethinking Development approach
(1988)
•Rethinking Democracy
(2005)
•Communalism in Indian
politics (1998)

Achin Vanaik Books Achin Vanaik Wrote profusely on issues

•‘Communalism Contested: concerning religion, communalism
Religion, Modernity and and secularism
Secularization(1997)’
•‘Hindutva Rising: Secular
Claims, Communal
Realities(2017)’
•‘India in a Changing
World1995)’
The political economy of Pranab Bardhan
development in India(1984)

64
FACT SHEET IND. POL. 7: COMMENTS/QUOTE ON INDIAN POLITY
BY THINKER/AUTHORS

Comment/quote Thinker/author Addl. Information

Indian economy as “Bullock Cart Lloyd and They also said that caste in India
Capitalism” Sussane Rudolph fosters democracy

Indian politics as tussle between a Lloyd and In their book ‘In Pursuit of
“demand polity” and a Sussane Rudolph Lakshmi’
“command polity”
India as ‘weak-strong state’ Lloyd and ‘Explaining Indian Democracy’-
Sussane Rudolph by Rudolph & Rudolph

Indian federalism as “bargaining Morris Jones Theory of single party dominance

federalism” in India
Constitution of India is federal in KC Wheare
structure and unitary in spirit
Indian Politics as “Politics of Myron Weiner Initiated the study of State Politics
Scarcity” in India

India as a “polycentric hierarchy Aseema Sinha Wrote “The regional roots of

developmental politics in India”
Indian state as interchangeably Atul Kohli Author of “Democracy and
“weak” and “captured” Discontent: India's Growing Crisis
of Governability”

Indian nationalism as Partha Chatterjee Wrote: “Nationalist thought and

“Derivative Discourse” the colonial world- A Derivative
Discourse”
Indian democracy as ‘Democracy Pradeep Chhibber Wrote : “Democracy without
Without Associations’ Associations: Transformation of
the Party System and Social
Cleavages in India ”

India as a Patronage-Democracy Kanchan Chandra

describes Indian federation as a Pranab Bardhan
“holding together federation and
not a ‘coming together
federation”

Calls India a “flailing state.” Lant Pritchett flailing : wave or swing wildly, un
steady, not settled

65
Indian party system as Giovanni Sartori until the 1960s in terms of this
"predominant party system" model, Congress was the
predominant party

Indian Party System as ‘one party Morris Jones Rajni Kothari called it ‘the
dominant system’ Congress System’

Indian State as ‘incremental Rajni Kothari ‘Politics in India’ ; ‘Caste in

democratic modernization’? Indian Politics’; ‘State Against
Democracy’: books by Rajni
Kothari
Three democratic upsurges in the Ashutosh Varshney in his work ‘Is India
democratic politics in India Varshney becoming more Democratic’
discussed the three democratic
upsurges in the democratic politics
in India
‘India’s Constitution was born Paul Brass ‘The Politics of India since
more in fear and trepidation than Independence’- by Paul Brass
in hope and inspiration’

India as a Democratic James Manor ‘Politics and State-Society

Developmental State Relations in India’- James Manor
India as an example of Anthony D. Smith ‘Nationalism’ – by Anthony D.
“Polycentric Nationalism” Smith
Indian constitution as a ‘seamless Granville Austin Semaless web of 1. Social
web’ revolution, 2. unity, and 3.
Democracy

66
 FACT SHEET IND. POL. 8 : LANDMARK SC CASES WHICH
CHANGED INDIAN POLITY

Case Year Decision and effect

State of Madras v. Champakam 1951  SC struck caste-based reservation;
Dorairajan  FR is superior to DPSP.
 Led to 1st amendment

Shankari Prasad case 1951 No judicial review to Amendments as

Amendments under article 368 is not ‘law’
under article 13(2)
Parliament has unlimited power of
amendment

Balaji v/s State of Mysore 1962 Reservation cannot be more than 50%

Sajjan Singh vs State of Rajashthan 1964 First case in which mention of ‘Basic
Structure’ was made.
Golaknath Case 1967 Amendments under article 368 are ‘law’
under article 13(2) and hence can be struck
down if they violate Fundamental rights
Parliament cannot amend FR

Kesavananda Bharati case 1973 ‘Basic Structure Doctrine’-Parliament

can amend any part of constitution
provided basic structure/feature of the
constitution is not changed.

ADM Jabalpur v. Shivkant Shukla 1976 Even the right to life under article 21 can
be suspended during emergency under
article 359
Justice Hans Raj Khanna, one of the judges
on the bench, opposed it
The judgement was criticized as SCI failed
to protect the Fundamental Rights

67
 Through 44th amendments: Fundamental
Rights under article 20, 21 cannot be
suspended during emergency
Minerva Mills case 1980 Further established ‘Basic Structure
Doctrine’
Power of Parliament to amend the
constitution was limited
Restored balance between FR and DPSP

Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India 1978 ‘Due Process’ doctrine : Right to life (
article 21) gave SC power to judicial
review of not only ‘procedure established
by law’ but also ‘ due process of law’

Three Judges Cases: 1. SP Gupta v 1981- Gave ‘Collegium system’ of Judges

Union of India (1981) 98 appointment
2. Supreme Court Advocates‐on‐
Record Association v Union of India
(1993)
3. Re Special Reference No 1 of 1998

Supreme Court Advocates-on-record 2015 Called the 4th Judges case

Association & Anr. vs. Union of India Against the 99th amendments and NJAC
Both were quashed by the SCI on the
grounds of ‘Basic Structure’ doctrine
Sheela Barse v. State of Maharashtra 1983 Right against violence in police custody

Olga Tellis vs. Bombay Municipal 1985 ‘Right to Livelihood’ FR under article 21
Corporation

Shah Bano case 1985  SC decided ‘Right to alimony (living

support from divorced husband)’ to
Muslim women
 But the central Government enacted law
to nullify SC decision.
 Generated heated debate on Secularism

68
 Attorney General of India v. Lachma 1988 Public hanging violates article 21- hence
Devi should be banned.

Shantistar Builders v. N.K. Totame 1990 ‘Right to Shelter’ under article 21

Subhash Kumar v. State of Bihar 1991 ‘Right to pollution free environment’ FR

under article 21

Indra Sawhney v. Union of India 1992 Creamy layer policy: creamy layer among
OBC, SC/ST be excluded from reservation.

S.R. Bommai v/s Union of India 1994 Application of article 356 to dismiss state
Government was made tough
Profoundly affected centre-state relation

Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan 1997 Vishaka Guidelines: against sexual

harassment of women at work place

Lily Thomas v. Union of India 2013 Disqualification on conviction for certain

offences: convicted person disqualified for
6 years from contesting election.

 Justice K.S. Puttaswamy vs. Union of 2017 ‘Right to Privacy’ under article 21
India
 Maneka Gandhi vs the Union of
India; R Sukanya vs R Sridhar;
These cases helped bring ‘Right to Privacy’
Kharak Singh vs State of Uttar
under article 21
Pradesh; Govind vs State of Madhya
Pradesh

Navtej Singh Johar vs. Union Of India 2018 Decriminalised homosexuality by striking
off parts of Section 377 of the Indian Penal
Code (IPC).

69
 FACT SHEET IND. POL. 9: LANDMARK ACTS

ACT Year Addl. Info

The Delhi Special Police 1946 CBI was set up under this law
Establishment Act
The Representation of the People 1951 Rules for election for Parliament and State
Act Legislature
Amended many times

Protection of Civil Rights Act 1955 To implement article 17 ( abolition of

untouchability) and protect rights of SC/ST
Essential Commodities Act 1955 Uninterrupted supply of essential goods; to
stop hoarding or black marketing
In 2020, the Act was modified along with 2
Farm Acts
The Citizenship Act 1955 Rules for acquiring Indian citizenship

States Reorganisation Act 1956 Reorganisation of States on linguistic basis-

14 State, 6 UTs
Unlawful Activities (Prevention) 1967 Give powers to Govt to deal with people for
Act (UAPA) protecting integrity and sovereignty of India
The Water (Prevention and Control 1974 Control and prevent water pollution
of Pollution) Act,

The Air (Prevention and Control of 1981 Control and prevent air pollution
Pollution) Act,
The Forest (Conservation) Act 1980

The Environment (Protection) Act 1986 Protection and improvement of the

environment
The Muslim Women (Protection of 1986 This Act was brought by Govt to nullify the
Rights on Divorce) Act SC judgement on Shah Bano case
Prevention of Corruption Act 1988 To minimize corruption in government
agencies and public sector

Scheduled Caste and Scheduled 1989  To prevent discrimination, atrocities and

Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) hate crimes against SC/ST
Act,  It was felt that Protection of Civil Rights
Act 1955 was not adequate for SC/ST

70
The Wildlife Protection Act 1972 Protection of wild animals, birds and plants

Energy Conservation Act 2001 To conserve energy and promote clean

energy.
The National Green Tribunal Act 2010 NGT was set up quick disposal of the cases
pertaining to environmental issues
To implement ‘Right to clean environment’
under article 21
Maintenance of Internal Security 1971  Govt might arrest anyone on suspicion of
Act (MISA) threats to national security
 MISA was used during Emergency (1975-
77) to arrest opposition leaders,
journalists, etc
 Janata Govt abolished MISA in 1977

Persons With Disabilities (Equal 1995  Special provisions, special quota for
Opportunities, Protection of Rights disable persons
and Full Participation) Act  Was amended in 2016- ‘Rights of Persons
with Disabilities Act, 2016’

Foreign Exchange Management 1999  Orderly development and maintenance of

Act, (FEMA) foreign exchange market in India
 Replaces Foreign Exchange Regulation
Act (FERA)

Information Technology Act 2000  To regulate ICT in India

 Also called cyber Act

The Competition Act 2002  Competition Commission of India(CCI)

was set up under this Act
 Replaced MRTP Act
Right to Information Act 2005 Landmark Act to implement ‘Right to
Information’

National Rural Employment 2005 MG NAREGA is implemented under this

Guarantee Act Act
Protection of Women from 2005 The Act provides a definition of "domestic
Domestic Violence Act violence" for the first time in Indian law
Disaster Management Act 2005 Corona Pandemic was dealt in under this
Act

71
Commission for Protection of Child 2006 constitution of a National Commission and
Rights Act State Commissions for Protection of Child
Rights and Children's Courts for providing
speedy trial of offences against children

Right of Children to Free and 2009 Also called RTE Act

Compulsory Education Act Right to Education (under article 21) is
implemented under the Act
Sexual Harassment of Women at 2013 ‘Visakha Guideline’ came out of this Act
Workplace (Prevention,
Prohibition and Redressal) Act

National Food Security Act 2013 National Food Security Mission is

implemented under this Act
The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act 2013 Lokpal and Lokayuktas were appointed
under the Act
Whistle Blowers Protection Act 2014 To protect those who disclose corruption in
2011 Govt organisation

Goods and Services Tax 2017 GST was implemented under this Act
(Compensation to States) Act
Jammu and Kashmir 2019 State of J&K was made 2 UTs- J&K and
Reorganisation Act Ladakh

Consumer Protection Act 2019 New and more stronger Consumer

protection Act in which many new services
added
Muslim Women (Protection of 2019  Made triple talaq unlawful
Rights on Marriage) Act  Called anti- triple talaq Act

Transgender Persons (Protection of 2019 To protect the rights of Transgender Persons

Rights) Act,
Citizenship (Amendment) Act 2019 Provide Indian citizenship for persecuted
religious minorities from Afghanistan,
Bangladesh and Pakistan who are Hindus,
Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis or Christians,
and arrived in India before the end of
December 2014
[Link] farmers' produce trade and 2020  These are 3 Farm laws which provide for
commerce (promotion and market reforms in Indian Farming sector,
facilitation) act, 2020. contract farming, and liberalisation of
trade in farm produce

72
[Link] farmers (empowerment and  Farmers of Punjab, Haryana, and UP are
protection) agreement on price agitating against these Farm Law, which
assurance and farm services act, are on hold by the order of SC.
2020.
3. The essential commodities
(amendment) act, 2020.

73
 FACT SHEET IND. POL. 10: STATE RE-ORGANISATION

Year Event/state created Unique facts

1950 Constitution arranged Indian State into A, B, C, D groups A: former British
provinces
B and C: Princely
states
D: A&N Islands

1952 Potti Sreeramulu, a freedom fighter and revolutionary leader,

died after 56 days of hunger strike for creation of Andhra
Pradesh (from Madras presidency)
1953 Andhra Pradesh created 1st State on the
basis of Language
1956 States Reorganization Act 14 states, 6 UT
Abolished A,B,C,D groupings

1960 Bombay was divided into Maharashtra and Gujrat Gujrat becomes the
15th State.
1961 Dadra and Nagar Haveli becomes the 7th UT

1962 Goa, Daman and Diu acquired from Portuguese Goa, Daman and
Diu- 7th & 8th UT

1963 Nagaland carved out from the state of Assam Nagaland- 16th
State
1966 Punjab and Haryana created Punjab- last state on
Chandigarh also created as UT and common capital language basis

1971 HP was created HP was UT

1972 Meghalaya, Tripura, and Manipur became state NE re-organisation

1975 Sikkim merged in India Sikkim-22nd state

1987 Goa, Mizoram, and Arunachal Pradesh became State from 25 states
UTs
2000 Chhattisgarh (from MP), Jharkhand (from Bihar), and 28 states
Uttarakhand (from UP) became states

2014 Telangana (from Andhra Pradesh) became state 29th State

74
 FACT SHEET IND. POL 11: MAJOR CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
SCHEMES/MISSIONS/PROGRAMS

Scheme name Purpose/sector Unique

facts/features
PM Jan Dhan Yojna Financial inclusion Opened 42 crore
new accounts in
name of poor

PM Mudra Yojna Loan for self-employment About 30 cr loan of

Rs 15 lakh cr given
Swachh Bharat Cleanliness, hygiene at public places 11 cr toilets made
Mission
Smart City Mission Improved urban living 100 smart cities

Ayushman Bharat Universal Health Insurance Scheme for poor Insurance cover of
Mission 5 lakh per family
per year
Mission Universal Immunization program
Indradhanush

Ujjwala Yojna Free LPG connection to rural poor

Ujala Scheme Cheap LED bulbs in all homes

Soubhagya Yojna Electricity connections to all remaining un- Pradhan Mantri
electrified households Sahaj Bijli Har
Ghar Yojana -
Saubhagya

Pradhan Mantri Awas Providing affordable housing to the poor PMAY-G: Rural
Yojana (PMAY) households areas
PMAY-U: Urban
areas
About 1.8 cr
houses provided
UDAN Scheme Affordable air travel for common man Ude Desh ka Aam
Naagrik-UDAN
Atal Pension Yojna Social security for poor in form of Rs 1000 to Poor need to
5000 Rs monthly pension subscribe to the

75
 pension fund;
Government
Atal Mission for Strengthen urban Infrastructure- sewage,
Rejuvenation and street lights, transport, etc
Urban
Transformation
(AMRUT)

Atal Tinkering Labs To provide students experience in creating and

modifying 3D designs
Fasal Bima Yojna Government sponsored and subsidized crop
insurance
Soil Health Card Free soil testing for farmers
Scheme

Kisan Samman Nidhi Direct cash transfer of Rs 2000 per 4 months Direct Income
Yojana to Farmers Transfer Scheme
for farmers
PM Street Vendor's to empower Street Vendors by not only
AtmaNirbhar extending loans to them; collateral free
Nidhi(PM working capital loans of up to INR10,000/- of
SVANidhi) one-year tenure, to approximately 50 lakh
street vendors, to help resume their businesses
in the urban areas, including surrounding peri-
urban/rural areas.

76
 FACT SHEET IND. POL 12: INDIA’S MISSILE PROGRAM

Weapon Name Feature

Pralay Missile Solid-fuel surface-to-surface guided Short-range ballistic missile

Nag Missile Anti-tank guided missile- to destroy enemy tanks

Trishul Missile Short range surface-to-air missile

Agni Missile Medium to intercontinental range ballistic missiles

Nirbhaya Long range, all-weather, subsonic cruise missile

Missile
A-SAT Missile To destroy satellites in space for strategic or tactical purpose

K-5 and K-6 Intercontinental submarine-launched ballistic missile

Missile

Sant Missile Standoff Anti-tank Guided Missile

Brahmos Medium-range supersonic cruise missile that can be launched from
Missile submarine, ships, aircraft, or land

77
 FACT SHEETS- CP :
COMPARATIVE
POLITICS- CONCEPTS

78
 FACT SHEET-CP 1: TRADITIONAL APPROACHES AND METHDOS OF
INVESTIGATION IN COMPARATIVE POLITICS

Approaches Facts/features Main thinkers/theorists

Normative  Oldest one: Since pre- political Aristotle, Rousseau, Kant, Hegel,
Philosophical science era [Link], Leo Strauss, Isaiah
 Method: Abstract reasoning, Berlin
moral arguments, Formal logic
and analytic philosophy
 Prescriptive, deductive, value
loaded, idealistic, speculative

Historical  Genealogical – treating history as Machiavelli: used this approach in

Approach a genetic process – how a ‘the Prince’
political phenomenon evolved Oakeshott, Hobbes, Locke,
over time Rousseau, Marx, Laski
 Studying past to understand the
causes of political phenomenon
Hegel and Marx also used
in present
Historical approcah ( evolution of
 Example : comparative analysis ideas/matter through Historical
of the French, Russian and Dialecticism)
Chinese Revolutions, by Skocpol

Institutional  Focus on Institutions and Aristotle: 6 types of

Approach structures of political system constitution/Government
 Formal, legal, state/Government Polybius: division of powers
and its organs among organs of state
 Eurocentric, prescriptive, Bryce: study of American
normative, speculative government in comparative
perspective
 Evolved as Comparative
Government Edward Finer: wrote’ The History
of Government’- Comparative
analysis of Government from
earliest time
Duverger, Sartori: Comparative
study of political party and party
system
Herman Finer and Carl Fredrich-
other proponents

79
 FACT SHEET CP.2: MODERN APPROACHES AND METHDOS OF
INVESTIGATION IN COMPARATIVE POLITICS

Approaches Facts/features Main thinkers/theorists

Behavioural  Focus on observing, recording, Charles Merriam: ‘New Aspects
Approach and analysing human behaviour of Politics’ : founder of
to understand politics behavioural approach in
 Systematic collection and Comparative Politics
examination of facts Graham Wallas wrote ‘Human
Nature in Politics’
 Empirical and positivist
approach Arthur Bentley wrote ‘The
Process of Government’
 Scientific testable hypothesis
Both these books help usher
 Value-fact Separation
behavioural approach in
 Attempt to make pure science of political science
politics
The eight characteristics
features of behaviouralism as
given by David Easton: (1)
Regularities; (2) Verification;
(3) Techniques; (4)
Quantification; (5) Values; (6)
Systematisation; (7) Pure
Science; and (8) Integration.

Political System  Political system: Inter-related David Easton- father of the

Approach institutions, political activities, system approach –‘ A system
actors and processes which Analysis of Political Life’
continuously interact with each Gabriel Almond: ‘Comparative
other and to larger society Politics: A Developmental
 Derived from Biology and Approach’
General System Theory Morton Kaplan: used system
 Input, Output, Environment, approach in IR
Feedback David Apter: ‘Introduction to
 'system' replaced ‘state’ as item Political Analysis’
of comparison Karl Deutsch: ‘Nation and
 Easton’s definition:” behaviour World’
or set of interactions through Features/facts of the System
which authoritative allocations Approach:

80
 of values are made and  Developed from the general
implemented in society” systems theory by Ludwig
 Inputs to the system : Von Bertallanfy
• Demands : claims for  Structural functionalism and
actions that people make to input/output approach were
satisfy their interests and built on the system approach
values  Called the ‘Balck Box’
• Support: political approach as it does not go
obligation – Consent, obey deeper inside the system
law, pay taxes  David Easton gave a ‘flow
 Input functions by Almond: model’ of political system
political socialization, political  Good for genralisation and
interest articulation political broad comparison across
interest aggregation political culture/region but weak in
communication details
 Outputs : Laws, rules,
regulations, judicial decisions
 Easton identified 4 types of Input
functions as demand:
Participation in political system,
Allocation of goods and services,
Communication and information,
Regulation of behaviour
 The sequence of regulatory
mechanism by Easton is: Gate-
keeping at the boundary, socio-
cultural norms, communication
channels and reduction
processes

Structural-  Derived from system approach Gabriel Almond and G C

Functional  Study political structures and Powell : used Easton’s system
approach functions carried out by them in approach to give structural-
a political system functional approach
Almond borrowed most of the
 Input functionsv (Almond):
terminology of his structural-
political socialization,
functional approach from
recruitment, interest articulation
Talcott Parsons
and aggregation, and political
communication Structural functionalism as a
method was developed to study
 Output functions: Rule making,
the politics of Politics of
application, and adjudication
developing countries

81
 Rajni Kothari and Morris Jones
used this approach to study
Indian politics
Fred Riggs also used this
approach to study the polity of
developing nations

Political Culture Political Culture: pattern of  Gabriel Almond: father of

Approach orientation and basic attitude in a political culture approach
society towards political system  Gabriel Almond and Sidney
Verba: ‘The Civic Culture’
Almond & Verba: comparative study of Political
Attitudes and Democracy in 5
3 aspects: Cognitive, Affective,
Nations- USA, Germany,
Evaluative
Mexico, Italy, and UK
3 types: Parochial, subject,
participative  Talcott Parsons: Influenced
Almond & Verba through his
definition of culture- sets of
 Almond- homogeneous culture norms, values, and attitude
in developed nations
 Rajni Kothari and Morris
Jones used this approach also
 Edward Finer: matured, in studying Indian politics
developed, low, and minimal  Almond and Verba suggested
political culture a ‘sleeping dogs’ theory of
democratic culture that implies
that low participation indicates
broad satisfaction with
government

New  Both ‘hard’ and ‘Soft’  James March & Johan

Institutionalism Institutions- norms, rules, Olsen: founders of New
behaviour pattern Institutionalism –‘The New
 Linked Institutions to macro Institutionalism: (1984)’
socio-economic structure and  Douglous C North- Rational
individual behavior Choice New Institutionalism
 Analytical, explanatory &  William Scott: ‘Sociological
Empirical institutionalism New Institutionalism’
 3 new Institutionalism: Rational  Paul DiMaggio and Walter
Choice, Cultural( sociological), W. Powell- ‘Institutional
Structural Isomorphism’ ; ‘The New
Institutionalism in

82
 Organizational
Analysis(1991)’

Political  Emerged in 1960-70s  Lucian Pye: ‘Political culture

development and  Harry Truman the US President: and political development’ ;
Modernization gave special meaning to political development 3
theory development in his famous aspects- equality, capacity,
speech after WWII, this started Differentiation
modernisation theory  ‘Aspects of political
development’

 There is a fixed path of  Lucian Pye identified 6 crises

development & modernization as in political development: 1.
traversed by western nations; by Identity 2. Legitimacy 3.
following the same path, poor Penetration 4. Participation 5.
3rd world nations would also Unification 6. Distribution
become developed.  David Apter:’ The politics of
modernization’- technocratic
approach
 These theories were claimed to
be applicable across cultural, and  Gabriel Almond: ‘Political
were able to explain political Development’
processes everywhere  James Coleman, and Sidney
Verba also gave theory of
political development
 Closely linked to US foreign
policy towards developing  James Coleman: ‘The
countries and its attempt to Development Syndrome-
check the tides of Differentation-Equality-
socialism/communism Capacity’
(containment policy- Truman  Samuel Huntington:
Doctrine) ‘Political Development and
Political Decay’
 To help 3rd world countries  Huntington identifies
become developed & modern by political development with the
following similar path as institutionalisation of political
travelled by USA/western organisations and procedures
Europe  He challenged the idea of
 Approaches: political culture, political development as an
developmentalism, corporatism, unilinear process-rather it is
democratization, etc. cyclic
 Edward Shils: ‘Political
Development in the New

83
  Thinkers supporting States’ ; ‘Center and
modernisation theory were periphery’
considered traditional  Edward Shils’ categories of
comparativists; those opposing it political system: (i)Political
progressive comparativists. Democracy (ii) Tutelary
Democracy (iii) Modernizing
Oligarchy (iv) Totalitarian
Oligarchy (v) Traditional
Oligarchy
 Organski: ‘The stages of
political development’ – 1.
political unification, 2.
industrialisation, 3. national
welfare, and 4. affluence.
 W.W. Rostow: ‘Politics and
the stages of growth’ : 5 stages
of modernization - 1)
traditional society, 2)
preconditions to take-off, 3)
take-off, 4) drive to maturity
and 5) age of high mass
consumption
 Max Weber, Talcott Parsons,
A.M. Henderson and Joseph la
Palombara: political
development is linked with
legal and administrative
development
 Fred Riggs: balance between
the principles of equality and
capacity in political
development; Development
Trap- imbalance between
equality and capacity
 Halpern: ‘will and capacity’
approach to the study of
political development

Dependency Challenges to Modernisation  Raúl Prebisch- ‘Doctrine of

Theories Theory: Dependency Theory unequal exchange’ : Father of
 Dependency theory criticized the dependency theory
dominant model of development

84
 as ‘Eurocentric’, furthering the  Theotonio Dos Santos- ‘The
capitalist interests of the ‘West’. Structure of Dependence’
 They were influenced by Neo-  Dos Santos: 3 types of
Marxism, which visualised dependency: colonial,
International state system as financial-industrial,
global capitalist system in which technological-industrial
the developed capitalist nations (
 Fernando Henrique
core) dominated and exploited Cardoso- Associated-
underdeveloped 3rd world( development-dependent -was
Periphery) also president of Brazil
 Latin America became the fertile  Andre Gunder Frank-
ground of dependency theorists ‘Development of
 They were called progressive Underdevelopment’
comparativists  Immanuel Wallerstein-
World System Theory; Core,
Semi-periphery, periphery
 Johan Galtung: structural
theory of imperialism
 Samir Amin: global law of
value -a system of unequal
exchange

Elites Theory  It was critique of democracy, Gaetano Mosca:

pluralism, and socialism  all societies ruled by a
 First developed in the context of numerical minority, the
polity of western Europe political class.
 In any organisation, Government  Elites- superior
(of any form- democracy or organizational skills.
dictatorship) only a small  Circulation of Elites:
minority- Elites- occupy top constant competition
positions, take decisions and rule between elites, with one
 Remaining people are mere elite group replacing
masses who are mostly another repeatedly over
bystanders time
 Elite Theory appeared against  He wrote: ‘The Ruling
the Pluralist theory, which Class’
believed that in democratic form  Mosca’s Elite theory is
of Government, political power more liberal than Elite
is widely disbursed among theory of Vilfredo Pareto
multiple groups/communities

85
 Robert Dahl called Vilfredo Pareto-
pluralism ‘ Polyarchy’ Circulation of Elites- the ruling
class replaced by another
ruling/aristocratic class through
revolution
 ‘History is graveyard
of Elites’
 2 types of Elites: Lion &
Fox
 He also gave the
concepts of “residues”
and “derivations.”

C Wright Mills: ‘
 ‘The Power Elites’
 Nexus of the leaders of
the military, corporate,
and political class and
how the ordinary citizen
is a relatively powerless
subject of manipulation
by the power elites
Robert Michels
 ‘Iron Law of
Oligarchy’
 Bureaucratic
organization as rule of
elites; not Democratic
 Theory of mass mind
 formulated on the basis
of the study of German
Social Democratic Party
Schumpeter: “Democracy as a
political Method “
 democracy as nothing
more than periodic
elections and ordinary
citizens, beyond the act
of voting, should have

86
 no role in shaping
policy.
Ortega Gasset
 Theory of the Masses,
Political Formula
Karl Mannheim
 Organising and directing
Elites; informally
organised and diffused
Elites
Burnham
 Economic Approach to
Elitism

87
FACT SHEETS- PA:
PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION

88
 FACT SHEET-PA. 1: PRINCIPLES AND APPROCAHES TO PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
Theory/Approach Facts/Features/Literatures

Scientific The term Scientific Management was coined by Louis Brandies but
Management Theory was popularised by Taylor
[Link] Taylor gave this theory in 1911
First coherent theory of organisation- mechanistic theory of
Organisation
4 core principles of Scientific Management
 Science, not rule of Thumb
 Scientific Selection, training and development of workers
 Joining science of work and worker
 management and workers sharing responsibilities
Features:
 Time and motion studies
 Scientific analysis of time, motion, workflow, tools,
implements
 Man as machine
 Economic man- driven by purely economic interests
 Standardisation of tools
 Separation of planning and execution
 Greater responsibility on managers
 ‘Differential rate’ or ‘Piece-rate’ system
 Functional organizational structure- Functional foremanship
 Mental revolution on part of both workers and management
Books/Literature:
 Shop Management- 1900
 On the art of cutting metals- 1906
 The Principles of Scientific Management-1911
 Two Papers on Scientific Management-1919

Other interesting facts:

Frank Gilbreth & Lillian Gilbreth were earliest proponents of
scientific Management; Lillian Gilbreth may be called ‘Mother of
Scientific Management’.

89
Henri Fayol He wrote ‘General and Industrial Management (1916)’
Gave 6 Managerial Abilities(Physical, mental, Moral, educational,
technical, experience)
5 managerial functions in organisation: POCCC: Planning,
Organizing, Commanding, Coordinating, and controlling.
The 14 principles of Management of Henri Fayol are:
1. Division of Work
2. Authority and Responsibility
3. Discipline
4. Unity of Command
5. Unity of Direction
6. Subordination of Individual Interest
7. Remuneration
8. The Degree of Centralization
9. Scalar Chain ( Hierarchy)
10. Order
11. Equity
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel
13. Initiative
14. Esprit de Corps

Luthar Gullick &  Luthar Gullick’s POSDCORB

Lyndall Urwick Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting
and Budgeting

 4 P Principle by Luthar Gullick- Purpose, Process, Person and

Place
 Gulick was influenced by Fayol’s fourteen principles.
They wrote: ‘Papers on the science of administration(1937)’-
contains the most comprehensive enunciation of the classical theory

Weber’s Ideal Type of  Weber gave Bureaucratic Theory in 1921

Bureaucracy  3 types of Authority:
 Traditional, Charismatic, Rational-Legal
 Modern organisation, bureaucracy is based on Legal-
Rational Authority
 Features of Ideal Type of Bureaucracy

90
  Division of labour, Expertise, specialization
 Hierarchy, Impersonal relationship, rules and regulations
 Rationalism - ‘Rational-Legal Authority’
 Merit based selection, career orientation
Books/Literature: by Weber
 Ideal type of Bureaucracy- 1921
 The Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism-1905
Other interesting facts:
 "Iron Law of Oligarchy“- by Robert Michels- Bureaucratic
organization as rule of elites; not Democratic
 Hegel in his ‘The Philosophy of Right’ praised Bureaucracy
 Marx termed Bureaucracy a form of class domination;
instrument of state power; instrument to further interests of
capitalist class

Human Relation Hawthorne Experiments:

Theory- Elton Mayo  Between 1924-32 ; led by Mayo, supported by
Roethlisberger and Dickson
 Great Illumination Experiment (1924–27)
 Relay assembly test room (1927-33)
 Human Attitude and Sentiments (1928-31)
 The Bank Wiring Experiments (1931-32)
Features:
 Organization as social system
 Workers as social man embedded in social settings
 No to purely Economic incentives
 Social factors may affect worker’s motivation and productivity

Other interesting facts:

 Most of the Hawthorne Experiments were failure, but Mayo used
them to give Human Relation Theory
 Mayo initiated behavioural approach in Pub Admin
 Mayo is credited to have started the behaviuoral revolution in
Public Administration

91
 Books/Literature:
Elton Mayo:
 ‘The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization (1933)
 ‘Human problems of an individual civilization’ (1946)
 ‘The Social Problems of an Industrial Civilization’(1945)
Douglas Murray McGregor:
 ‘The Human Side of Enterprise’(1960)- gave theory X and
Theory Y
 Abraham Maslow: gave hierarchy of Needs
 Herzberg gave motivation-hygiene or two factor theory
 Chester Barnard: ‘The Functions of the Executive’(1938)’-
‘Zone of Indifference’
 Simon gave the concept of ‘Zone of acceptance’- very similra to
‘Zone of Indifference’ of Bernard
 Rensis Likert: gave : Likert scale : to measure worker’s attitude
at workplace

Rational Decision-  Simon- influenced by Vienna school of logical positivism

Making- Herbert  Simon was positively influenced by the ideas of Barnard
Simon
 Gave preference to facts over value: separation of fact and values
 Condemned ‘principles of administration’ as mere proverbs and
myths
 Rational Decision Making: 3 Steps
 Intelligence: Scanning, identifying problems
 Design: identifying and evaluating alternatives
 Choice: selecting the best alternative- decision
Features:
 Hierarchical chain of means-ends
 Value fact dichotomy(separation)
 Comprehensive rationality- infinite time and information to
identify and evaluate all alternatives
 Decision maker-‘Economic Man’
Bounded Rationality:
 In organisation -‘Administrative Man’
 Satisficing, rather than maximising

92
  Bounded rationality due to limitation of time, information,
processing capabilities

Books/Literature/Contributors
Herbert Simon:
 ‘Administrative Behaviour (1945)
 ‘Public Administration(1950)
 ‘Organisation (1958)
Dwight Waldo: Opposed Simon’s value fact separation and value-
free science of administration
 ‘The Administrative State(1948)’

Ecological Approach-  Riggs used structural functional approach and interactions of

Fred Riggs administrative system with culture of larger society in
developing nations
 Studied administrative system of Philippines, Thailand, and
India
3 types of society: Fused, Prismatic, Diffracted
Developing country- Prismatic Society
3 Features of Prismatic Society
 Formalism: Rules/Regulation vs their actual implementation
 Heterogeneity: Great diversity, contradictions, and
differences
 Overlapping: Same functions by multiple structures and
same structure doing multiple functions
 Economic sub-system: Bazar Canteen Model
 Administrative sub-system: The ‘Sala’ Model- Clects( club+sect)

Features of the ‘Sala’ Model:

 Rationality and efficiency vs non-administrative
considerations
 Attainment rather than achievement- basis for selection
 Public organization start behaving as Clects
 Political role of bureaucrats
 Bureaucracy more powerful than the political leadership

93
 Books/Literature/ Contributions
Riggs:
 ‘Agraria and Industria: Toward a Typology of Comparative
Administration(1955)’
 The Ecology of Public Administration (1961)
 Administration in Developing Countries (1964)
 Robert King Merton: ‘A Reader in Bureaucracy’-1952
 John Merriman Gaus: ‘Reflections on public
administration’(1947)
 Robert Dahl : ‘Science of Public Administration- 3 problems’-
article in 1947- asserted that Public Administration is not science
due to 3 inter-realted issues of values, culture, and behaviour

Entrepreneurship and  Entrepreneurs: create something new, something different; they

Innovation- Peter change or enhance values; they don’t do existing thing better,
Drucker they do different thing
 Innovation: Conversion of new idea, new imaginations into
device or method to improve human life & experience
Entrepreneurial Strategies:
 ‘Fustest with the Mostest’ - aiming at market leadership
 Creative Imitation: Imitating idea to create useful
device/method
 Entrepreneurial Judo: Hit them where they ain’t”
 "Ecological niche “: occupy a specific market segment
 Both Innovation and Entrepreneurship can be learned and
practiced
 Drucker also gave the concept of ‘MBO- Management by
Objective’
 Books/Literatures:
 Peter Drucker: Innovation and Entrepreneurship(1985)

Feminist Perspective Books/Literature/ Contributions

 Camilla Stivers:
 ‘Gender Images in public administration’-1993
 ’Bureau Men, Settlement Women’- 2000
 ‘Democracy, Bureaucracy, And the Study of
Administration’-2001

94
  Kathy E. Ferguson:
 ‘The Feminist Case Against Bureaucracy’- 1984
 Mary Parker Follett:
 "Power with" rather than "power over”
 Non-hierarchical matrix style organization, Integration,
Partnership, Transformational leadership

New  Attempt to restore values and ‘public spiritedness’ back to Public

Public Administration
Administration( NPA)  Came out of 1st Minnowbrook conference- 1968
 Led by Dwight Waldo and Frank Marini
 Core theme: Relevance, values, equity and change
Other Features:
 Social equity; No to Value-neutrality; No to ‘Politics-
Administration’ Dichotomy; Client Orientation; less
hierarchical, less formal Bureaucracy
 4 D’s of New Public Organization: Decentralization,
Delegation, democratization, debureaucratization

Books/Literature/ Contributions
 Dwight waldo: Led the NPA movement
 ‘The Administrative State’ (1948)
 ‘Ideas and Issues in Public Administration’(1953)
 ‘Public administration in Time Of Turbulence’(1971)

Frank Marini: coordinated 1st Minnowbrook conference

 ‘Toward a New Public Administration: The Minnowbrook
Perspective’-1971
Herbert Kaufman: ‘‘Administrative Decentralization and political
power’(1969)’; ‘The Forest Ranger: A Study in Administrative
Behaviour (1960)’

New Public  Attempt to tune Public Administration to Neo-liberal economic

Management (NPM) system
 Public sector to adopt Pvt sector managerial practices and style
 Emerged in UK in late 1980s-Thatcher era
 Spread to OECD Nations-Canada, USA, Australia, New
Zealand; later on to developing nations

95
  2nd Minnow Brook conference-1988 and ‘Re-inventing
Government’ by Osborne and Gaebler (1992)- driving force
Features:
 Market principles- competition, customer focus, economy,
efficiency, profit, etc. in Public Administration
 Management style and practices of private sectors
 Devolution and decentralisation
 Government to ‘Steer’ Not ‘Row’- Regulatory State
 Contracting out, outsourcing Government to private sector
 Result oriented; performance measurement and appraisal
 Citizen as Customer
 Entrepreneurial spirit in public organizations

 NPM Buzzwords: Quasi-market, performance measurement,

Contracting out, outsourcing, PPP, minimum Government
maximum governance, Autonomy, empowerment

Books/Literature/ Contributions
 David Osborne (1951) and Ted Gaebler: ‘‘Reinventing
Government: How the Entrepreneurial Spirit Is Transforming
the Public Sector’ (1992)’
 Margret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan- supported NPM
 Fredrick Hayak: Neo-liberal ideologue- influenced Thatcher and
Reagan

New Public  Re-inventing ‘Publicness’ of Public Administration

Service(NPS)

Features:
 Serve rather than ‘Steer’
 Focus- ‘Public Interest’; Democratic Citizenship,
Community and Civil Society
 Serve Citizen NOT Customer
 Complex Accountability
 creation of public value rather than profit or productivity
 Trusteeship and stewardship in Public Administration
 Participative, collaborative, responsive, open and accessible
govt./governance

96
 Books/Literature/ Contributions
 Robert B. Denhardt: Father of New Public Service
 ‘New Public Service: Serving, not Steering’(2003).
 ‘ Public Administration: An Action Orientation’ (1987)
 ‘Theories of public organization’ (1984)
 ‘ Re-vitalization of Public service’( 1987)

 Janet Denhardt: along with Robert Denhardt led NPS movement

 ‘ Street level Leadership: Discretion and Legitimacy in
front line Public Service’- 1998
 ‘The New Public Service, The Dance of Leadership’ -2006
Michael Sandel: Communitarian- shared public value- part of NPS

Good Governance  Came into fore in 1990s- 1992 world bank report- ‘Governance
and Development’
 First used by Harlan Cleveland in mid 1970s who said “ what
we want is minimum government, maximum Governance”
Features:
 Participation, Rule of Law, Transparency, Responsiveness,
Accountability, Social Equity and Inclusiveness, multi-stake
holder model, governance approach

Good Governance Index:

 Human Development Index (HDI)
 Quality of Life Index (QLI)
 Ease of doing Business Index
 Corruption Perceptions Index
 Environmental Performance Index (EPI)
 Universal Human Rights Index

97
FACT SHEET PA.2: VERY IMPORTANT BOOKS AND AUTHORS IN
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Books/articles/Essay Author Facts/Features
The Study of Administration-1887 Woodrow  Article by Wilson which
Wilson formally started academic
discipline of Public
Administration
 Politics-Administration
Dichotomy

Politics and Administration: A Study in Frank Johnson  Further deepened the

Government(1900) Goodnow Politics-Administration
Dichotomy
The Principles of Scientific Frederick Gave scientific Management
Management-1911 Taylor principles
Political Parties: A Sociological Study Robert Michels “Iron Law of Oligarchy “
of the Oligarchical Tendencies of
Modern Democracy-1911

General and Industrial Management- Henri Fayol Included 14 principles of

1916 management
‘Economy and Society’-1921 Max Weber In this book included
‘Bureaucracy’ -essay- his
bureaucratic theory

Introduction to the study of Public [Link] 1st text book in Public

Administration-1926 Administration
Principles of Public Administration- W. F. 2nd textbook in the field
1927 Willoughby

1. ‘The Human Problems of an Elton Mayo Human Relation Approach

Industrial Civilization. (1933) Behavioural Approach in
2. ‘Human problems of an individual Public Administration
civilization (1946)
3. ‘The Social Problems of an Industrial
Civilization (1945)

Papers on the science of Luther Gulick Collection of papers/articles

administration-1937 on scientific principles of
Administration

98
Notes on theory of Organizations-1937 Luther Gulick ‘POSDCORB’- prominently
and Lyndall appeared in this book
Urwick

The Functions of the Executive-1938 Chester Barnard  Organisation as social

cooperative system
 ‘Zone of Indifference’

Dynamic Administration-1941 Mary Parker ‘Constructive conflict’, ‘law

Creative Experience-1924 Follett of situation’ ‘situational
Leadership’
1. Administrative Behaviour: A Herbert Simon  ‘Bounded rationality’
Study of Decision-Making  ‘Satisficing’’
Processes in Administrative
Organization  ‘Administrative Man’

2. ‘Public Administration’(1950)
3. ‘Organisation' (1958)
‘The Human Side of Enterprise’(1960) Douglas ‘Theory X and Theory Y’
McGregor

 ‘The Administrative State(1948)’ Dwight Waldo Brought values back into

 Ideas and Issues in Public Public Administration
Administration
Toward a New Public Administration: Frank Marini With Waldo led the NPA
The Minnowbrook Perspective-1971 movement

[Link] and Industria: Toward a Fred W. Riggs  Ecological approach to

Typology of Comparative Public Administration
Administration(1955)  ‘Prismatic Society’-
[Link] Ecology of Public Administration formalisation,
(1961) heterogeneity, overlapping
[Link] in Developing  ‘Bazar Canteen model’
Countries (1964)
 ‘Sala Model’; ‘Clect’

‘Science of Public Administration- 3 Robert Dahl  Public Administration is

problems’-1947 Not Science
 3 Problems: values,
behaviour, and culture.

‘Reflections on public administration’- John Merriman Ecological approach to

1947 Gaus Public Administration

99
A Reader in Bureaucracy-1953 Robert Merton Link between social class,
status and bureaucracy

Women in Public Administration-2010 Helisse Levine Feminist Approach to Public

and Maria Administration
D'Agostino
1.‘Gender Images in public Camilla Stivers One the most prominent
administration’-1993 thinker on feminist approach
2.’Bureau Men, Settlement Women’- to Public Administration
2000
3.‘Democracy, Bureaucracy, And the
Study of Administration’- 2001
The Feminist Case Against Kathy E.
Bureaucracy-1984 Ferguson

Managing for Results-1964 Peter Drucker Management by Objective

The New Public Service: Serving, Not Robert B. ‘New Public Service’
Steering-2003 Denhardt Approach
Politics and Vision-1960 Sheldon “Inverted Totalitarianism”, in
Sanford Wolin which economic rather than
political power is
dangerously dominant
Creating public value-1995 Mark Moore Public sector should create
public value Not profit or
wealth

Reinventing Government-1992 David Osborne Helped bring New Public

and Ted Management (NPM)
Gaebler
Ethics and Public Administration - H. George
1993 Frederickson
Administrative Decentralization and Herbert A journal Article
political power-1969 Kaufman

Who Governs?: Democracy and Power Robert Dahl Developed his pluralist
in an American City(1961) decision making theory
The Science of Public Administration: Robert Dahl values, behavior, and
Three Problems. ( Essay) culture makes difficult to
develop science of
administration

100
FACT SHEETS- IR:
INTERNATIONAL
REALTION

101
 FACT SHEET 1 : IR THEORIES
IR. 1A: REALISM: REALIST APPROCAH TO IR
Themes/components Facts/features
Core Themes  National Interest defined in terms of Power is the bases
of IR and Global politics
 Interest and power are signposts of politics
 Statism: States are the main actors in IR
 International state system is Anarchic- absence of any
world Govt. Each state is to survive by self-help
 No Idealism, universal morality, benevolence, altruism
in IR
 Each nation can do anything to protect its national
interest, only limitation is the relative power and
capabilities
 Politics is autonomous of universal moral principles.
Politics has its own rules of morality.
 Nations while protecting their national interests are not
bound by universal moral precepts.
Features  3 ‘S’ : Statism, Survival, Self-Help
 Statism: States are main actors of IR
 Survival and Self-Help: International state system
is anarchic; hence self-help is only way for survival
of state
 Great variation in relative powers of the states
 Balance of Power: In absence of world govt for survival
Power must be balanced by power.
 States are defined as rational actors, pursuing their
interests rather than being agents of morality.
 Interests rather than national morality guides actions of
states in global world order.
 State pursue goal of ‘security maximization’ or ‘power
maximization’ for its survival
 Security Dilemma( coined by John Herz) : lack of
trust- each state increasing its capabilities/power- end
result heightened tension, no increase in security

Classical Realism  Hans Morgenthau is father of Classical Realism

102
  Gave 6 principles of Realism in his book ‘Politics among
nation(1948)’
 Based on human nature: competitive and egoistic human
nature as base of realist approach
 Behaviours of States matches human behaviour
 Interest and power are signposts of politics
 Politics has its own standard of morality.
 National interest, and Not national morality, decides
foreign policy
 Other thinkers: Thucydides, Thomas Hobbes, E.H. Carr,
Arnold Wolfers

Neo Realism  Propounded by Kenneth Waltz in his book ‘Theory of

International Politics(1979)’
 Instead of human nature its bases its theory on Anarchic
Structure of International state system and great
variation in relative powers and capabilities of states.
 Also called structural realism
 States aim security, power is means to attain security
 Hence, States are security maximiser

Offensive Vs Defensive  Offensive: State are power maximiser

Neo Realism  States try to achieve security through domination and
hegemony
o John Mearsheimer-chief proponent
 Defensive: States are security maximiser, for them
power is only means to achieve security goal.
 States maintain moderate and reserved policies to attain
security
 Structural modifiers- security dilemma, geography, elite
beliefs and perceptions
o Kenneth Waltz, Robert Jervis, John Herz,
Stephen Walt, Jack Snyder

Main Thinkers-  Thucydides: Father of Realism; His ’Melian

Classical Realism dialogue’(on Peloponnesian War- between Athens &
Sparta) is regarded as a classic realist account.
 Machiavelli : His ‘Prince’ a classic in Realism
 Thomas Hobbes: His ‘Leviathan’ is realist in approach

103
  Hans Morgenthau: Father of IR; ‘Politics Among
Nations’ (1948)- gave 6 principles of Classical Realism
 Interest & Power Flag post/placard of Politics
 Interest defined in terms of power- bases of IR
 Politics separate from morality
 E. H. Carr : ‘The Twenty Years' Crisis’ (1939)

Main Thinkers- Neo-  Kenneth Waltz: Father of Neo-Realism

Realism  wrote ‘Man, the State, and War’,( 1959)
‘Theory of International Politics’ (1979)- this book
gave birth to Neo-realism
 John Mearsheimer: Offensive Neo-realism; “The
Tragedy of Great Power” (2001)
 Robert Kaplan: ‘’The Coming Anarchy” (paper
articles), Asia's Cauldron; pioneer in system approach
in IR
 Robert Jervis: Perception and Misperception in
International Politics
 Reinhold Niebuhr : Christian realism ; ‘Moral Man and
Immoral Society’(1932), ‘Nature and destiny of
Man’(19390

104
 FACT SHEET IR 1.B: LIBERALISM: LIBERAL APPROACH TO IR
Themes/components Facts/features

Core Themes  Taking human nature as positive (rational, co-operative,

tolerant), it focusses more on co-operation,
interdependence, international institutions, etc. in IR
 National Interests are varied, multi-dimensional, cannot
be solely defined in terms of power
 States are main but not the sole actor
 NGOs, MNCs, International Institutions, cobweb of
people/groups linked through multiple channels of
interactions
 Free trade, free flow of capital, modernisation,
globalisation, democracy, people to people contact and
cooperation, international regime and institutions, shall
bound/integrate nations towards cooperation and
interdependence
 Vision of less conflictual and more peaceful and
progressive world joined by common interests and bound
by interdependence and integration.
Features  Liberalism and realism are two contending mainstream
theories in IR
 Deals with ‘Low politics’ Issues- Economic, Social,
ecological, technological (High politics- National
security, War, Diplomacy- dealt in by realism)
 Idealism- Belief in moral values, cosmopolitanism,
progress, peace, Institutions
 Closely linked to liberal democracy- free market
capitalist economy, Democratic welfare state- and
Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation (LPG)
 2 variations: Classical and Neo-Liberalism
 Neo-liberalism has gone too close to neo-realism in
ideology

Neo Liberalism  Less idealistic, more pragmatic

 Primacy of state, power politics, anarchic world order but
belief in Institutions to facilitate peace and cooperation
 States are rational actor, seeking to maximize their
interests- which are varied- in the anarchic world order

105
  In cooperative venture, states are concerned with absolute
gains, not relative gains, but concerned about cheating
 State may shift loyalty and resources to institutions if they
are mutually beneficial and fulfil interests of the state
 Obstacle to cooperation: areas of no common interest (zero
sum game), cheating- no compliance by others,
 International regimes and institutions help govern a
competitive and anarchic world system
Democratic peace  Liberal belief that democracies often avoid going to wars
theory due to people’s pressure
 Given first by Immanuel Kant (‘Perpetual Peace’)
 Democratic Peace Theory: Michael W. Doyle

Complex  Given by Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye

Interdependence theory  Multiple and layered channel of interconnections: Inter-
state, trans governmental, and transnational
 Absence of Hierarchy among Issues: overlapping issues-
no primacy to security/military issue
 Minor role of Military force in resolving conflicts in
globalized world
 It has become core principle of neo-liberalism. It is half
way between realism and liberalism, between power
politics and cooperation, between high and low politics.
Main Thinkers  Classical:
 Immanuel Kant: gave ‘Perpetual Peace’ Theory
 Thomas Paine: wrote ‘Rights of Man(1791)’
 Jeremy Bentham: Father of utilitarianism
 Woodrow Wilson: 14 point - statement of principles
for peace
 Neo-Liberalism
 Democratic Peace; Security Community
 Michael W. Doyle- ‘’Democratic Peace’’,
‘’Liberalism and World Politics’’
 Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye: Complex
Interdependence Theory- ‘Power and
Interdependence’
 David Mitrany- Functional integration theory-‘ The
Functional Theory of Politics(1975)’

106
 FACT SHEET IR 1.C: MARXISM: MARXIST APPROACH TO IR

Themes/components Facts/features
Meaning- Core Theme  Viewing and analysing IR from class lens.
 Based on Marxist theory of state- state acting to protect
and further the interests of dominant class
 Class, and not states are the main actor in IR
 IR is not interplay of Interest and power but reflection
of global mode of production and resulting relation of
production among states- global economic structure
determine global politics
 International system is capitalist world order whose
structure and dynamics further the interest of dominant
class
 Colonialism and imperialism were process of capitalist
expansion; Globalization is nothing but global
expansion of capitalism- new capitalist imperialism
 Dominant class/state not only use force but also its
hegemony to make their ideas, ideologies, worldviews
as mainstream and commonly accepted by subordinate
class/states- soft power or cultural hegemony

Features  A kind of critical theory.

 Present a 3rd way, different from mainstream Realism
and Liberalism
 Multiple Strands
 World System and Dependency Theory
 Hegemony of Gramsci
 Neo-Marxism
 Critical Theories- The Frankfurt School

World System Theory  Given by Immanuel Wallerstein

 Structure of global state system – Core, periphery, and
semi- periphery areas;

107
  Core: developed capitalist states; Periphery: poor state
working as satellite of core- exploited by core
 Closely linked to theory of imperialism and dependency
theory
 Dominant class in core in alliance with dominant class
in periphery exploit masses/labour class in periphery.
Dependency Theory  Given by Raúl Prebisch, Fernando Henrique Cardoso,
and Andre Gunder Frank
 Seemingly developed regions within an
underdeveloped nation are satellites of the ‘Core’
 These satellites further develop their own satellites in
the hinterland of the periphery
 Hierarchical satellite structure
 Such development is not autonomous, self-generating,
sustainable, and equitable. Actually, it is development
of underdevelopment( A.G. Frank)!
Hegemony by Gramsci  Antonio Gramsci’s concept of ‘Hegemony’ in his
‘Prison Notebook’(1971)
 Hegemony- 3rd dimension of power –manufactured
consent- moral, political, cultural values/ideas of
dominant class accepted as ;normal and ‘common
sense’ by subordinate/exploited class
 Hegemony is created and maintained by civil society
and network of institutions- media, educational system,
NGOs, etc. in the ‘Superstructure’
 Through Hegemony, dominant class maintain its
dominance in the ‘Base’ without use of
coercion/violence
 In IR, hegemony manifest in dominant capitalist
power/state controlling global superstructure – internet,
financial market, global trade- and manufacturing
consent on prevailing moral, political, cultural
values/ideas- dress, food, entertainment, Leisure,
worldview, etc.
Great Debate in Marxist  Structuralist vs Instrumental view of Capitalist State
IR- Miliband–Poulantzas  Miliband: Capitalist state works to serve the interest of
debate the capitalist class- instrumental view of state
 Nicos Poulantzas: Instead of serving the interest of
capitalist class, the state reproduces the social structure

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 which perpetuates capitalism- structural view of the
state
Main Thinkers • Classical: Lenin, Stalin, Mao Zedong, Louis Althusser,
Karl Kautsky
• World system theory & Dependency theory:
Immanuel Wallerstein, Raúl Prebisch, Fernando
Henrique Cardoso, Andre Gunder Frank
• Gramscianism: Antonio Gramsci, Robert Cox
• Neo-Marxism: Justin Rosenberg, Immanuel
Wallerstein, Samir Amin, AG Frank
• Analytical Marxism: G. A. Cohen, Jon Elster, John
Roemer, Erik Olin Wright, Adam Przeworski
• Frankfurt School: Herbert Marcuse, Jurgen Habermas,
Andrew Linklater
• Marxist Feminist: Rosa Luxemburg, Alexandra
Kollontai

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 FACT SHEET IR 1.D: FEMINIST APPROACH TO IR

Themes/components Facts/features
Core Themes  Viewing and analysing IR from Gender lens.
 Theory and practices of IR are guided by Masculine world
view
 National interest defined in terms of power, power
defined as domination, security defined as having
maximum power
 Competition for power, war, exploitation
 States are Power seeking, rational and amoral entity
 International processes are not gender-neutral, and gender
relation are not insulated from international factors.
 Personal is International
 all aspects of IR are related to gendered relation in
family/society– war, security, power, Interest, foreign
policy
 Question invisibility and marginalization of women in IR-
where are the women?
 ‘Militarization’, overemphasis on brute power, war,
conflict, interests further push women to the margin of
IR
 Redefining concepts and components of IR from feminist
perspective will make world more peaceful, interconnected,
co-operative, moral, and less exploitative, unequal,
conflictual

Features  A kind of critical theory.

 Reveal the gendered aspect of IR
 Multiple Strand
 Liberal Feminism
 Radical Feminism
 Marxist Feminism
 3rd World Feminism
 Eco-feminism

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Main Thinkers • Liberal:
• Marry Wollstonecraft (‘’vindication of the rights of
women’’)
• [Link]- ‘Subjection of Women’
• Raja Ram Mohan Roy
• Radical:
• Simone de Beauvoir- ‘the second sex’
• Marxist:
• Rosa Luxemburg, Alexandra Kollontai
• Prominent IR feminists:
• Judith Ann Tickner:
• Most influential feminist in IR
• She re-formulated Morgenthau’s 6 principles of IR from
feminist perspective
• Her famous books:
• ‘Feminism and International Relations’;
‘Gender in international relations’
• Cynthia Enloe:
• Where is women in International Relation?
• Her books: ‘Bananas Beaches and Bases’; ‘personal
is international’
• Carol Cohn : Her books : ‘Women and Wars’
• Laura Sjoberg: “Gendering Global Conflict:
Toward a Feminist Theory of War ”

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 FACT SHEET IR 1.E: CONSTRUCTIVISM IN IR

Themes/components Facts/features

Core Themes  Core aspects of IR, such as Anarchism, Power politics,

institutionalism, etc., are socially constructed, that is, they
are given their form by ongoing processes of social practice
and interaction.
 Thus, instead of human nature or structure of state system,
it bases its theory on social construction of ideas and
concepts related to IR.
 For Constructivists, features and events of IR are matter of
interpretation rather than explanation.
 Constructivists cut both neo-realism and neo-liberalism
citing them as too much materialistic. Rather it gives more
weightage to ideas, which are socially constructed.
 Core them “structures of human association are determined
primarily by shared ideas rather than material forces, and
that the identities and interests of purposive actors are
constructed by these shared ideas rather than given by
nature” (given by Alexander Wendt)
 Social Theory of IR

Features  A kind of critical theory.

 Reveal the socially constructed character of IR
 It negates cognitivist approach to knowledge, rather it
focusses more on knowledge created through social
interactions, meaning making by societies.
 Focusses on role of ideas, identities, norms and culture in
international politics
 Identity determines interests; interests determine action
 International organizations are purposive social agents in
world politics that can shape state interests
 Closer to post-modernist approach to IR

Main Thinkers  Nicholas Onuf – coined the term ‘constructivism’

o His book ‘World of Our Making(1989)’
 Alexander Wendt- most influential constructivist thinker
 His books: ‘’Social Theory of International Politics’’
 Peter J. Katzenstein

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 Emanuel Adler
 Michael Barnett
 Kathryn Sikkink
 John Ruggie
 Martha Finnemore
 Her Book: ‘’National Interests in International Society’’
 ‘’Rules for the World: International Organizations in
Global Politics’’

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 FACT SHEET IR 1.F: OTHER THEORIES/APPROACHES TO IR
Themes/components Facts/features

Post-Modernist  Negate possibility of any objective truth.

Approach to IR  Truth or knowledge is subjective, depends on the
perspective of the subject
 mistrust of grand narrative( meta-narrative): It reject
grand theory such as Marxism or Hegel’s historicism
 De-constructivism: to understand true meaning of any
word, concept, we need to analyse the word in relation to
its opposites and other related words and how its meaning
is related to these words.
 For example, feminist use de-constructivism to analyse
gender relation by deconstructing the meaning of men &
women in any language.
 Uses genealogy, text, narrative, discourse, deconstruction
and double reading to explain world politics.
 Linked to Post-structuralism: analysing themes &
concepts of IR going beyond the structure of state system,
as done in Neo-realism & neo-liberalism.
 Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida, both post-
modernists, are founders of post-structuralism.
 Post-structuralism uses methods of deconstruction, double
reading, archaeology and genealogy, etc. to understand
IR.

Main Thinkers  Jean-François Lyotard: mistrust of grand narratives

 Michel Foucault: Power as normalisation, giving specific
identity, and making people governable
o Knowledge- power constituting each other
 Jacques Derrida- Deconstruction of text

English school in IR  The English school is built around three key concepts:
international system, international society and world
society.
 International System:
 formed when two or more states have sufficient
contact between them, and have sufficient impact on
one another’s decisions to cause them to behave as
parts of a whole.

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  International Society:
 An international society exists when a group of like-
minded states conceive themselves to be bound by a
common set of rules in their relations with one
another, and share in the working of common
institutions
 international society is about the creation and
maintenance of shared norms, rules and institutions.
 World system:
 world society transcends the state system and takes
individuals, non-state actors and ultimately the global
population as the focus of global societal identities and
arrangements.

Main Thinkers  Herbert Butterfield –‘Diplomatic Investigations (1966)’

 Hedley Bull- The Anarchical Society (1977)
 Martin Wight- Systems of States (1977)
o He combined rationalism of Hugo Grotius, Realism
of Hobbes, and Revolutionism of Kant to develop
a synthetic IR theory
 James Mayall - Nationalism and International Society
(1990)

The Copenhagen  The Copenhagen School places particular emphasis on the

School non-military aspects of security, a shift away from
traditional security studies
 Main thinkers: Barry Buzan, Ole Wæver and Jaap de
Wilde.
 The primary book of the Copenhagen School is Security:
A New Framework for Analysis, written by Buzan, Wæver
and de Wilde.
 Many of the school's members worked at the Copenhagen
Peace Research Institute.
 A prominent critic of the Copenhagen School is Bill
McSweeney.

Rational Choice  States and non-state actors in IR are rational actors- in

Theory interaction they try to maximize their interest/preferences
 Outcomes in IR are result of rational behaviour by the
concerned actors

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  “logic of consequences” - actors choose the most efficient
means to reach their goals on the basis of a cost-benefit
analysis
 Key concepts - incomplete information, credibility,
signalling, transaction costs, trust, and audience costs
 Rational Choice Institutionalism: actors use
international institutions to maximize their utility, and that
institutions affect rational behaviour of the actors.
 Main Thinkers: James D. Fearon(rationalist explanation
for war), Thomas Schelling(conflicts as bargaining
situations)

Neo-Classical Realism  Neoclassical realism is an approach to foreign policy

analysis, in which dynamics of international politics is
analysed in terms of domestic politics, such as state–
society relations, the nature of their domestic political
regimes, strategic culture, and leader perceptions
 Thus, it synthesises domestic and global politics
 Initially coined by Gideon Rose in a 1998
 It is a combination of classical realist and neorealist,
particularly defensive realist
 Main Thinkers:
 William Wohlforth
 Thomas J. Christensen
 Jennifer Sterling-Folker
 Gideon Rose
 Randall Schweller
 Fareed Zakaria

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 FACT SHEET IR 1.G: GREAT DEBATES IN IR

The great debates Facts/features Remarks

1. Idealism vs Timeline: Inter-war ( 1930-40) E.H, Carr’s book ‘The
Realism Idealists: possibility of perpetual peace, Twenty Years' Crisis 1919-
institutionalism- League of nation, 14 1939’, describes this debate
point principle, etc
WWII, and failure of the
Realists: Anarchy, statism, self-help, League of nation declared
survival victory of Realism over
Idealism

2. Timeline: 1950s A Methodological debate

Behaviouralism Behaviouralism: positivist scientific How to study IR?
vs Traditionalism approach to study IR, fact value
separation, primacy to facts,
Hedley Bull ( of English
observations, inductive method,
school) - Traditionalist
scientific theory falsifiable
Morton Kaplan( system
approach in IR)-
Traditionalism: Behaviouralist
Historicist/interpretative and subjective
approach to study IR , philosophical,
normative, case study method

3. Inter- Timeline: 1970s and 1980s Neo-Neo debate is part of

Paradigm Debate Between Realism, this
Pluralism/Liberalism, and Marxism Neo-neo debate focusses on
efficacies of international
institution and regimes
Also called debate between realism,
institutionalism( neo-liberalism) and Neo-realists believe in
structuralism( Marxism) relative gain and IR as zero
sum game, whereas liberal
institutionalism ( neo-
liberalism) believes in
absolute gain

4. Rationalism vs Timeline: Contemporary Denote Post-positivism in

Reflectivism IR

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was started by Robert Keohane in an Also called Positivism –
International Studies Association Post Positivism debate
debate in 1988
an epistemological ( how
Rationalists: positivism, scientific do we know IR) debate
enquiry, Analytical, empirical
validation or falsification
Reflectivism includes post-
modernism, feminism,
Reflectivity: emphasize the importance constructivism and critical
of norms and ideas in IR, prefer theory
interpretive and subjective study,
values cannot be separate from
observation, knowledge-power nexus

Rationalist theories: Neo-realism, Neo-

liberalism
Reflective theories: Social
constructivism, critical theories

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FACT SHEET: IR BOOKS &
AUTHORS

119
 FACT SHEET IR 2: IMPORTANT IR BOOKS AND THEIR
AUTHOR(S)

Ideology Book( year) Author Theme

Realism Politics Among Nations: Hans 6 principles of classical

The Struggle for Power and Morgenthau realism
Peace (1948)

Melian dialogue (about 400 Thucydides War between Athens &

BCE) Sparta- Peloponnesian
war
1.‘Theory of International Kenneth Gave theory of Neo-
Politics’(1979) Waltz realism
2. Man, the State, and War
Level of Analysis
The Tragedy of Great John Offensive Neo-realism-
Power Politics (2001) Mearsheimer states are power
maximisers; conflict
between great powers will
never see an end
The Twenty years' Crisis E. H. Carr Realist account of
(1939) International-war period
Moral Man and Immoral Reinhold Christian realism
Society (1932) Niebuhr
Nature and destiny of Man
(1939)

1) The Coming Robert 1) Theses on the state of

Anarchy (article,1994) Kaplan current world affairs in
2) Asia's Cauldron the post-Cold War era
(2014) 2) Conflict among nations
3) Monsoon: The in south China Sea
Indian Ocean and the 3) growing importance of
Future of American Power the Indian Ocean and its
(2010) perimeter states as the
new geopolitical center
of the developing world
Perception and Robert Jervis political psychology:
Misperception in cognitive psychology to
decision making in IR-

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 International Politics(
1976)
The Art of War(1521) Niccolò A realist account of
Machiavelli military history, strategy,
or theory; in the form of
Socratic dialogue

The Art of War(5th Century Sun Tzu ancient Chinese military

BCE) treatise
Leviathan (1651) Thomas Realist account of state of
Hobbes nature, state, sovereignty,
a-moral and value-free
international system, etc.

System and Process in Morton A. unit level analysis and

International Politics Kaplan system theory in IR
(1957)

Liberalism On the Law of War and Hugo Grotius •Jus ad Bellum (right to
Peace(1625) war)
•Jus in Bello (rights in
war)
•Rights of Individuals
•Humanitarian
Intervention
•Freedom of the Seas

Perpetual Immanuel Democratic peace theory

Peace (1795) Kant

14 point peace Woodrow Idealism in IR- peace,

principle(1918) Wilson cooperation,
interdependence
After Hegemony: Robert Gave principles of neo-
Cooperation and Discord in Keohane liberalism in IR
the World Political
Economy(1984)

Soft Power: The Means To Joseph Nye Nye coined ‘soft power’
Success In World Politics( in IR
2004)
Power and Keohane and Gave theory of complex
Interdependence-World Nye interdependence

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 Politics in Transition Primary book of neo-
(1977) liberalism in IR
[Link] Peace: Selected Michael W. Gave democratic peace
Essays ( 2011) Doyle theory
2. ’Liberalism and World
Politics’’( 1986)

The Functional Theory of David Gave theory of Functional

Politics (1975) Mitrany integration
International Regimes Stephen D. international regime as
(1983) Krasner international process and
collection of rules, norms
of behaviour in IR
Diplomacy and Domestic Robert Gave Two-Level Game
Politics: The Logic of Two- Putnam theory for international
Level Games (1988) organisation
Taking Preferences Andrew Role of domestic factors
Seriously: A Liberal Theory Moravcsik in shaping international
of International Relations relations
(1997)

Marxism Economic and Philosophic Karl Marx Early Marx- Theory of

Manuscripts (1844) Alienation
The German Ideology With Engels materialistic conception
(1845),; published in 1932 of history
The Manifesto of the class struggle, conflict in
With Engels
Communist Party (1848) capitalist society, social
revolution "The history of
all hitherto existing
society is the history of
class struggles“
Das Kapital (Capital)- 1967 Dissection of Capitalism,
its contradiction,
destructive tendencies
With Engles a critique of the ‘Young
The Holy Family(1844)
Hegelians’ and their
thoughts
Other books by Marx:
Note He wrote on class
The Poverty of Philosophy’ struggle, and socio-
; ‘The Eighteenth Brumaire political history of France.
of Louis Bonaparte’ ;’The

122
Civil War in France’ ; ‘the
Grundrisse’; ‘Theories of
Surplus Value’ ;'the critique
of political economy’, ‘The
Class Struggles in France’,
and ‘The Critique of the
Gotha Program of 1875’

The Origin of the Family, Critique of capitalist

Private Property and the Frederick nuclear family
State (1884) Engels
Socialism: Utopian and
Scientific (1880)

World-Systems Analysis: Gave ‘World System

An Introduction (2004) Immanuel Theory’- Core, Semi-
The Modern World-System ( Wallerstein periphery, and Periphery
1974)
The Capitalist World-
Economy (1979)

The Development of Andre Gave the dependency

Underdevelopment (1966) Gunder Frank theory
Capitalism and
Underdevelopment in Latin
America (1967)
Unequal Samir Amin Unequal exchange
development(1974) between the ‘Core’ and
‘periphery’
Amin coined the term’
Eurocentrism’
‘Prison Notebooks’ (1929- Antonio Gave theory of ‘cultural
35) A Gramsci Hegemony’
Great and Terrible World:
The Pre-Prison Letters,
1908-1926

The follies of globalisation critique of “realist” theory

Theory (2000) Justin of IR ; provides a
The empire of civil society Rosenberg historical-materialist
(1994)

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 approach to the
international system
Production, power, and Robert W. reciprocal relationship
world order (1987) Cox between power and
Political economy of a production
plural world (2002) Globalisation: global civil
society, power and
knowledge
Beyond Realism and Andrew Critical Theorist
Marxism(1990) Linklater
‘The Transformation of
Political Community’
(1998)
Critical Theory and World
Politics (2007)
One-Dimensional Man Herbert critique of both capitalism
(1964) Marcuse and the Communist
society of the Soviet
Union
The Theory of Jürgen Criticism of
Communicative Action Habermas modernisation; adaptation
(1981) of Talcott Parsons’ AGIL
Paradigm

Feminism Gendering world politics J. Ann Feminist re-formulation

(2001) Tickner of 6 Principles of
Morgenthau
Gender in international J. Ann
relations (1992) Tickner

Bananas, Beaches and Cynthia Role of women in IR as

Bases(1990) Enloe plantation sector workers,
diplomatic wives, sex
workers on military bases,
etc.
tackles themes of tourism,
nationalism, militarism,
consumerism, diplomacy,
and domestic work.

‘Women and Wars’ (2013) Carol Cohn

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 Gendering Global Conflict. Laura Women’s issue in conflict
Toward a Feminist Theory Sjoberg & war
of War (2013)

Beyond the Band of Megan Busting the myth of only

Brothers (2015) MacKenzie man capable of military
service
Just War Theory( 1991) Jean Bethke
New Wine in Old Bottles: Elshtain
International Politics and
Ethical Discourse (1998)
Women and War(1995)
Feminist International Christine
Relations: An Unfinished Sylvester
Journey(2001)

Feminist International Marysia

Relations: 'Exquisite Zalewski
Corpse'(2013)
Feminism and international Sandra
relations (1994) Whitworth

Social Social Theory of Alexander Propound constructivist

Constructivism International Politics Wendt approach to the study of
(1999) international relations

World of our making ( Nicholas Formative book on

1989) Onuf constructivist approach to
IR
World Ordering: A Social Emanuel An evolutionary-
Theory of Cognitive Adler constructivist social
Evolution( 2019) theory of change and
stability of international
social orders
A world of regions (2005) Peter J. Importance of regions in
Katzenstein post-cold war global
politics.

National Interests in Martha

International Society Finnemore
(1996)

125
 Empire of Humanity: A Michael
History of Barnett
Humanitarianism (2011)

Security Communities Emanuel a group of states that

(1998) Adler and enjoy relations of
Michael dependable expectations
Barnett of a peace.

The Security: A New Barry Buzan, New perspective on non-

Copenhagen Framework for Analysis Ole Wæver military security
School and Jaap de
Wilde.

People, States and Fear: Barry Buzan

The National Security
Problem in International
Relations (1983)

Mixed Models, methods, and [Link] Scientific study of world

progress in world politics Singer politics and the causes and
(1990) prevention of war.

Political Community and Karl Deutsch Theory of Security

the North Atlantic Area Community
(1957)
Essence of Decision (1971) Graham Decision making in IR by
Allison case study of 1962 Cuban
Missile Crisis

India and Asian Shivshankar

Geopolitics: The Past, Menon
Present (2021)
Never-Ending War on Alex Lubin
Terror (2021)
The Rule of Unwritten Peter G.
International Law (2020) Staubach

The Best and the Brightest David Explains origins of the

(1972) Halberstam, Vietnam War- how
common sense defy
global politics
Seeing Like a State (1998) James Scott, About man-made
disasters by centralized

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 political authority (i.e.,
the absence of dissent)
and “totalistic” ideologies
Strategy of Conflict Thomas Against the backdrop of
Schelling the nuclear arms race in
the late 1950s, the book
explains game theory in
IR

Arms and Influence Thomas Explains the diplomacy of

Schelling violence- how arms
capability gives
bargaining powers to
states

Guns, Germs, and Steel. Jared explains why small

Diamond differences in climate,
population, agronomy,
and the like turned out to
have far-reaching effects
on the evolution of human
societies and the long-
term balance of power in
IR

The Influence of Sea Power Alfred Role of sea power in IR

Upon History: 1660–1783 Thayer
Mahan
An Inconvenient Truth Al Gore Al Gore got Nobel peace
prize for his work on
climate change. He
headed IPCC.

Things Fall Apart Chinua significant account of

Achebe colonialism in Africa

Heart of Darkness Joseph raises questions

Conrad about imperialism and
racism

Black skin, while mask Frantz Fanon post-colonial studies,

Eurocentrism, black side
of European culture

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A dying Colonialism Frantz Fanon Frantz Fanon- one of the
most prolific post-
colonial writer/thinker

The wretched of the Earth Frantz Fanon

Orientalism Edward Said provides deep insight
about colonialism from
the perspective of
colonized people.
a critique of the cultural
representations of
‘Eastern’ Culture by
‘Europe’
Capitalism and Andre Explained his dependency
Underdevelopment in Latin Gunder Frank Theory- developing
America nation as satellites to the
core- developed nations

Eurocentrism: Modernity, Samir Amin Explained his concept of

Religion & Democracy Eurocentrism
The Implosion of
Contemporary Capitalism
The Clash of Civilization Samuel P. In this book Huntington
(1996) Huntington argued that future wars
would be fought not
between countries, but
between cultures

The Third Wave: Samuel P. Account of

Democratization in the Late Huntington democratisation all
Twentieth Century (1991) around the globe in 1980s
with weakening of
Communism.
The Great Illusion (1909) Norman discuss why there is war
Angell between the countries of
Europe, and how those
could be avoided
Bounding Power (2007) Daniel Explains republican
Deudney security theory, a stream
of realism in IR

128
Men and Citizens in the Andrew deals with the tension
Theory of International Linklater between the obligations of
Relations(1982) citizenship and the
obligations of humanity in
modern theories of the
state and international
relations

 The Rise and Fall of the Paul

Great Powers (1987) Kennedy
 Preparing for the Twenty-
first Century (1993)

 Conflict and defense Kenneth E.

(1962) Boulding

 Seeing Like a State(1998) James C. Raises question to high

Scott modernism, that centers
on confidence in the
ability to design and
operate society in
accordance with scientific
laws
 Weapons of the
Weak(1985) Coined the term ‘Infra-
politics’- methods
adopted by weak/sub-
alterns to resist the
dominant class

 The Influence of Sea Alfred

Power upon Thayer
History(1890) Mahan

 The Great Karl Polanyi political upheavals that

Transformation( 1944) took place in England
during the rise of the
market economy

 Manias, Panics and Charles P. Account of great

Crashes( 1978) Kindleberge depression and other
global financial crisis

 Rules for the World( Martha How International

2004) Finnemore organisation works

129
 The Anti-Politics James a critique of the
Machine(1990) Ferguson mainstream discourse of
"development"

 Our enemies and US( Ido Oren challenges IR’s

2003) understanding of itself as
an objective, progressive
social science.

 The Better Angels of Our Steven Pinker long-term downwards

Nature( 2011) trends in war and use of
violence in IR

 Ruling the Void Peter Mair Raises issue of decline of

Democratic politics

 White House Years & Henry Known for his ‘ Shuttle

Years of Upheaval(1973) Kissinger Diplomacy’

 The Best and the David origins of the Vietnam

Brightest(1972) Halberstam War

 Arms and Thomas Use of military

Influence(1966) Schelling capabilities as bargaining
power in IR

 People, States and Barry Buzan Buzan- Copenhagen

Fear(1983) School

 Systems of states (1977) Martin Wight Wight – English School

 The Anarchical Society Hedley Bull Belonged to the English

(1977) School

 After Victory (2001) and John He is liberal

Liberal Leviathan (2011) Ikenberry

 The Cold War: A New John Lewis Greatest historian of the

History(2005) Gaddis cold war

 Pax Indica ( 2012) Shashi

Tharoor

 Friends Not Masters( Mohammad autobiography of

1967) Ayub Khan President Mohammad
Ayub Khan of Pakistan,
and also a description of
the major events in the
history of Pakistan

130
 The shallow graves of 2000 Shahryar Khan
Rwanda

 An American Social Stanley

Science: International Hoffmann
Relations

 Nationalism and Anthony D.

modernism Smith

 Imagined Benedict Nation as imagined

Communities(1983) Anderson community

 Nations and Nationalism( Ernest

1983) Gellner

 Tragedy of Garrett How rational choice by

Commons(1968) Hardin actors kill the common
property

 Silent Spring( 1962) Rachel Landmark book on

Carson ecology

 Limits to growth( 1972) Club of Rome Early idea of sustainable

development

 Our Common Future( Brundtland This was UN commission

1987) Commission on sustainable
development

 Neo-colonialism: The Kwame Coined the term’ Neo-

Last Stage of Imperialism Nkrumah colonialism’
(1965)

 The nerves of government Karl Deutsch Landmark book on

(1963) communication theory-
cybernetics

 View from the UN U Thant 3rd secretary-general of

UN -1961 to 1971
1st from Asia
Longest serving UN Sec-
Gen

 In the Eye of the Storm Kurt 4th secretary-general of

Waldheim UN

 Pilgrimage for Peace Javier Pérez 5th secretary-general of

de Cuéllar UN

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  Interventions: A Life in Kofi Annan 7th secretary-general of
War in Peace UN

 Unvanquished: A U.S.– Boutros 6th secretary-general of

U.N. Saga Boutros- UN
Ghali

 Casino Capitalism (1986) Susan Challenges conventional

 The Retreat of the state( Strange ideas on global economy
1996) How globalisation affect
Sovereignty of states
Books on  Globalism/Anti- Anthony
globalisation Globalization(2002) McGrew and
David Held

 Democracy and the David Held Held is one the most

global order (1995) influential thinker on
 Globalization (1999) globalisation
Also remember his book :
 Cosmopolitanism: Ideals
‘Models of Democracy
and Realities (2007)
(1987)’
 Global Transformations(
1999)

 The World is Flat: The Thomas

Globalized World in the Friedman
Twenty-first Century(
2007)

 In Defense of Jagdish
Globalization (2004) Bhagwati

 Globalization and Its Joseph Globalisation itself is not

Discontents (2002) Stiglitz bad but it has not been
pushed carefully, or fairly
Stiglitz is a Noble laureate

 Ten Lessons for a Post- Fareed He is considered as neo-

Pandemic World( 2020) Zakaria classical realist
 The Post-American
World (2008)

Few popular  Revolution in Syria(2021) Kevin Mazur

Contemporary
books on IR

132
 Sincerity in Politics and Sorin Baiasu Collection of Essays
International Relations(
2021)

 India and Asian Shivshankar Menon served as National

Geopolitics( 2021) Menon Security Adviser( NSA)
of India under Prime
Minister of India
Manmohan Singh

 Territorial Politics and Martin Belov

Secession(2021)

133
FACT SHEETS IR 3:
MAJOR GLOBAL
EVENTS, TREATIES,
MOVEMENTS

134
 FACT SHEET IR 3.1: MAJOR COLD WAR EVENTS IN
CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER

Event Year Addl. Info/Features/Trivia

Truman 1947  US foreign policy towards containment of Communist
Doctrine expansion worldwide, especially in 3rd world
 “US would provide political, military and economic
assistance to all democratic nations under threat from
external or internal authoritarian forces”
 Called ‘containment’ policy

Berlin 1948-49  Blockade of West Berlin by USSR; Western Allies

Blockade organised the Berlin Airlift to keep food and supplies
flowing to West Berlin
 1st major crisis of the cold war

Korean War 1950-1953  Korea was Japan’s colony; after defeat of Japan in
WWII, it was divided into North and South Korea
along 38 degree latitude; North-Communist; South:
Capitalist
 1950-53: War between north & south Korea supported
by USSR/China and USA respectively
 1st major war during the Cold war

The Suez Crisis 1956  Egypt nationalised the Suez Canal

 This led to invasion of Egypt in late 1956 by Israel,
followed by the United Kingdom and France
 Known as 2nd Arab-Israel war, after the 1st war in 1948
Hungarian 1956  countrywide revolution against the USST supported
Revolution communist Government
 Was suppressed by USSR

U-2 Incident 1960  USSR shot down U-2 reconnaissance plane of USA
over its territory claiming it was Spy plane
 Resulted into diplomatic crisis and cancelling the 1960
Paris Summit between the WWII allied powers

Congo Crisis 1960-65  Civil war in Congo after it gained independence from
Belgium
 Proxy war between USA and USSR; they supported
rival groups

135
Erection of the 1961  Major diplomatic activities concerning the city of
Berlin Wall Berlin
 The ‘Iron Curtain’ manifested in form of physical
barrier ( the Berlin Wall) between the ‘East’ and ‘West’
Bay of Pigs 1961  a failed attempt by the USA to topple the Communist
Invasion regime in Cuba by supporting opposition groups
(Cuban exiles)
 This angered Cuban President Fidel Castro and led to
Cuban Missile Crisis
Colombo 1962  Indo-China War- peace attempt by 6 NAM countries
proposal who met at Colombo
Cuban Missile 1962  Cuba became communist led by Fidel Castro in 1959. It
Crisis allowed USSR to install nuclear missiles facing USA
 USA blocked sea access to Cuba, heightened tension
between the superpowers
 Sanity returned to both superpower and war avoided
 1st real possibility of nuclear war during the cold war
 IR theory of decision making used this as case study-
Graham Allison wrote ‘Essence of Decision:
Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis’
The Vietnam 1955-75  Vietnam (Indochina) was French Colony. During
War WWII Japan took over Indochina;
 1955: France leaves, new state of Vietnam was divided
into North & South along 17 degree Latitude; North-
Communist; South: Capitalist
 1965: USA sends massive land troops to south Vietnam
to fight Communist forces; war lingers till 1975;
 Communist won, Vietnam United as communist nation;
huge negative impact on USA
 This led to renewed cold war called ‘ New Cold War’

The Prague 1968  a period of political liberalization and mass protest in

Spring the Czechoslovakia against the dominance of USSR
 Was suppressed by USSR but lasted for 8 months as
people/civilian resisted
 Finally the Velvet Revolution ( 1989) set the country
free from Soviet domination.

136
Arab-Israel 1967-73 Israel and Arab countries fought 5 wars; most intense
Conflicts were
• 1967: The Six-Day War ( 3rd Arab-Israel war)
• 1973: The Yom Kippur War( Ramadan War, or
October War)- led to oil crisis, Camp David Accords
Iranian 1979  Islamic revolution in Iran led by its spiritual leader
Revolution Ayatollah Khomeini
 Iran overthrew the US supported Shah dynasty and
became an Islamic Republic
 Since then, US has strained relation with Iran

Afghanistan 1979- 89  1978: Communist coalition toppled the centrist govt;

Crisis USA helped the ‘Mujahideen’ opposing the communist
Govt.
 USSR sent a large troop to protect the communist
regime; proxy war between USSR and USA lingered
for 10 years, when in 1989 USSR pulled out of
Afghanistan
Fall of the 1989  9 November 1989: the wall dividing east and West
Berlin war Germany was broken- Germany unified
 Signalled end of the cold war
August Coup in August Coup by hardliner communist leaders against Gorbachev;
USSR 1991 failed by street protest led by Boris Yeltsin
Dissolution of December Gorbachev Resigned, USSR dissolved
USSR 25, 1991

137
FACT SHEET IR 3.2: MAJOR GLOBAL EVENTS, EXCLUDING THE
COLD WAR EVENTS
Event Year Addl. Info/Features/Trivia
Treaty of Versailles 1919 Formal treaty ending the WWI
It also sowed the seed of WWII by treating Germany
very harshly pricking its national pride

Women's Suffrage 1920, 19th Amendment of the US Constitution- granting

USA voting rights to women after a long struggle
New Zealand, in 1893, 1st country to give voting rights
to Women
Stalin Became USSR 1924 Stalin’s doctrine: 1. Leninism 2. Socialism in single
chief country
The Great Depression 1929 Wall street, the US share market, crashed in October
1929 starting the

The New Deal 1933 Series of programs, public work projects, financial
reforms, and regulations enacted by President Franklin
D. Roosevelt to counter the effects of the Great
Depression
Berlin Olympic Games 1936 Played under the backdrop of Nazi Germany’s idea of
racial purity; Athlete Jesse Owens, busted this racial
myth by winning 4 gold medals- Hitler watched

Annexation of the 1938 Hitler, as part of theory of Lebensraum( nation need

Sudetenland space to breath), annexed the Sudetenland region of
neighbouring Czechoslovakia; the allied power just
watching
WW II Begins 1939 1 September 1939- Hitler attacked Poland, the allied
powers declared war on Germany; WW II begins

Molotov–Ribbentrop 1939 A non-aggression pact between Hitler and the Stalin that
Pact enabled those two powers to partition Poland between
them
Obviously Hitler broke this pact two years later
Operation Barbarossa 1941 June 22, 1941- Hitler launched attack on Russia

Pearl Harbour 1941 Dec 7 , 1941- Japan did a massive air attack on U.S.
Bombing Navy ships parked at Pearl Harbour, Hawaii, US military
base in pacific ocean; USA joined WWII

138
The D-Day- invasion 1944 June 6, 1944- Codenamed Operation Neptune- most
of Normandy crucial victory of the Allied forces which captured
Normandy, France- led to liberation of France and
victory of Allied powers in the Western Fronts

Nuclear Bombing on 1945 6 and 9 August, 1945- USA dropped Nuclear bomb (
Japan named ‘Little Boy’ and ‘Fat Man’) on Hiroshima (
6Aug- Little boy) and Nagasaki( 9 Aug- Fat Man)
End of WWII 1945 Sept 2, 1945- Japan surrenders, WWII ends

Truman Doctrine 1947 US foreign policy of containment of Communism

Independence of 1948
Burma and Ceylon
(Sri Lanka) from
Britain

The Marshall Plan 1948 Official name ‘European Recovery Program’- USA
giving aid of $13 billion to 16 Western European
countries to rebuild their economy after WWII
Birth of Israel 1948 May 15, 1948
1st Arab-Israel War
Berlin Blockade 1948 24 June, 1948: USSR surrounding West Berlin, air lift
operation by USA and its western allies
Start of the Cold War
Apartheid 1948 Beginning of apartheid in South Africa.

Creation of NATO 1949 30 member countries

North Macedonia latest to Join in March 2020

Rise of Communist 1949 1st Oct, 1949- Establishment of the People's Republic of
China China( PRC) under leadership of Mao Zedong; The
Republic of China ( RoC) led by Chiang Kai-shek
relocates to Taiwan.
USSR goes Nuclear 1949 2nd nuclear country, 3rd was UK, 4th France, 5th China

First Hydrogen Bomb 1952 USA tested First Hydrogen Bomb- code-named Mike,
Test
Bandung Conference. 1955 29 African Asian countries participated

Warsaw Pact 1995 Easter Bloc counter to NATO; now dissolved

Pakistan’s 1956 Pakistan adopts its own Constitution

Constitution

139
Treaty of Rome 1957 Treaty of Rome, which would eventually lead to the
European Union

Sputnik 1 1957 Launch of Sputnik 1 by USSR and the beginning of the

The Space age Space Age.
Yuri Gagrin- 1st man to space- 1961; Valentina
Tereshkova 1st woman in space
Laika, the Dog, 1st animal in space

French Fifth Republic 1958 French Fifth Republic established

Great Leap Forward 1958 Mao Zedong launched Great Leap Forward- economic
and social campaign as part of 2nd Five year plan
Dalai Lama to India 1959 Uprising in Tibet against China leads to the exile of the
Dalai Lama to India

Beginning of the 1959 1st Nov, 1959

Vietnam War
American Civil Rights 1960 Against racialism, equal civil rights to Blacks
Movement

Sino-Soviet split. 1960 1950- Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and

Mutual Assistance
independence of 1962 From France
Algeria
Martin Luther King Jr. 1963 Very famous speech on jobs and freedom
delivers "I Have a
Dream" speech

Assassination of John 1963 22 Nov, US president Kennedy assassinated

F. Kennedy
Segregation ends in 1964 Civil Rights Act abolishes segregation in the USA.
USA.

Singapore gains 1965 separated from Malaysia to become an independent and

independence sovereign state.
Cultural Revolution in 1966 Mao Zedong launched Cultural Revolution- purging (
China cleaning, removing) remnants of capitalist and
traditional elements from Chinese society

Six-Day War 1967 3rd Arab-Israel war

resulted in Israel occupying the Gaza Strip, the Sinai
Peninsula( from Egypt), the West Bank( from Jordan)
and the Golan Heights( from Syria).

140
ASEAN founded 1967 Bangkok Declaration is the founding document of
ASEAN ; 10 members; Headquarter- Jakarta

Sino-Soviet border 1969 near Manchuria

conflict
Man on Moon 1969 20 July- under the Apollo Mission, Neil Armstrong and
Buzz Aldrin become the first two humans on the moon.
Black September 1970 known as the Jordanian Civil War- between Jordanian
army under the leadership of King Hussein, and the
Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO), under the
leadership of Yasser Arafat
Munich massacre 1972 17 Israeli Olympic team members( during the Munich
Olympic- 1972) killed in terrorist act by Black
September terrorist organization

Oil crisis. 1973 Sharp rise in oil prices causing global energy crisis
Break of Bretton Woods exchange System

Carnation Revolution 1974 Overthrow of authoritarian regime of Estado Novo ;

transition to Democracy
Operation Entebbe 1976 a remarkable counter-terrorist hostage-rescue mission
carried out by Israeli commandos at Entebbe Airport in
Uganda

Open Door policy of 1978 economic policy reforms initiated by Deng Xiaoping in
Deng Xiaoping 1978 to open China to foreign businesses that wanted to
invest in the country
Start of China becoming capitalist

Solidarity movement. 1979 a broad anti-bureaucratic social movement in Poland,

using methods of civil resistance to advance the causes
of workers' rights and social change
Lech Wałęsa was the main leader of the movement
Iran hostage crisis 1979 Taking hostage of 52 US diplomats and citizens by the
students supporting the Islamic Revolution in Iran; they
took over the U.S. Embassy in Tehran
The crisis went for 444 days!
Iran–Iraq War. 1980

Operation Opera 1981 a surprise airstrike conducted by the Israeli Air Force on
an unfinished Iraqi nuclear reactor near Baghdad

141
Falklands War. 1982 undeclared war between Argentina and the UK over two
British dependent territories in the South Atlantic: the
Falkland Islands ;

Israeli invasion of 1982

Lebanon
Bombing of U.S. 1983 results in 63 deaths.
Embassy in Beirut

Invasion of Grenada 1983 Grenada is an island nation in Caribbean sea

by USA.
Bhopal Gas disaster. 1984 Leak of methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas from the Pesticide
plant of Union Carbide, killing several thousands
Mikhail Gorbachev 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev becomes General Secretary of the
Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

Iran–Contra affair 1985 a political scandal in USA involving the sale of arms to
the Khomeini government of the Islamic Republic of
Iran
Challenger disaster 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger breaks apart 73 seconds into its
flight, killing all seven crew members aboard.
Major setback to NASA space programs
The Chernobyl 1986 nuclear accident in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power plant
disaster Worst Nuclear accident
Perestroika and 1988 Perestroika( economic restructuring) and Glasnost(
Glasnost Political Openness) by Mikhail Gorbachev
Many consider them as Genie taken out of Bottle by
Gorbachev; led to fall of USSR

Tiananmen Square 1989 Chinese troops fired at student-led demonstrations held

Massacre in Tiananmen Square, Beijing
US invasion of 1989
Panama

Gulf War 1990 Code name: Operation Desert Storm

Liberation of Kuwait, which was annexed by Iraq by US
-led coalition of 35 nations

German reunification. 1990 3 Oct, West and East Germany united

142
Operation Solomon 1991 a secret Israeli military operation to airlift Ethiopian
Jews to Israel.

Yugoslav Wars 1991 Beginning of breakup of Yugoslavia- Balkanisation

Velvet Divorce 1993 Peaceful breakup of Czechoslovakia into Czech
Republic and Slovakia.
World Trade Center 1993 Terrorist attack on the WTC, New York
bombing.

EU was born 1993 1st Nov, 1993- European Union Becomes Reality
[Link] is Born 1994 By Jeff Bezos

Hong Kong back to 1997 Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong from the
China United Kingdom to China.
Hong Kong and Macau- Special Administrative Region
following “one country, two systems" policy

Asian financial crisis 1997 Impacted much of East Asia and Southeast Asia ; raised
fears of a worldwide economic meltdown
Google founded 1998 Google was founded by Larry Page and Sergey Brin.

Euro introduced 1999 The new currency of EU- Euro introduced

UN The Millennium 2000 To discuss role of UN in new millennium

Summit UN MDG- 8 Millennium Development Goals-2000-
2015

9/11 2001 11 Sept, 2001- Al-Qaeda terrorist attacks on USA

US-Iraq War 2003 Despite Hans Blix, the head on Un enquiry commission
finding no Nuclear or WMD in Iraq USA attacks Iraq
with its coalition of willing
Facebook Founded 2004 By Mark Zuckerberg

The iPhone 2007 Steve Jobs introduced iPhone, which changed the mobile
handset market
Sub-prime lending 2008 Engulfed almost entire globe
Financial crisis

Bin Laden Killed 2011 At Abbottabad, Pakistan by US Navy SEAL

Russia Annex Crimea 2014 Russia annexed the Crimean Peninsula in the Black Sea
USSR was expelled from G-8

143
Hong Kong Protests 2019 Street protest in Hong Kong against possible dilution of
‘one country, two system’ policy which gives some
autonomy to the Hong Kong

The Pandemic 2020 COVID-19, the worst Pandemic engulfs the globe,
changing the very way human lived on planet Earth
USA leaving 2021 In accordance with the Doha agreement (February 29,
Afghanistan 2020) between the Taliban and USA, the latter left
Afghanistan in August 2021
After a brief chaos, Taliban resumed its second time rule
on Afghanistan
None of the contries have officially recognised the new
Taliban regime
Russian Attacks on 2022 February, 2022- Putin’s Russia invades Ukraine on
Ukraine pretext of self-defense as it apprehends Ukraine joining
NATO
Ukraine’s President: Volodymyr Zelenskyy
Ukraine’s Capital: Kiev

144
 FACT SHEET IR 3.3: IMPORTANT TREATIES, COVENANTS,
AGREEMENTS
Treaties Year Facts, Features, Impacts. Relevance

Thirty Years' 446/445  Signed between ancient Greek city-states of Athens

Peace BCE and Sparta
 Ended the First Peloponnesian War

Magna Carta 1215  royal charter of rights agreed to by King John of

England
 Granted certain rights to Feudal Lords and Barons
Westphalia Treaty 1648  Ends the Thirty Years' War and the Eighty Years'
War, and gave the Westphalian template of
International state system- Sovereignty, territorial
integrity, equality, non-interference in domestic
issues, etc.
 The treaty is still very much relevant.

Treaty of Paris 1657  Established military alliance between England and

(1657) France against Spain.
 There are many ‘treaty of Paris’ ; included here only
as arbit info
Treaty of Union 1707  Unites the Kingdoms of England and Scotland to
create the Kingdom of Great Britain.

Peace of Utrecht 1713  Ends the War of the Spanish Succession.

Treaty of 1765  Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II grants Diwani rights

Allahabad to the British East India Company, India.
 Start of British Colonial Rule in India

Treaty of Purandar 1776  Between the Peshwa of the Maratha and the British
East India Company, India.

Treaty of Salbai 1782  Between the Peshwa of the Maratha and the British
East India Company, India. To end the first Anglo-
Maratha War
Treaty of 1784  between Tipu Sultan and the British East India
Mangalore Company to end the Second Anglo-Mysore War.
Treaty of 1792  between Tipu Sultan and the British East India
Seringapatam Company to end the third Anglo-Mysore War.

145
Carnatic Treaty 1801  The Nawab of Arcot give away territories in India to
Great Britain for two hundred rupees
Treaty of Paris of 1815  After the end of Napoleonic Wars, the 5 great powers
1815 and Congress of Europe- Austria, France, Prussia, Russia, and the
of Vianna United Kingdom- entered into an agreement
 This general consensus among great power in Europe
was called ‘the concert of Europe ’which lasted till
WW I

Treaty of Sugauli 1816  between the East India Company and Nepal after the
Anglo-Nepalese War of 1814–16
 It fixed the boundary line of Nepal,

Treaty of Nanking 1842  peace treaty which ended the First Opium War
(1839–1842) between the United Kingdom and
China

Treaty of Lahore 1846  Ends the First Sikh War between Great Britain and
the Sikh Empire.
First Geneva 1864  Establishes rules for the humanitarian treatment of
Convention battlefield casualties.
Treaty of Bern 1874  Setting up the Universal Postal Union ( UPU), which
became the second oldest international organization
 The oldest is International Telecommunication
Union(ITU), set up in 1865
Treaty of 1879  Ends the first phase of the Second Anglo-Afghan
Gandamak War.
Triple Alliance 1882  Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and
(1882) Italy.
London 1900  Convention for the Preservation of Wild Animals,
Convention of Birds and Fish in Africa
1900  First international agreement on wildlife
conservation.
Treaty of 1905  Formally ended the 1904–1905 Russo-Japanese War.
Portsmouth  Japan defeated Russia, giving confidence to many
Asian colonial nations
International 1912  The first international drug control treaty.
Opium
Convention

146
Treaty of Brest- 1918  Between Russia and the Central Powers; Russia pulls
Litovsk out of World War I.
Treaty of 1919  the most important of the peace treaties that brought
Versailles World War I to an end.
 But it sowed the seed of WWII by treating Germany
very harshly
 Also called treaty of Paris
Treaty of 1919  brought the Third Anglo-Afghan War to an end
Rawalpindi  United Kingdom recognizes Afghanistan's
independence

Treaty on the 1922  Birth of USSR

Creation of the
Union of Soviet
Socialist
Republics

Treaty of Berlin 1926  Germany and the Soviet Union pledge neutrality.

Kellogg–Briand 1928  signed by Germany, France, and the United States

Pact or  They pledged not to take recourse to war
Pact of Paris
 These were series of treaties to avoid WW II

Geneva 1929  Establishes rules for the treatment of prisoners of

Convention on war; predecessor of the 1949 Third Geneva
Prisoners of War Convention.
Statute of 1931  Creates the British Commonwealth.
Westminster
Montevideo 1933  The Convention codifies the declarative theory of
Convention statehood as accepted as part of customary
international law
 It also states rights & duties of states
 Give 4 criteria to statehood: a permanent population,
a defined territory, government, and capacity to enter
into relations with the other states
Munich 1938  Czechoslovakia Surrenders the Sudetenland to
Agreement Germany.
Molotov– 1939  Also known as Hitler–Stalin Pact, Nazi–Soviet Pact
Ribbentrop Pact or Nazi–Soviet Alliance

147
  a non-aggression pact between Nazi Germany and
the Soviet Union
 Of course this didn’t stop Hitler to attack Russia

Pact of Steel 1939  a military and political alliance between Fascist Italy
and Nazi Germany

Tehran 1943  Top leaders of 3 allied powers met at Tehran , Iran

Conference after the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran
 the three leaders coordinated their military strategy
against Germany and Japan and made a number of
important decisions concerning the post World War
II era

Bretton Woods 1944  creates IMF and World bank

system  Bretton woods exchange system for global trade
 The exchange system came to an end in 1973
Dumbarton Oaks 1944  also called the Washington Conversations
Conference  Idea of setting up the UN were formulated and
negotiated

Yalta Conference 1945  Also known as the Crimea Conference

 Conference of the Victors, the allied powers, to
decide the post WWII world
 Attended by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt,
British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Soviet
Premier Joseph Stalin.

Potsdam 1945  Another conference of the allied power to plan the

Conference post-war peace

San Francisco 1945  UN set up

Conference  51 nations( Poland next day) signed the UN charter
on 26 June 1945

General 1947  a legal agreement between many countries, signed at

Agreement on Geneva in 1947, whose overall purpose was to
Tariffs and Trade promote international trade by reducing or
(GATT) eliminating trade barriers such as tariffs or quotas
 On 1st January 1995, WTO started functioning as
new Avatar of GATT, though GATT still exists

North Atlantic 1949  Also known as the Washington Treaty

Treaty  NATO was set up

148
Treaty of London 1949  Created the Council of Europe

Universal 1948  UDHR was proclaimed by the United Nations

Declaration of General Assembly in Paris on 10 December 1948
Human Rights
(UDHR)
Genocide 1948  Signed at Paris; Criminalizes genocide
Convention
Treaty of San 1951  Formally ends the war between the Allied powers
Francisco and Japan, ending the WWII

ANZUS Treaty 1951  collective security non-binding agreement between

Australia , New Zealand separately, and the United
States to co-operate on military matters in the Pacific
Ocean region
Central Treaty 1955  Also known as the Baghdad Pact
Organization  Military alliance between Iran, Iraq, Pakistan,
(CENTO) Turkey and the United Kingdom
 formed in 1955 and dissolved in 1979.

Southeast Asia 1955  Formed in 1955 by the Manila Pact, signed in 1954
Treaty  Members( 8): the United States, France, Great
Organization Britain, New Zealand, Australia, the Philippines,
(SEATO) Thailand and Pakistan
 Was dissolved in 1977
 Note: Pakistan was member of both CENTO and
SEATO

Bandung 1955  Meeting of 29 newly independent Asian and African

Conference states, which took place in 1955 in Bandung, West
Java, Indonesia
 It was precursor to the NAM Summit at Belgrade-
1961

Warsaw Treaty 1955  Called the Warsaw Pact

Organization  Established the military alliance of communist
Eastern Bloc under the leadership of USSR
 Was dissolved in 1991
Treaty of Rome 1957  Established the European Economic Community.

149
International 1957  Established the International Atomic Energy
Atomic Energy Agency( IAEA)
Treaty  IAEA promotes the peaceful use of nuclear energy,
and to inhibit its use for any military purpose,
including nuclear weapons.
Indus Waters 1960  a water-distribution treaty between India and
Treaty Pakistan, mediated by the World Bank
 Pakistan got- Jhelum, Chenab, Indus water
 India got waters of Ravi, Beas, Satluj

Montevideo 1960  Establishes the Latin American Free Trade

Treaty Association.
Vienna 1961  International treaty on diplomatic intercourse and the
Convention on privileges and immunities of diplomatic missions
Diplomatic
Relations

International 1969  Elimination of racial discrimination, and criminalize

Convention on the hate speech
Elimination of All 
Forms of Racial
Discrimination
(ICERD)
Montreal 1971  Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts
Convention against the Safety of Civil Aviation

Camp David 1978  signed by Egyptian President Anwar Sadat and Israeli
Accords Prime Minister Menachem Begin
 The accord led directly to the 1979 Egypt–Israel
peace treaty.

Schengen 1985  Common VISA for European Community member nations

Agreement
Vienna 1969  International agreement regulating treaties between states.
Convention on the  Known as the "treaty on treaties", it establishes rules,
Law of Treaties procedures, and guidelines for how international treaties
are defined, drafted, amended, interpreted, and generally
operated
Malta Summit 1989  Meeting between US President George Bush and Soviet
General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev during which they
declared the end of Cold war

150
Madrid 1991  a peace conference, held in Madrid and co-sponsored
Conference by US and USSR.
 It was an attempt to revive the Israeli–Palestinian
peace process through negotiations, involving also
Arab countries, including Jordan, Lebanon and
Syria.
Maastricht Treaty 1992  Foundational treaty to establish European Union (EU)
 Signed between the then-twelve member states of the
European Communities
 Created the ‘Euro Zone’- new EU currency

Oslo Accord 1993  set up a framework that would lead to the resolution of the
ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict.
 It was the first face-to-face agreement between the
government of Israel and the Palestine Liberation
Organization (PLO).
 Established Palestinian interim self-government,

North American 1994  Free trade agreement between Canada, the United States
Free Trade of America, and Mexico
Agreement  NAFTA is now replaced by United States-Mexico-Canada
(NAFTA) Agreement (USMCA), which entered into force on July 1,
2020

United Nations 1994  Provides universal legal controls for the management of
Convention on the marine natural resources and the control of pollution
Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS)
United Nations 2000  non-binding UN pact to encourage businesses and firms
Global Compact worldwide to adopt sustainable and socially responsible
policies, and to report on their implementation
UNASUR 2008  created Union of South American Nations (UNASUR)
Constitutive  Signatories: twelve South American nations
Treaty
Abraham Accord 2020  Also called the Israel–United Arab Emirates normalization
agreement
 This agreement was brokered by USA
 Later on, Bahrain and Morroco also joined

151
FACT SHEET IR 3.4: LESSER-KNOWN CONVENTIONS WHICH MAY BE ASKED
AS ARBIT QUESTIONS
Treaty Year Facts & Features
Basel 1989  Control of international Movements of Hazardous Wastes and
Convention Their Disposal
 It does not, however, includes the movement of radioactive waste.
Warsaw 1929  international convention which regulates liability for international
Convention carriage of persons, luggage, or goods performed by international
aircraft carriers.
 The Montreal Convention, signed in 1999, replaced the Warsaw
Convention
Metre 1875  Signed in Paris, the treaty created the International Bureau of
Convention Weights and Measures (BIPM)
Marrakesh 1994  Signed in Marrakesh, Morocco, the agreement concluded 8-year-
Agreement long Uruguay Round and established the World Trade
Organization( WTO)

Ramsar 1972  conservation and sustainable use of wetlands.

Convention
Ashgabat 2016  a multimodal transport agreement between the governments of
Agreement Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Iran, India, Pakistan, and
Oman for creating an international transport and transit corridor
facilitating transportation of goods between Central Asia and the
Persian Gulf
 India joined the agreement in 2018
Chicago 1944 Established the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a
Convention specialized agency of the UN charged with coordinating
international air travel

Madrid 1996 to provide for an international registration system facilitating the

Protocol registration of trademarks in multiple jurisdictions around the world

Nagoya 2010 Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of
Protocol Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on
Biological Diversity(Rio de Janeiro - 1992-93)

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 FACT SHEET IR 3.5: ENVIRONMENTAL AND ECOLOGICAL
TREATIES, CONVENTIONS, AGEERMENTS

Treaty Year Facts & Features

Antarctic Treaty 1959  Sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, establishes
freedom of scientific investigation and bans military activity
on the continent
 First arms control and environmental treaty
Outer Space 1967  Forbids the placing of nuclear weapons or any other weapons
Treaty of mass destruction on celestial bodies and into outer space in
general.
Stockholm 1972  United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
Conference  First UN summit on environment and sustainable
development
 UNEP- United Nations Environment Programme was set up
in 1972
 world environment day- 5 June- started in 1972
 Recently 50th anniversary of Stockholm Conference was
celebrated in form of Stockholm + 50 conference at
Stockholm
 This year 50th anniversary of world environment day was also
celebrtaed
Montreal Protocol 1987  To protect the stratospheric Ozone hole, banned used of CFC
 It was the outcome of the 1985 Vienna Convention for the
Protection of the Ozone Layer
Rio Earth Summit 1992  Landmark agreement on sustainable development
 to devise strategy for stabilizing CHG (greenhouse gases)
emissions at safe levels on the basis of equity and in
accordance with ‘common but differentiated responsibilities
and respective capabilities’
 Agenda 21: Developed states should take the lead,
committing themselves to restoring 1990 levels of
CHG emissions by the year 2000.
 UN framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC):
framework for further action ; bound signing parties/nations
to continue dialogue through Conference of Parties (CoP).

153
  Since Rio summit, 26 CoP have been held till date. All global
negotiations and Climate agreements are signed through the
CoP mechanism

Kyoto Protocol 1997  3rd CoP held at Kyoto, Japan

 Set legally binding targets for developed nations to limit or
reduce their greenhouse gas emissions to at least 5.2 per cent
below their 1990 levels by 2012
 Kyoto Protocol also established 3 innovative market
mechanisms for meeting emission targets- Clean Dev
Mechanism (CDM), Joint implementation, Carbon

Bali Climate 2007  It was Cop 13- 13th meeting of CoP to UNFCCC
Change  Roadmap for new Emission Reduction Regime post Kyoto
Conference Protocol after 2012
Copenhagen 2009  CoP 15 of UNFCCC
Summit  The Summit was to decide a new framework for climate
change mitigation beyond 2012
 But no final agreement on the new Regime post Kyoto
Paris Climate 2015  CoP 21 under UNFCCC
Agreement  The agreement set goal to limit global warming to well below
2 degree compared to pre-industrial levels.
 The agreement legally binds all parties to communicate
commitment, in terms nationally determined contribution
(NDC), to reduce their CHG emissions in order to reach the
goals of the Paris Agreement.
 However, implementation of NDC itself is not legally
binding.
 By 2020, all countries had to submit their nationally
determined contributions (NDCs) for reducing CHG emission
and other climate change actions by 2035.
 US, in 2020, become the first nation in the world to formally
withdraw from the Paris climate agreement.
Glasgow Climate 2021  CoP 26 under UNFCCC
Change  The latest CoP and Climate change conference held in
Conference Glasgow-Nov, 2021
 CoP 27 will be held at Sharm El-Sheikh, Egypt

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 FACT SHEET IR 3.6: ARMS CONTROL TREATIES

Treaty Year Facts & Features

Antarctic Treaty 1959  Sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, establishes
freedom of scientific investigation and bans military
activity on the continent
 First arms control and environmental treaty

Partial Test Ban 1963  Banned Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in
Treaty (PTBT) Outer Space and Under Water
 First nuclear arms control treaty
 India signed and ratified the treaty
Anti-Ballistic Missile 1972  Signed by USA and USSR
Treaty (ABM)  Limits the use of anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems

Non-Proliferation 1968  Limits the spread of nuclear weapons through non-

Treaty (NPT) proliferation, disarmament, and the right to utilize
nuclear technology for peaceful purposes.
 India has neither signed nor ratified
 Israel and Pakistan also not signed
 North Korea signed but came out of it in 2003

Biological Weapons 1972  effectively bans biological and toxin weapons by

Convention (BWC) prohibiting their development, production, acquisition,
transfer, stockpiling and use
SALT (Strategic Arms 1972  bi-lateral nuclear arms limitation treaty between USA
Reduction Talks) and USSR during the height of the cold-war
 Signed by US president Richard Nixon and Leonid
Brezhnev, general secretary of USSR
 This agreement set limits on the number of strategic
ballistic launchers of the US and USSR for a period of
five years pending a comprehensive agreement.
 The agreement set target for reduction of ICBM and
SLBM (Inter-continental ballistic and submarine-
launched ballistic missile).

Threshold Test Ban 1974  established a nuclear "threshold," by prohibiting nuclear

Treaty tests of devices having a yield exceeding 150 kilotons

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SALT II 1979  Signed by US president Jimi Carter and Leonid
Brezhnev, general secretary of USSR
 SALT II was not ratified due to the deterioration of the
relation between USA and USSR following the Soviet
intervention in Afghanistan.
Moon Treaty 1979  The Agreement Governing the Activities of States on
the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies as per the
international law, including the United Nations Charter.

INF Treaty 1987  Signed by USA and USSR

 Eliminates nuclear and conventional ground-launched
ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges of 500 to 5,500
kilometres

START (Strategic 1991  bilateral treaty between the United States and the Soviet
Arms Reduction Union on the reduction and the limitation of strategic
Treaty)- START I and offensive arms
Start II  START resulted in the removal of about 80% of all
strategic nuclear weapons then in existence
 START 1 was followed by Start II ( signed in 1993)
and in 2010 it was renewed as ‘New START Treaty’
between USA and Russia, extending deep reductions of
American and Soviet or Russian strategic nuclear
weapons through February 2026
 START II banned the use of multiple independently
targetable re-entry vehicles (MIRVs) on
intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). Hence, it is
often cited as the De-MIRV-ing Agreement

Treaty on Open Skies 1992  Signed in Helsinki, Finland

 Establishes a program of unarmed aerial surveillance
flights over the entire territory of its participants.
Chemical Weapons 1993  Prohibition of the Development, Production,
Convention (CWC) Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their
Destruction

Comprehensive 1996  Bans nuclear weapons test explosions and any other
Nuclear-Test-Ban nuclear explosions, for both civilian and military
Treaty (CTBT) purposes, in all environments.
 India has not signed CTBT
 yet to enter into force

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Strategic Offensive 2002  Also known as treaty of Moscow,
Reductions  Limits the nuclear arsenals of Russia and the United
Treaty(SORT) States.
 was superseded in 2011 by the New START treaty

Vienna Document 1990-  series of agreements on confidence and security-

2011 building measures between the states of Europe

Arms Trade Treaty 2013  multilateral treaty that regulates the international trade
in conventional weapons
Wassenaar 1996  promoting transparency and greater responsibility in
Arrangement transfers and trades of conventional arms and dual-use
goods and technologies
 India is party to the agreement
Australia Group( AG) 1985  is a multilateral export control regime (MECR)
 to help member countries to identify those exports
which need to be controlled so as not to contribute to the
spread of chemical and biological weapons.
 India Joined AG in 2018

Nuclear Suppliers 1975  Voluntary association of 48 countries that are capable of

Group (NSG) exporting and transporting nuclear technology
 Purpose of the NSG’s guidelines is to prevent civilian
nuclear material, equipment, and technology from
reaching countries that might use it to construct nuclear
weapons
 India is Not a member of NSG
Treaty on the 2017  UN backed treaty of nuclear disarmament
Prohibition of nuclear  first legally binding international agreement to
weapons (TPNW) comprehensively prohibit nuclear weapons with
the ultimate goal being their total elimination.
 But till date only about 50 nations have signed the
treaty. None of the 9 nuclear nations, including
India has signed the treaty.
 USA has openly opposed the treaty calling its
allies not to sign the treaty.

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 FACT SHEET IR 3.7: CONVENTIONS ON HUMAN RIGHTS

Treaty Year Facts & Features

Universal Declaration of 1948  UDHR was proclaimed by the United Nations
Human Rights (UDHR) General Assembly in Paris on 10 December 1948

International Covenant on 1966  Signing parties commits to respect the civil and
Civil and Political Rights political rights of individuals, including the right
(ICCPR) to life, freedom of religion, freedom of speech,
freedom of assembly, electoral rights and rights
to due process and a fair trial.
 China and Cuba have Not signed ICCPR
International Covenant on 1966  It commits the signing parties to work toward the
Economic, Social and Cultural granting of economic, social, and cultural rights
Rights (ICESCR) (ESCR) to the individuals, including labour
rights and the right to health, the right to
education, and the right to an adequate standard
of living.

International Bill of Human 1994  Name given to UN General Assembly

Rights Resolution 217
 Includes UDHR, ICCPR, and ICESCR

Convention on the Elimination 1979  international bill of rights for women

of All Forms of Discrimination  to eliminate discrimination against women and
against Women (CEDAW) girls in all areas and promotes women's and girls'
equal rights
Convention on the Rights of 1989  Protection of civil, political, economic, social,
the Child (CRC) health and cultural rights of children

International Convention on 2003 Monitored by The Committee on Migrant

the Protection of the Rights of Workers (CMW)
All Migrant Workers and
Members of Their Families
(ICRMW)
International Convention for 2006 to prevent forced disappearance defined in
the Protection of All Persons international law, crimes against humanity.
from Enforced Disappearance
(CED)

158
Convention on the Rights of 2007 to promote, protect, and ensure the full enjoyment
Persons with Disabilities of human rights by persons with disabilities and
(CRPD) ensure that persons with disabilities enjoy full
equality under the law.

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 FACT SHEET IR 3.8 : IMPORTANT GLOBAL WOMEN’S
MOVEMENTS AND ORGANISATIONS

Movement/organisation Country Year Facts/Features

Women’s Rights USA 1848 Start of series of Women’s right
Movement movement
Led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton
woman suffrage USA 1869 Lucy Stone
movement to Henry B. Blackwell, Julia Ward
1890 Howe, T.W. Higginson
National Organization USA 1966 Largest Feminist Organisation
for Women( NOW) Fonder: Betty Friedan and many
other Feminists
Equality Now Global 1992 Founder: Jessica Neuwirth
protection and promotion of the
human rights of women and girls
Every Woman Global 2011 Founder: Sophie Armstrong
Foundation (EWF) to provide outreach programs and
community events to women of all
ages, circumstances and backgrounds

International Alliance of Geneva 1904 Founder: Carrie Chapman Catt

Women (IAW) works to promote women's rights and
gender equality, and that historically
was the main international
organization that campaigned for
women's suffrage( voting rights)
IAW for professional women
founded in 1980
International Council of Washington 1888 first international women's
Women (ICW) D.C. organization
women's rights organization working
across national boundaries for the
common cause of advocating human
rights for women

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 The ICW enjoys consultative status
with the United Nations and its
Permanent Representatives to
ECOSOC, ILO, FAO, WHO, UNDP,
UNEP, UNESCO, UNICEF,
UNCTAD, and UNIDO.
One Billion Rising 2012 Started by Eve Ensler
Movement to end rape and sexual
violence against women
The "billion" refers to the UN
statistic that one in three women will
be raped or beaten in her lifetime.

V-Day (movement) 1998 Started by Eve Ensler

To end violence against women and
girls
Time's Up USA 2018 Advocacy and support for victims of
workplace sexual harassment
United Nations UN 1976 provides financial and technical
Development Fund for assistance to innovative programmes
Women (UNIFEM) and strategies that promoted
women's human rights, political
participation and economic security
Replaced by UN Women in 2011

UN Women UN 2011 United Nations Entity for Gender

Equality and the Empowerment of
Women
New Avatar of UNIFEM
Women Deliver 2007 Founded by Jill Sheffield
works to generate political
commitment and financial
investment for fulfilling Millennium
Development Goal 5—reducing
maternal mortality and achieving
universal access to reproductive
health

Women without Borders Vienna 2001 founded by Dr. Edit Schlaffer

(WwB) works to empower women as agents
of change

161
Women's International Geneva 1915 working "to bring peace for women"
League for Peace and and to unite women worldwide who
Freedom (WILPF) oppose oppression and exploitation

World Pulse Internet 2003 Social-Media-for-Social-Revolution

a social network for women.

Zonta International 1919 a global organization of executives

and professionals working together
to advance the status of women
worldwide through service and
advocacy

4 UN Women 1975-85- 1975-  Mexico City in 1975

Conferences UN Decade 95  Copenhagen in 1980
for Women  Nairobi in 1985
 Beijing in 1995

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FACT SHEET IR 3.9: LIST OF SOME PROMINENT GLOBAL SOCIAL
MOVEMENTS
Name Year Addl. Info, Features, Trivia
World social 2001 Global resistance movement against neo-liberal
forum (WSF) globalisation
WSF meets every year same time when World Economic
Forum Meet.
They advocate alt-globalisation- more humane, equal, and
just globalisation
Battle of Seattle 1999 series of protests surrounding the WTO Ministerial
Conference of 1999 at Seattle, USA

Peoples’ Global worldwide co-ordination of radical social movements,

Action grassroots campaigns and direct actions in resistance to
capitalism and for social and environmental justice
PGA was part of the anti-globalization movement.
Animal 2019 Climate justice movement with the stated aim of
Rebellion compelling government action towards a plant-based food
system

Anti- A social movement critical of economic globalization

globalization Also called global justice movement
movement
Alt-right 2010 A far-right, white nationalist movement
Black Lives 2013 highlight racism, discrimination, and inequality
Matter experienced by black people
This movement re-ignited after the murder of a black US
citizen- George Floyd- by a Police officer

Brights Insisting that public policies should be based on science

movement
Chicano 1940s & Resistance movement in USA by people of Mexican
Movement 50s descent
Chipko 1970s People resisted cutting of forest trees by Government
Movement contractors in Uttarakhand

Civil rights 1954— to abolish racial segregation, discrimination, and

movement 1968 disenfranchisement of blacks/coloured people in United
States

163
Earth First! 1980 a radical environmental advocacy group in United States.

Ecofeminism draw on the concept of gender to analyse the relationships

between humans and the natural world
Relate women to mother Earth

Efficiency early 20th to identify and eliminate waste in all areas of the economy
movement century and society, and to develop and implement best practices
Environmental USA- Greenpeace
movements India: Narmada Bachao, Chipko, Silent Valley movement
LGBT Worldwide movements for equal rights of Lesbian, gay,
movements bisexual, and transgenders

India Against 2011 IAC led the famous Anna Hazare movement against
Corruption corruption
Mad Pride 1993 Mad Pride is a mass movement of the users of mental
health services, former users, and the aligned, which
advocates that individuals with mental illness should be
proud of their 'mad' identity.

March for Our 2018 March for Our Lives (MFOL) was a student-led
Lives demonstration in support of gun control legislation in
USA
MeToo 2017 Worldwide movement against sexual harassments of
movement women ; the movement encouraged women to reveal the
identity of the perpetrator.

Namantar 1978-94 a Dalit Buddhist movement to change the name of

Andolan Marathwada University, in Aurangabad, Maharashtra,
India, to Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar University.
Occupy 2011-12 expressed opposition to social and economic inequality
movement and to the lack of perceived "real democracy" around the
world.

Pro-choice Women’s movement in USA supporting the view that a

movement woman should have the legal right to abortion
pro-life Just opposite to anti=abortion movement in USA
movement
Slow Food An anti-globalisation movement which advocates local
movement food and traditional cooking against the fast food culture.

Tea Party 2009-13 an American fiscally conservative political movement

movement calling for lower taxes and for a reduction of the national

164
 debt and federal budget deficit through decreased
government spending
The Bees Army an opposition movement, using social media nad
electronic platforms, aimed at confronting what the
movement describes as Saudi Arabian government
propaganda

The Zeitgeist 2008 Anti-capitalist movement in USA

Movement critical of market capitalism, describing it as structurally
corrupt and wasteful of resources

Time to Change 2007 a mental health campaign in England, launched in 2007

with the objective of reducing mental health-related
stigma and discrimination
Time's Up Time's Up is a non-profit group that raises money to
support victims of sexual harassment

Umbrella 2014 a political movement that emerged during the Hong Kong
Movement democracy protests of 2014. Its name arose from the use
of umbrellas by the protesters as a tool for passive
resistance
Veganism Veganism is the movement for abstaining from the use of
animal products, particularly in diet, and an associated
philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals

Via Campesina 1993 an international farmers organization based at Belgium

an international movement which coordinates peasant
organizations of small and middle-scale producers,
agricultural workers, rural women, and indigenous
communities from Asia, Africa, America, and Europe
My Stealthy 2014 Women’s online movement in Iran
Freedom Women’s protest against the compulsory hijab laws
Women Against 1950 first of these organizations was created in the 1950s in
War response to the Vietnam War.

Women's Begin Worldwide long movement to obtain voting rights for

suffrage mid-19th women; mainly based in USA
century International Woman Suffrage Alliance- formed in Berlin
-1904

165
 FACT SHEETS IR 4:
INTERNATIONAL
INTER-OVERNMENTAL
ORGANISATIONS

UN, IMF, World Bank,

WTO

166
 FACT SHEET-IR 4.1: UN: ESSENTIAL FACTS, GK, TRIVIA

Information Facts & Features

Item
Formation Finalised in San Francisco Conference (April 25–June 26, 1945)
Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944- Finalisation of basic principles
Yalta Conference: Those principles were re-affirmed

Inauguration 24 October, 1945

Day
Objectives  maintaining international peace and security,
 protecting human rights,
 delivering humanitarian aid,
 promoting sustainable development,
 and upholding international law

Headquarter New York City

Nos. of 51
Founding 50 members signed the UN charter on June 26, 1945
Members
Poland, the 51st founding member, signed in Oct, 1945
India is one of the founding member
Current 193 ; last member to join UN- South Sudan in 2011
members

6 organs or 1. the General Assembly- all members- equal votes

principal 2. the Security Council- 15, 5 permanent members have veto
organisations
3. the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
4. the Trusteeship Council; now dissolved
5. the International Court of Justice( ICJ)- at Hague
6. and the UN Secretariat, headed by UN secretary General
UN UN special Agency Year Set Up/ Function
specialized Headquarter
agencies Current Head
UNESO Nov,1945/ Paris Helping improve
Director General education worldwide
(DG): Ms Audrey and to protecting
Azoulay important historical and

167
 cultural sites around the
world.
Food and Agriculture Oct, 1945/ Rome leads international
Organization (FAO) DG: Qu Dongyu efforts to fight hunger.
technical knowledge
and information to aid
development.

WHO (World Health 1948/ Geneva attainment by all

Organisation) DG: Dr Tedros peoples of the highest
Ghebreyesus possible level of health.
Health: a state of
complete physical,
mental and social well-
being and not merely
the absence of disease
or infirmity.

ILO 1919/ Geneva Promotes international

DG: Guy Ryder labour rights by
formulating
international standards
on the freedom to
associate, collective
bargaining, the
abolition of forced
labour, and equality of
opportunity and
treatment.
UNIDO (United Nations 1966/ Vienna promotes industrial
Industrial Development DG : Gerd Müller development for
Organization) poverty reduction,
inclusive globalization
and environmental
sustainability.

ITU (International 1865 (Oldest)/ protect and support

Telecommunication Geneva everyone's fundamental
Union) Secretary General- Dr right to communicate,
Hamadoun Touré set global standard for
telecommunication
UPU ( Universal Postal 1874 ( set up by treaty helps to ensure a truly
Union) of Bern; 2nd oldest) universal network of

168
 DG: Masahiko up-to-date postal
Metoki services
IMO (International 1948/ London sets standards for the
Maritime Organization) Secretary-General- safety and security of
Kitack Lim international shipping

ICC (International Set up in 1998 under permanent international

Criminal Court) the Rome Statute court with jurisdiction
Headquarter: Hague, to prosecute individuals
Netherland for the international
crimes of genocide,
President: Justice
crimes against
Piotr Hofmański
humanity, war crimes
and the crime of
aggression

WMO (World 1950/Geneva promoting international

Meteorological President: David cooperation on
Organization) Grimes atmospheric science,
climatology, hydrology
and geophysics
IMF(International 1944/Washington Exchange rate, global
Monetary Fund) MD: Kristalina economic development,
Georgieva structural adjustment
program, loan to tide
over Balance of
payment
World Bank Group 1944/ Washington Funding development
President: David projects to both
Malpass Government and NGOs
for education, energy,
health, development

IR 4.2 UN Funds, Programs, related agencies

UN Funds, UNDP Set up: 1965 United Nations
Programs, Headquarter: New Development
related York City Programme
agencies helping to eradicate
poverty, reduce
inequalities and build
resilience so countries

169
 can sustain progress to
meet SDG
UN-HABITAT Set up : 1975 To promote socially
Headquarter: Nairobi, and environmentally
Kenya sustainable human
settlements
development and the
achievement of
adequate shelter for all.
UNICEF Set up: 1946 United Nations
Headquarter: New International Children's
York City Emergency Fund
to save children’s lives,
to defend their rights,
and to help them fulfil
their potential, from
early childhood through
adolescence

WFP Set up: 1961 World Food

Headquarter: Rome, Programme
Italy world’s largest
humanitarian agency
was awarded the Nobel
Peace Prize in 2020.
UNFPA Set up: 1969 United Nations
Headquarter: New Population Fund
York City
UNHCR Set up: 1950 United Nations High
Headquarter: Geneva Commissioner for
Refugees

UN WOMEN Set up: 2010 gender equality and the

Headquarter: New empowerment of
York City women

IAEA (International Set up : 1957 Called "Atoms for

Atomic Energy Agency Headquarter: Vienna Peace" organization
DG: Rafael Mariano "Atoms for Peace" was
Related Agency Grossi famous address of US
president Eisenhower

170
 Aim: to promote the
safe, secure and
peaceful use of nuclear
technologies
WTO Set up: 1995 World Trade
Headquarter: Geneva Organisation

IOM Set up: 1951 International

Headquarter: Geneva Organization for
Migration

UNFCCC Set up: 1992 United Nations

Headquarter: Bonn, Framework Convention
Germany on Climate Change
Conference of parties (
CoP) for climate talks
held every year under
UNFCCC
UN Commission on Set up: 1992 To oversee the
Sustainable Headquarter: New outcomes of the 1992
Development (CSD) York City Rio Earth Summit on
Sustainable
Development
UN Human Rights Set up: 2006 to promote and protect
Council Headquarter: Geneva human rights around
the world.

Office of the High Set up: 1993 to promote and protect

Commissioner for Headquarter: Geneva human rights that are
Human Rights guaranteed under
(OHCHR) international law and
stipulated in the
Universal Declaration
of Human Rights
(UDHR) of 1948

Current António Guterres- Portuguese

Secretary
General
First Trygve Lie- Norwegian
Secretary
General

171
UN SDG SDG- Sustainable Development Goals- 17 key Goals for entire humanity,
adopted in 2015, for universal call to end poverty, protect the planet, and
ensure that by 2030 all people enjoy peace and prosperity:
1. No Poverty, (2) Zero Hunger, (3) Good Health and Well-being, (4)
Quality Education, (5) Gender Equality, (6) Clean Water and
Sanitation, (7) Affordable and Clean Energy, (8) Decent Work and
Economic Growth, (9) Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, (10)
Reducing Inequality, (11) Sustainable Cities and Communities,
(12) Responsible Consumption and Production, (13) Climate
Action, (14) Life Below Water, (15) Life On Land, (16) Peace,
Justice, and Strong Institutions, (17) Partnerships for the Goals.
Also remember MDG (Millenium Development Goals)- 8 goals- 2000-
2015

Trivia  1st Asian to become secretary General- U Thant of Myanmar

 U Thant is also the longest serving UN secretary General
 1st South Asian to be elected as President of General assembly-
Vijaya Laxmi Pandit- India
 1st Pakistani to be elected as President of General assembly-
Muhammad Zafarullah Khan
 Current President of General assembly, Abdulla Shahid, is from
Maldives
 1965: Numbers of security council members increased to 15
 NIEO: New International Economic Order- proposal by ‘South’ in
UN under UNCTAD(United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development- 1964) and during the 4th NAM summit at Algiris;
rejected by developed ‘North’
 All the climate talks, called CoP, are done under UNFCCC (United
Nation framework convention on climate change), which was framed
during Rio earth Summit-1992
 G-77: at the UN is a loose coalition of developing nations, designed
to promote its members' collective economic interests
 Now China is 2nd biggest fund giving nation , after USA, to UN

172
 FACT SHEET IR 4.3: SOME ADDITIONAL TRIVIA RELATED TO UN
FAMOUS QUOTES/ENDEAVOURS

Info item UN Secretary Addl. Info/Trivia

General
Quote: Dag  2nd UN Sec Gen (1953-
1.“The United Nations was not created to take Hammarskjold 61)
humanity to heaven, but to save it from hell”  Swedish politician
 Known for his
2. “Everything will be all right - you know quotes/one liner
when? When people, just people, stop thinking
of the United Nations as a weird Picasso
abstraction and see it as a drawing they made
themselves. - Dag Hammarskjold

Quote: “The one common undertaking and Trygve Lie 1st UN Sec Gen (1946-53)
universal instrument of the great majority of the Book: ‘In the Cause of
human race is the United Nations.” Peace (1954)’
“State should be viewed as the servant of its Kofi Anan 7th UN Secretary General
people and not vice versa” He was from Ghana
Wrote “We the Peoples: A
UN for the Twenty-First
Century”
Agenda For Peace- 1995 Boutros Boutros-  6th UN Sec Gen (1992-
Ghali 96)
 From Egypt
 It included Preventive
diplomacy, peace
making peace-keeping,
and Post-conflict Peace
building ( in this order)

“Uniting for Peace" UN General The Resolution states that

Assembly in any cases where the
Security Council, because
of a lack of unanimity

173
 resolution- 377 A among its five permanent
(1950) members (P5), fails to act
the GA will do
whatsoever possible, by
collective actions, to
maintain peace.
“Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)” 8 global 8 MDGs: No extreme
development poverty and hunger,
goals to be universal primary
achieved by 2015 education, gender
fixed after the equality and women
Millennium empowerment, reduce
Summit of the child mortality, improve
UN in 2000 maternal health, combat
2000-2015 HIV/AIDS, malaria, and
other diseases,
environmental
sustainability, global
partnership for
development
“SDG”- 2015-30 17 key Goals for For sustainable
entire humanity development

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 FACT SHEET IR 4.4: UN CHARTER- CHAPTERS AND THEIR
CONTENTS

Chapter What it contains Addl. Info/Trivia

of UN
charter
Chapter I Purposes and Principles-
Article 1-2
Chapter 2 Membership Article 3-5

Chapter 3 UN Organs; Article 7-8

Chapter 4 The General Assembly; UNGA- like Parliament of UN
Article 10-22 Much less powerful than UNSC
Chapter 5 The Security Council; UNSC- like Government of UN
Article 23-32 15 members- 5 permanent with Veto
From 11 to 15 member- 1965

Chapter 6 Pacific Settlement of Peacekeeping force/mission- not mentioned in

Disputes ; Article 33-38 UN charter
Chapter 7 Article 39-51; Action with Using force to bring Peace
Respect to Threats to the Peacekeeping mission: called chapter six and
Peace, Breaches of the half ( why?)
Peace, and Acts of
As it is in between chapter 6 (Pacific Settlement
Aggression
of Disputes) and chapter 7 ( using force for
peace)
Chapter 8 Article 52-54; Regional Regional IGOs- such as ASEAN
Arrangements

Chapter 9 Article 55-60;

International Economic
and Social Cooperation
Chapter Article 61-72; The ECOSOC- Economic and Social Council , one
10 Economic and Social of the six principal organs of the UN,
Council responsible for the direction and coordination of
the economic, social, humanitarian, and cultural
activities carried out by the UN

175
Chapter Declaration Regarding
11 Non-Self-Governing
Territories

Chapter International Trusteeship

12 System
Chapter The Trusteeship Council The Trusteeship Council, which was set up
13 under UN mandate system, was dissolved in
1994, when Palau, the last of the original 11
trust territories, gained its independence.

Chapter Article 92-96; The ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the United
14 International Court of Nations
Justice (ICJ) Headquarter: Peace palace, Hague, Netherland
ICC Also co-located

Chapter Article 97-101; The UN secretary General Heads the UN Secretariat

15 Secretariat
Chapter Article 102-105;
16 Miscellaneous Provisions
regarding International
Treaties

Chapter Article 106-107;

17 Transitional Security
Arrangements
Chapter Article 108-109; When adopted by a vote of two thirds of the
18 Amendments to UN members of the General Assembly and ratified
charter in accordance with their respective
constitutional processes by two thirds of the
Members of the United Nations, including all
the permanent members of the Security Council.
Chapter Article 110-111; 50 members signed UN charter, at San
19 Ratification and Signature Francisco, 26 June 1945
Poland Signed UN charter on 15 October 1945-
51 founding member
India is one of the Founding Members

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 FACT SHEET IR 4.5: UN SECRETARY GENERALS

Name Country Period Addl. Info/Trivia

Trygve Lie Norway 1946 1st *Sec-Gen UN
1952 Wrote’ In the Cause of Peace’
Dag Sweden 1953- 2nd and perhaps most popular Sec-Gen UN
Hammarskjöld 1961 Wrote ‘Markings (1963)’
Famous for his Quotes on UN
U Thant Myanmar 1961- Longest serving UN Sec Gen
71 1st from Asia
Wrote ‘View from the UN’
Kurt Waldheim Austria 1972- Wrote ‘In the Eye of the Storm’
81

Javier Pérez de Peru 1982- Also was PM of Peru

Cuéllar 91 Longest lived UN Sec-Gen
Wrote ‘Pilgrimage for Peace’
Boutros Boutros- Egypt 1992- Oversaw breakup of Yugoslavia and the
Ghali 96 Rwandan genocide
1st from Africa
Published ‘Agenda For Peace’ in 1995
Wrote ‘Unvanquished: A U.S.–U.N. Saga’
Kofi Annan Ghana 1997- Won 2001 Nobel Peace Prize
2006 “We the Peoples: A UN for the Twenty-First
Century”
UN global compact and MDG during his tenure
In September 2016, Annan was appointed to
lead a UN commission to investigate the
Rohingya crisis in Myanmar
Ban Ki-moon South 2007- 2nd from Asia
Korea 2016 UN SDG
António Guterres Portugal 2017- Current UN Sec-Gen

*Sec- Gen: Secretary General

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 FACT SHEET IR 4.6: INDIA’S PARTICIPATION IN UN
PEACEKEEPING MISSION

Peace Keeping Mission Year Addl. Info

UN Peacekeeping in Korean 1950- Operation Tomahawk by USA forces
war 54
Indo-China 1954– Indo China- Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos
70

United Nations Emergency 1956–

Force (UNEF) in Middle East 67
United Nations Operation in 1960–
the Congo ( ONUC) 64

United Nations Transitional 1992-

Authority in Cambodia 1993
United Nations Operation in 1992–
Mozambique(ONUMOZ) 94
United Nations Operation in 1993–
Somalia 94

United Nations Assistance 1994-

Mission for Rwanda 96
Angola 1989- The United Nations Angola Verification
1999 Mission I (I UNAVEM) was a peacekeeping
mission in Angola during the civil war.

Sierra Leone 1999- United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone

2001 (UNAMSIL)
Ethiopia-Eritrea 2006– United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea
08 (UNMEE)
Lebanon Since Currently ongoing UN peacekeeping
1998

Congo Since Ongoing- UN Stabilization Mission in the

2005 Democratic Republic of the Congo or
MONUSCO
Golan Heights Since UN Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF)
2006 is a United Nations peacekeeping mission

178
 tasked with maintaining the ceasefire between
Israel and Syria in the aftermath of the 1973
Yom Kippur War
Ivory Coast Since United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire
2004 (UNOC)
Haiti Since United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti
1997

Liberia Since United Nations Mission in Liberia

2007

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 FACT SHEET-IR 4.7 : WORLD BANK GROUP

Information Facts & Features

Item
Formation Was set up in 1944 along with IMF as outcome of Bretton Woods
agreement to provide concessional loan to European countries for
reconstruction post WWII
Objectives  To provide concessional loan to European countries for reconstruction
post WWII
 Since 1960s, it has changed and widened its role. Now it provides long
term low interest loans technical assistance to both Government and
Non-Government developmental projects in middle-income or
creditworthy poorer nations in the areas of Health care, education,
energy, agriculture, water & electricity, environmental protection,
sustainable development, etc.
 It is further widening its role from project financing to macro-economic
management by broader "structural adjustment” loans to Middle & low
Income nations
Headquarter Washington, D.C.

It is group of 5 World Bank Group Consists of:

organisations 1. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)-
popularly called the World Bank
2. International Development Agency (IDA)
3. International Finance Corporation (IFC)
4. and Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)
5. The International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes
(ICSID)

Current 189
members
Current David R. Malpass- American economist
President

First MD Eugene Meyer

Trivia  In addition to providing loans, the World Bank’s assessment of a
member government’s economic performance significantly
influences the borrower’s access to other donor aid and private
capital

180
 To position itself as “Knowledge Bank” where it tried to position
itself as the repository of ‘development expertise’.
 Member nations of IMF automatically becomes its members
 Sources of funds: by selling World Bank bonds to investors and
Contributions from Members
 voting rights proportionate to economic strength (share of
the Bank's capital stock held by the member)
 World Bank is technically an agency of the United Nations system

181
 FACT SHEET-IR 4.8 : IMF: INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

Information Facts & Features

Item
Formation Finalised in The Bretton Woods Conference- 1944, formally known as
the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference, at the Mount
Washington Hotel, situated in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, USA
Inauguration 1944
Year

Objectives Initial: oversee the new monetary order that was established by the
Bretton Woods agreement
After collapse of Bretton Woods agreement: Reducing global poverty,
encouraging international trade, and promoting financial stability and
economic growth
Headquarter Washington, D.C.

Nos. of 44
Founding
Members

Current 190
members
Current MD Kristalina Georgieva- Bulgarian economist

First MD Dr. Camille Gutt

Trivia  Gita Gopinath is the Chief Economist of IMF from 1 October
2018
 IMF became infamous in 3rd world countries due to its ‘Structural
Adjustment’ program to help poor countries tide the Forex crisis
 Chief Institution through which L.P.G. guided by the
Washington consensus - was carried out in 2nd & 3rd world
countries
 Member states contribute fixed quota proportion to their
economic strength and getting proportionate voting rights

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 FACT SHEET-IR 4.9 : WTO: WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION

Information Item Facts & Features

Formation Finalised in the Uruguay rounds of GATT in 1995, which is UN
forum for trade.
WTO is new Avatar of GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade ) which is a legal trade agreement among many nations under
UN conference on Trade and Employment in 1947 at Geneva
Inauguration Day 1 January 1995

Objectives Regulating and facilitating ‘free’ trade among member nations and
dispute resolution related to trade
Headquarter Geneva, Switzerland

Nos. of Founding 23
Members

Current members 164

Current MD Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala- Nigeria- 1st Women DG; 1st DG from
developing nations
First MD Peter Sutherland- Ireland

Important WTO  Doha Round, started in 2001 is the latest rounds of trade talks
rounds of talks  Doha Development Agenda: to improve the trading
prospects of developing countries.
 Stalemate of Doha Round on Agriculture and subsidies
Trivia  ITO (International Trade Organization) was to set up along
with IMF and World bank as outcome of Bretton Woods
conference in 1944; but due to reluctance of USA, ITO never
became reality.
 India is the founding member of WTO
 China joined WTO in 2001
 trading territory (custom territory) may become member-
Hong Kong and Taiwan; EU is also a member.
 Each member has permanent mission or representative at
WTO headquarter at Geneva
 One Member One Vote- Unlike IMF

183
 FACT SHEETS- IR 5:
REGIONAL
INTER-OVERNMENTAL
ORGANISATIONS

ASIA AND BEYOND

184
 FACT SHEET IR 5.1: REGIONAL COOPERATION ORGANISATIONS: ASIA
Regional Forum Facts & Features

ASEAN  Association for South East Asian Nations

 Established: • 1967- Bangkok Declaration
 10 Members: 5 founders- Indonesia, Malaysia, the
Philippines, Singapore and Thailand Plus Brunei
Darussalam, Vietnam, Lao PDR, Myanmar (Burma) and
Cambodia
 Headquarter: at Jakarta, Indonesia
 Current chairmanship: Cambodia
 Latest ASEAN Summit: Oct, 2021 at Bandar Seri
Begawan, Brunei

SAARC  South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation

 Set up: 8 December 1985 at Dhaka, Bangladesh- SAARC
charter signed
 Members: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan,
Maldives, Sri-Lanka (Founders) plus Afghanistan (joined
in 2007)
 Headquarter: at Kathmandu, Nepal
 Latest SARRC Summit: 18th at Kathmandu- Nov, 2014

BIMSTEC  Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and

Economic Cooperation
 members of BIMSTEC: India, Sri-Lanka, Bangladesh,
Bhutan, Nepal (SAARC nations) plus Myanmar and
Thailand (non-SAARC nations)
 Called mini-SAARC, India investing in it as an alternative
to SAARC under its ‘Look east Policy’
 Headquarter: at Dhaka, Bangladesh.
 Latest BIMSTEC Summit: 4th - Kathmandu, Nepal August
2018

APEC  Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation

 Promotes free trade throughout the Asia-Pacific region.
 21 Members- USA, Canada, Russia, China, Australia,
New Zealand, Chile, Peru, Mexico, Japan, South Korea,
Hong Kong, Taiwan, and 7 ASEAN nations
 It is backed by USA

185
  More than 50% of World’s GDP
 Headquarter : at Singapore
 Latest APEC summit: Nov, 2021 chaired by New
Zealand, held virtually.
RCEP  Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership
 a free-trade agreement involving the ASEAN Plus Six
(excluding India)
 It is backed by China
 The RCEP is the first free trade agreement between China,
Japan, and South Korea, three of the four largest economies
in Asia.
 RCEP is the world's largest trading bloc- $2.3 trillion trade
potential in 2019
 Headquarter: Hanoi, Vietnam
 India backed out and didn’t join RCEP

BRICS  Acronym coined for an association of five major emerging

national economies: Brazil, Russia, India, China and South
Africa
 Formed in 2009, S. Africa joined next year
 Headquarter: Shanghai, China
 BRICS Development Bank: now called New Development
Bank
 Latest BRICS Summit: Host- India, Sept, 2021- virtual

PECC  Pacific Economic Cooperation Council

 A network of member committees composed of individuals
and institutions dedicated to promoting cooperation across
the Asia Pacific region
 23 members- many ASEAN members, China, Japan,
Korea, etc
 Headquarter: Singapore
Shanghai Cooperation  Also called Shanghai Pact, is a Eurasian political,
Organisation (SCO) economic, and security alliance; set up in 2003
 Members: 8: Shanghai Five- China, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan PLUS India, Pakistan,
Uzbekistan
 India, Pakistan Joined in 2017

186
  The SCO is the largest regional organisation in the world
in terms of geographical coverage and population, covering
three-fifths of the Eurasian continent and nearly half of the
human population.
 Headquarter: Beijing, China
 Latest SCO summit: Sept, 2021- virtual
Gulf Cooperation  Members: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia,
Council (GCC) and the United Arab Emirates
 All members are Monarchy
 Founded 1981
 Headquarter: Riyadh in Saudi Arabia.
 Proposed to become "Gulf Union" with tighter economic,
political and military coordination.

OIC  Organisation of Islamic Cooperation

 founded in 1969, consisting of 57 member states, mostly
being Muslim-majority countries
 Objective:” the collective voice of the Muslim world" and
works to "safeguard and protect the interests of the Muslim
world in the spirit of promoting international peace and
harmony"
 SAARC nations who are members of OIC: Afghanistan,
Bangladesh, Pakistan, Maldives
 Headquarter: Jeddah, Saudi Arabia

The Indian Ocean  Aims:

Rim Association  Social development of Indian Ocean Rim region.
(IORA)
 Enhancing security and protection from piracy.
 Trade facilitation.
 Set up on 6 March 1997
 Headquarters: Ebene, Mauritius
 23 members- Australia, Bangladesh, the Comoros, France,
India, Indonesia, Iran, Kenya, Madagascar, Malaysia,
Maldives, Mauritius, Mozambique, Oman, Seychelles,
Singapore, Somalia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Tanzania,
Thailand, the United Arab Emirates, Yemen

Collective Security  Military alliance in Eurasia consisting of Armenia,

Treaty Organization Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan and
(CSTO) Uzbekistan

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  Headquarter: Moscow

Other  BCIM: The Bangladesh–China–India–Myanmar Forum

Forum/economic for Regional Cooperation
corridors in Asia  CPEC: China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC)
 BBIN: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal (BBIN) initiative
 CMEC: China-Myanmar Economic Corridor (CMEC)

Asia Cooperation  IGO to include whole Asia and to integrate separte regional
Dialogue (ACD) organisations- ASEAN, SAARC, SCO, GCC, etc
 Set up 2002
 Members: 34 country- India, China, Indonesia, and almost
all Asian countries
 Headquarter : Kuwait

Mekong Ganga  MGC was set up in 2000 at Vientiane, Laos to cooperate in

Cooperation (MGC) the areas of tourism, culture, education, and transportation.
 6 member countries- India, Thailand, Myanmar,
Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam

East Asian Summit  The East Asia Summit (EAS) is the Indo-Pacific's premier
(EAS) forum for strategic dialogue
 18 members - the ten ASEAN countries plus Australia,
China, India, Japan, New Zealand, the Republic of Korea,
Russia and the United States.
 ASEAN leads the forum, and the chair position rotates
between ASEAN Member States annually.
 The EAS annual Leaders' Summit is usually held alongside
ASEAN Leaders' meetings in the fourth quarter of every
year

188
 FACT SHEET IR 5.2: GLOBAL IGOs AND REGIONAL
ORGANISATIONS: OTHER THAN ASIA

Regional Facts & Features

Forum/IGO
G-7  An inter-governmental organisation (IGO) of world’s largest
and advanced economies and wealthiest liberal democracies-
Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, UK, and USA
 Set up in 1973; 1st Summit- 1975
 Headquarter: None! as it is not based on a treaty and has no
permanent secretariat or office
 It was called G-8 from 1997 to 2014, when Russia was also
a member; after Russian annexation of the Crimea, it was
expelled from the group
 Also called ‘Library Group’
 Latest G-7 Summit : June 2021 in Cornwall, England

G-20  IGO comprising 19 countries and the European Union (EU).

 Composed of both industrialized and developing nations-
90% GDP, 75-80& trade, 2/3rd population, and half the land
!
 India, Brazil, Argentina, China, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia,
South Korea, South Africa- developing nation and member
of G-20
 Set up in 1999
 Headquarter: does not have a permanent secretariat or
Headquarters
 Current President: Indonesia
 India is slated to become next president in December, 2022
 Primary forum for international economic and financial
cooperation among developed & developing world
 Latest G-20 Summit: Oct, 2021- Rome, Italy
 Next planned at Bali, Indonesia in Oct, 2022

NAM  Founded in Belgrade Yugoslavia in 1961 by newly

independent 3rd world countries
 5 founding members- 1. Josip Broz Tito from Yugoslavia
2. Jawaharlal Nehru from India · 3. Gamal Abdel Nasser

189
 from Egypt 4. Sukarno from Indonesia 5. Kwame
Nkrumah from Ghana
 Its Algiris Summit in 1973 led to demand of NIEO- New
International Economic Order
 Latest Summit: October 25–26, 2019 in Baku, Azerbaijan
 Current Presidency: Azerbaijan, till 2022

G-77  Set up in 1964, at Geneva, by 77 developing nations as an

outcome of UNCTAD- United Nations Conference on Trade
and Development-1964
 UNCTAD itself is an IGO based at Geneva
 Since then membership of G-77 increased to 134
 Headquarter: same as UN Headquarter
 Work for the economic interest of developing nation, new
economic order( NIEO), and sustainable and equitable
development
 Latest Summit : 45TH Annual Meeting of Ministers for
Foreign Affairs – Nov, 2021, New York
 Present Chairmanship: Pakistan

NATO  North Atlantic Treaty Organization

 Set up: 1949
 Security Alliance: mutual defence in response to an attack
by any external party.
 Members: 30 (USA, UK, and other European nations)
 Recent members: Montenegro in 2017 and North Macedonia
2020.
 Recently, Ukraine, Georgia, Sweden, and Finland expressed
their desire to join NATO
 Headquarter: at Brussels, Belgium
 Latest meeting held in March at Brussels, Belgium
 Next meeting 28-30 June, Madrid, Spain

WARSAW PACT  Officially the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and

Mutual Assistance among USSR and Eastern Bloc
nations
 Set up: 1955, Warsaw, Poland
 Direct rival to NATO
 Headquarter: at Moscow, USSR.

190
  Was Dissolved in 1991

EU  European Union
 Set up: 1992 by the Maastricht Treaty
 Political and economic union of European nations
 27 Members- UK, France, Germany, and all
western/central/south plus few erstwhile Eastern Bloc
European nations.
 North Macedonia- latest member to join EU – march
2020
 UK exited EU ( BREXIT)- on 31 January 2020
 Headquarter: at Brussels, Belgium
 Behave like supra-nation: Has European Parliament,
Common currency (Euro), common VISA (Schengen Visa),
Common Foreign and Security Policy, common market
 European Commission- its executive arm
 EU is member (represented) of UN, WTO, G7, G20

AU  African Union
 Replaced Organisation of African Unity (OAU), set up in
1963
 Set up : 2001 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
 55 members: almost all African Nation
 Headquarter: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
 Current chairmanship- Senegal
 Largest regional organisation in terms of membership count
 Latest Summit: 34th- February , 2021- virtual

NAFTA  North American Free Trade Agreement

 Set up 1994
 Members: USA, Canada, Mexico
 Headquarter: The NAFTA Secretariat is located in separate
national offices in Mexico City, Ottawa and Washington
 One of the largest trade blocs in the world by GDP
 NAFTA is now replaced by United States-Mexico-Canada
Agreement (USMCA), which entered into force on July 1,
2020

MERCOSUR  Official name : Southern Common Market

191
  South American trade bloc
 Set up : by the Treaty of Asunción in 1991
 Full members are Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.
 Venezuela is a full member but has been suspended since 1
December 2016.
 Associate countries are Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador,
Guyana, Peru and Suriname
 Headquarter: Montevideo, Uruguay.

UNASUR  Union of South American Nations

 Regional IGO of 12 South American countries
 Headquarter: Quito, Ecuador
 Set up in 2008
 Almost defunct (non-working) as most of the members have
withdrawn

OAS  Organization of American States

 Set up 1948
 35 Members: of both North and South America
 Headquarter: Washington, USA

CIS  Commonwealth of Independent States

 Formed in 1991 by erstwhile republics under USSR
 9 members: 4 central Asian republics ( except Turkmenistan
which is associate member), Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus,
Moldova, and Russia
 Headquarter: Minsk, Belarus

OPEC  Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries

 Set up: 1960 in Baghdad
 Members: 5 founders- Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and
Venezuela plus: 7 African nation( Libya, Angola, Algeria,
Gabon, Guinea, Nigeria, Congo), UAE
 Headquarter at Vienna, Austria

Cairns Group  The Cairns Group is a coalition of 19 agricultural exporting

countries which account for more than 25 per cent of the
world’s agricultural exports, and one observer (Ukraine).
 Set up in Cairns, Australia, in 1986

ANZUS  The Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty

192
  Collective security non-binding agreement between
Australia, New Zealand, and the United States to co-operate
on military matters in the Pacific Ocean region
 ANZUS was overshadowed in late 2021 by AUKUS, a
trilateral security pact between Australia, the United
Kingdom, and the United States.

Caribbean  An IGO that is a political and economic union of 15 member

Community states of the Caribbean Sea
(CARICOM)  Primary objectives to promote economic integration and
cooperation among its members, and to coordinate foreign
policy.
 Established in 1973, Headquarter- Georgetown, Guyana
 [Link] the current chair

Now Dissolved or  UNASUR: Union of South American Nations; Set up: 2008
Defunct ; but by 2019 most members withdrew
organisations  SEATO: set up in 1954 by Southeast Asia Collective
Défense Treaty, or Manila Pact, as cold war military alliance;
was dissolved in 1977
 CENTO: Central Treaty Organisation (CENTO), originally
known as the Baghdad Pact, a cold war military alliance, set
up in 1955, dissolved in 1979
 Pakistan was member of both SEATO and CENTO ; both the
organisation was backed by USA for its strategic interests in
Asia.
 WARSAW PACT: see above.
 NAFTA- replaced by USMCA

193
 FACT SHEET IR 5.3: SOME LESS KNOWN IGOs, ECONOMIC
CORRIDORS, ETC.

IGO/Corridors Facts & Features

The Asia‐Africa  Set up: 2017
Growth Corridor  The AAGC consists of four main components: 1. development
(AAGC) and cooperation projects, [Link] infrastructure and institutional
connectivity, [Link] and skill enhancement and 4. people-to-
people partnerships
 Unlike OBOR, now BRI (Belt and Road Initiative), which entails
development of both land corridor (new economic belt) and
ocean (marine silk road), AAGC will essentially be a sea corridor
linking Africa with India and other countries of South-East Asia
and Oceania by reviving ancient sea-routes

ECOWAS  Economic Community of West African State

 Set up: 1975
 Headquarter: Abuja, Nigeria
 Members: 15 member states of West Africa
 Objective: to achieve "collective self-sufficiency" for its member
states by creating a single large trade bloc
 ECOWAS also serves as a peacekeeping force in the region

AEC  African Economic Community

 an organization of African Union( AU) which aims the creation
of free trade areas, customs unions, a single market, a central
bank, and a common currency
 Includes many Regional Economic Communities (RECs)-
Community of Sahel-Saharan States(CEN-SAD, COMESA-
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa, Economic
Community of Central African States (ECCAS), ECOWAS,
Southern African Development Community (SADC), and AMU
Arab Maghreb  Maghreb: western part of North Africa and the Arab world-
Union (AMU) Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia
 Set up: 1989
 Members: Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia (the
Maghreb states)

194
FACT SHEETS-
IR 6: MORE IR
GK AND
TRIVIA

195
 FACT SHEET IR 6.1: NAMES OF LINES SEPARATING TWO
COUNTRIES

Line Separating Countries

Durand Line  Afghanistan and Pakistan

Radcliff Line  India and Pakistan

 India and Bangladesh
McMahan Line  India and China
Line of Actual  India and China after 1962 Ceasefire
Control ( LOAC)
The Macartney–  a proposed boundary in the disputed area of Aksai China
MacDonald Line  It was proposed by British Indian Government to China in 1899
via its envoy to China, Sir Claude MacDonald.
The Ardagh–  is the north-eastern boundary of Kashmir drawn, in 1897, by
Johnson Line surveyor William Johnson and recommended by John Charles
Ardagh as the official boundary of British India
 Both the above lines were not made operational
38th parallel Line  North and South Korea
17th Parallel Line  North and South Vietnam
20th Parallel  Libya and Sudan
22nd Parallel  Egypt and Sudan
31st Parallel  Iran and Iraq
49th Parallel  Canada and USA
Blue Line  Lebanon and Israel
Maginot Line  Between France and Germany
 France built it with series of defence structure to prevent attack
from Nazi Germany

196
 FACT SHEET IR 6.2: MAJOR OPERATIONS/EXCERCISES BY
INDIAN FORCES/ GOVT

Operations/exercises Period, boarder Remarks

Operation Brasstacks, 1986-87, Rajasthan It was the major and largest
mobilization of Indian forces involving
the combined strength of two Army
Commands - almost 500,000 troops -
half the Indian Army.
Operation Parakram 2001-02; along the This was in response to a terrorist
Line of Control (LoC) attack on the Indian Parliament in New
in the region of Delhi on 13 December 2001
Kashmir

Operation Meghdoot 1984, Siachen Codename for the Indian Armed

Forces' operation to seize control of the
Siachen Glacier in Kashmir,
precipitating the Siachen conflict.
Operation Pawan, Virat, 1987 Operations of Indian Peace Keeping
Trishul, Checkmate force ( IPKF) against LTTE in Sri-
Lanka

Operation Vijay 1999, Kargil, J&K Indian operation to push back the
infiltrators from the Kargil Sector, in
the 1999 Kargil War.
Operation Black 2008, Mumbai Against the 2008 Mumbai Terror
Tornado, Operation Attacks
Cyclone

Surgical Strike 2016, Uri sector India’s response to hit terrorist camps
in POK after the Uri terrorist Attack
Balakot strike 2019, Balakot, India’s response to hit terrorist camps
Kashmir in POK after the Pulwama terrorist
Attack

Operation Rakshak J&K Indian Army operations in Jammu and

(1990), Operation Sarp Kashmir
Vinash (2003) and Include humanitarian missions such as
Operation Randori Operation Megh Rahat and operations
Behak (2020.) with a social aim such as Operation
Goodwill and Operation Calm Down.[

197
Operation Polo: 1948, Hyderabad Integration of Hyderabad

Operation Devi Shakti 2021, Afghanistan To help fleeing Hindus and Sikhs from
the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.

Operation Vijay 1961, Goa Liberation of Goa

Smiling Budhha 1974 Pokhran, First Pokhran Test

Rajasthan Indian became a nuclear Power

Operation Shakti 1998 Rajasthan Second Pokhran Test

Operation Safe 2011 To evacuate its citizens who were

Homecoming fleeing from the Libyan Civil War
Operation Sukoon 2006 launched by the Indian Navy to
evacuate Indian, Sri Lankan and
Nepalese nationals, as well as Lebanese
nationals with Indian spouses, from the
conflict zone during the 2006 Lebanon
War.
Project Mausam 2014 A cultural project by the Indian
Ministry of Culture and Archaeological
Survey of India (ASI)
aims to rebuild maritime cultural
connections with the 39 countries
bordering the Indian Ocean
Operation Raahat 2015 To evacuate Indian citizens and foreign
nationals from Yemen during the 2015
Yemeni Crisis
Operation Maitri 2015 A rescue and relief operation in Nepal
carried out by the government of India
and Indian armed forces in the
aftermath of the April 2015 Nepal
earthquake.

Operation Ganga 2022 To evacuate Indian citizens/students

stranded in Ukraine on face of the
Russian attack on Ukraine, February
2022

198
FACT SHEET IR 6.3: INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY INSTRUMENTS IN RECENT
TIMES

Foreign Policy Year Facts & Features

Component
‘Extended 1998-  India’s extended neighbourhood can be said to
Neighbourhood’ policy 2004 stretch from the Suez Canal to the South China Sea.
 This includes West Asia/the Gulf, Central Asia,
Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean Region
Genuine NAM 1977-  Policy of non-alignment, without fear or leaning to
79 one side or another
 This was against the Policy of leaning more
towards USSR
 Under Indian PM Morarji Desai

Indira Doctrine 1971-  India’s security is coterminous with the region and
77 any interference of external powers is taken as a
threat to India’s security.
‘Look East’ Policy 1991  Under PM Narsimha Rao
 To develop political, economic and security co-
operation with countries in Southeast Asia
 To act as a counterweight to China in Southeast Asia
 More engagement with ASEAN
‘Act East’ Policy 2014  Under PM Narendra Modi
 to promote economic cooperation, cultural ties and
develop a strategic relationship with countries in the
Asia-Pacific region
 focus is being given to the development of the North
East region.

Gujral Doctrine 1996  Good relation with immediate neighbours, in south

Asia, by extending one way ( non-reciprocal )
concessions
AIFTA 2009  ASEAN India Free Trade Agreement
 The ASEAN-India Trade in Goods Agreement was
signed and entered into force on 1 January 2010
‘Look West’ Policy 2014  To engage more with Middle East and Gulf
countries- politically, economically, and culturally

199
  Free Trade Agreements with Gulf Cooperation
Council(GCC)
 Closer ties with OPEC (Organization of the
Petroleum Exporting Countries)

BIMS-TEC 1997  Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral

Technical and Economic Cooperation
 5 SAARC nations- India, Bangladesh, Nepal,
Bhutan, Sri Lanka Plus Myanmar and Thailand
 Secretariat is in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
 Referred to as the mini SAARC.
 Due to political conflict between SAARC members,
India focussing on BIMS-TEC

2+2 Talks  Top level bilateral talks of foreign and defines

minister of each country
 India is holding 2+2 talks with USA Japan, and
Australia
QUAD 2007  Quadrilateral Security Dialogue
 Strategic dialogue between the USA, Japan,
Australia and India
 Started in 2007, on Japan’s initiative
 Joint military exercises called ‘Exercise Malabar’
 Latest QUAD meeting: March 2022- virtual
FTA  Free Trade Agreement
 India signed FTA with Sr-Lanka and ASEAN

CEPA  Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement

 India signed CEPA with South Korea ( 2009),
Japan(2010), and UAE( 2022)

200
FACT SHEET IR 6.4: FORMER NAMES OF ASIAN/SOUTH ASIAN
COUNTRIES/ CAPITALS

New Name Old Name

Ethiopia  Abyssinia

Beijing  Peking

Jakarta  Batavia

Cote D'Ivoire  Ivory Coast

Ghana  Gold Coast

Harare  Salisbury

The Netherlands  Holland

St Petersburg  Leningrad

Sri-Lanka  Ceylon

Taiwan  Formosa
Iran  Persia
Iraq  Mesopotamia
Indonesia  Dutch East Indies
Istanbul  Constantinople
Japan  Nippon
Thailand  Siam
Myanmar  Burma
Malaysia  Malaya
Malawi  Nyasaland

201
Manchuria  Manchukuo
Cambodia  Kampuchea
Vietnam  Cochin-China
Istanbul  Constantinople
Beijing  Peking
Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam  Saigon
Surinam  Dutch Guyana
Tokyo, Japan  Edo
Tanzania  Zanzibar
Yangon  Rangoon
Zaire  Congo

202
FACT SHEET IR 6.5: CAPITALS OF SOME SELECTED COUNTRIES

Country Capital
United Arab Emirates  Abu Dhabi

Nigeria  Abuja

Ghana  Accra

Ethiopia  Addis Ababa

Turkey  Ankara

Turkmenistan  Ashgabat

Azerbaijan  Baku

Kyrgyzstan  Bishkek

Tajikistan  Dushanbe

Kazakhstan  Nūr-Sūltan
Georgia  Tbilisi
Uzbekistan  Tashkent
Croatia  Zagreb
New Zealand  Wellington
Poland  Warsaw
Mongolia  Ulaanbaatar
Libya  Tripoli
Taiwan  Taipei
Bosnia and Herzegovina  Sarajevo
Chile  Santiago
Iceland  Reykjavík
Morocco  Rabat

203
Ecuador  Quito
North Korea  Pyongyang
Mauritius  Port Louis
Cambodia  Phnom Penh
Uruguay  Montevideo
Peru  Lima
Gabon  Libreville
Bolivia  La Paz
Ukraine  Kiev
Rwanda  Kigali
Sudan  Khartum
Uganda  Kampala
Cuba  Havana
Ireland  Dublin
Tanzania  Dar es Salaam
Syria  Damascus
Venezuela  Caracas
Australia  Canberra
Hungary  Budapest
Romania  Bucharest
Colombia  Bagota
Paraguay  Asunción

204
 FACT SHEET IR 6.6: INDIA’S FRIENDSHIP AND STRATEGIC
TREATIES

Treaty Year Facts & Features

Indo-Bhutan Treaty 1949  Was extended by signing 2007 Treaty of Perpetual Peace
of Perpetual Peace and and Friendship
Friendship

Liaquat–Nehru Pact 1950  Also called Delhi Pact

 bilateral treaty between India and Pakistan in which
refugees were allowed to return, abducted women and
looted property were to be returned, forced conversions
were unrecognized, and minority rights were confirmed.

India-Nepal Treaty of 1950  The treaty allows free movement of people and goods
Peace and Friendship between the two nations and a close relationship and
collaboration on matters of defense and foreign policy.

Indo–Soviet Treaty of 1971  Signed in the backdrop of India-Pakistan conflict in 1971

Peace, Friendship and  Raised questions on India’s commitment to NAM
Cooperation
Shimla Agreement 1972  Signed in 1972 after the Bangladesh war
 signed by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and President
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto of Pakistan on 2nd July 1972
 Agreement to solve all issues by bilateral talks without
involving external agencies

India–Bangladesh 1972  Signed by the Prime Minister of India Indira Gandhi and
Treaty of Friendship, the Prime Minister of Bangladesh Sheikh Mujibur
Cooperation and Peace Rahman.

India Bangladesh 1974  Exchange of the landlocked territories

Land Boundary  was revived in 2015; for this Indian Parliament enacted
Agreement 100th constitutional Amendment Act 2015.

India- Sri Lanka 1987  Signed in Colombo on 29 July 1987, between Indian
Accord Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi and Sri Lankan President J.
R. Jayewardene
 It was to resolve the Sri Lankan Civil War by enabling
the 13th Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka and
the Provincial Councils Act of 1987

205
  India sent its Force- Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF),
which had to fight a bitter and tough battle with LTTE
 This failed accord became prime reason for loss of life of
Rajeev Gandhi
Lahore Declaration 1999  The Lahore Declaration was an agreement between India
and Lahore Treaty and Pakistan to reduce the risk of accidental or
unauthorized use of nuclear weapons.
 Signed at Lahore by Pakistani PM Nawaz Sharif and
Indian PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee after the historic Lahore
Summit
 Before the Summit, Vajpayeeji rode the inaugural Delhi–
Lahore Bus service to reach Lahore from Delhi.
 But this bonhomie (friendly relation) lasted only for a
short time as soon afterwards Pakistan forces entered into
Kargil, which led to the outbreak of 1999 Indo-Pakistan
Kargil War in May 1999.
 Lahore Bus service was suspended after 2001 Parliament
attack.
Mahakali treaty 1996 Agreement between India and Nepal regarding the
development of watershed of Mahakali River

206
FACT SHEET IR 6.7: INDIA’S FTAS AND ECONOMIC PARTNERSHIP

FTA Agreement Year Signed with Addl. Info, Features,

Trivia
CEPA-Comprehensive South Korea- 2009 Most Comprehensive
Economic Partnership Japan-2010 FTA
Agreement
UAE-2022
CECPA- Comprehensive 2021 Mauritius
Economic Cooperation
and Partnership
Agreement

CECA- Comprehensive Singapore (2005) and

Economic Cooperation Malaysia (2011)
Agreement
BECA: Basic Exchange 2020 USA
and Cooperation
Agreement

India-Sri Lanka Free 1998 1st FTA of Sri-Lanka

Trade Agreement
(ISLFTA)
Asia Pacific Trade 1975 Previously known as An initiative under the
Agreement (APTA) the Bangkok United Nations
Agreement Economic and Social
Oldest preferential Commission for Asia and
trade agreement the Pacific (ESCAP) for
between countries in trade expansion through
the Asia-Pacific exchange of tariff
concessions among
Members:
developing country
Bangladesh, China,
members of the Asia
India, Lao PDR,
Pacific Region.
Republic of Korea
and Sri Lanka
ASEAN-India Free Trade 2009 A free trade area among the ten member states of
Area (AIFTA) the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) and India

207
FACT SHEET IR 6.8: COLONIES OF MAJOR COLONIAL POWERS

Colonial Power Colonies

UK/ Great  In Asia: India, Sri Lanka (Ceylon), Myanmar( Burma), Malaysia,
Britain Singapore , Hongkong, Brunei, Jordan, Bahrin, Qatar , Kuwait ,
Muscat and Oman
 Africa: Egypt, Myanmar, Kenya, West Indies, Nigeria, Uganda,
Kenya, Sudan, Lesotho, Botswana, Somalia, Egypt, Eastern
Ghana(Gold Coast), Gambia, South Africa , Zimbabwe
(Rhodesia ), Niger, Zambia , Malawi Cameroon, New Guinea , and
Benin
 South America: Guiana
 Central America: Belize (British Honduras)
 Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Thirteen Colonies (United States)
 Islands and other: Fiji, Caribbean islands- Barbados, Antigua,
Jamaica, Grenada, Bermuda, Solomon Islands, Cyprus, Malta,
Zanzibar, Tonga, Samoa

France AFRICA:
 French North Africa: French Algeria, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia
 French West Africa: Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Guinea, Ivory Coast,
Burkina Faso, Benin, Gambia, Senegal, and Niger.
 French Equatorial Africa: Chad, the Central African Republic,
Congo, French Cameroon, and Gabon
 East Africa and Indian Ocean: Madagascar, Mauritius, Djibouti,
Seychelles, Chagos Archipelago

ASIA:
 French Indochina: Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam
 Palestine, Syria, Lebanon, Yemen
 Island ( Oceania): Papua New Guinea

Netherland/Dutch Dutch East Indies (Indonesia), Dutch New Guinea, Suriname, Dutch
Brazil

208
Spain Peru, Chile, Canary Islands, many areas of Latin America, Cuba,
Puerto Rico

Portugal Brazil, Portuguese Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Cape Verde),

Portuguese India (Goa, Daman, Diu)

USA Cuba, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Philippines, Nicaragua, Panama, Liberia

JAPAN Taiwan, Korea, Kwantung

209
FACT SHEETS-
WPT:
WESTERN
POLITICAL
THOUGHTS

210
 FACT SHEET WPT 1: FACT SHEET: WESTERN CLASSICAL
THINKERS- MAIN THINKERS

Thinker Facts to remember

Plato (around Concepts Theory of Forms  Forms or ideas are essence
400-350 BC) and reality of every
observable object by our
senses, they are eternal and
unchangeable, absolutely
true definitions of
concepts- nature of being
anything
 What objects we see in
observable world are copy
or shadow of their Form of
the intelligible world
 Forms represent true/real
knowledge , can be known
by reason
Idea of the Good ‘Good’ is the supreme form, all
other ‘Forms’ subordinate to it
Idea of Good is like Sun, in whose
light all other things made visible
Allegory of Cave Visible world- life in the cave, in
chains, in shadow, not real
Vs.
Intelligible world- World of
sunlight outside the cave, the real
world- world of ideas/Forms
Theory of Justice  Justice is doing one’s own duty
as per one’s station of life
 Each individual and each class
performing its duties best to
their abilities/aptitude without
interfering in other’s domain

Ideal State  “State is individual writ large”

 “Statecraft is soul-craft”

211
  3 class- philosopher kings,
Auxiliary (soldiers), producers
 Open class system- allotment of
class on the basis of education
and tests
 Community of wives &
properties, no family life and
pvt property to guardian class
(kings & soldiers)
 Free, compulsory education &
training
Books Republic, Apology, Statesman, Laws, Crito, Timaeus
(nature of the world)
Plato’s book chronology: A. Apology B. Republic C.
Statesman D. Laws

Books on  The Open Society and its Enemies- Karl popper-

Plato critic
 Plato Today- R.H.S. Crossman- critic
 The Platonic Legend- W. Fite- critic
 Lectures on the Republic of Plato- R.L. Nettleship-
praise
 The Man and His Work - A.E. Taylor- praised Plato
Other  Plato was first to use Socratic dialectical method
important  Against private property for the ruling class
facts
 His scheme of communism of wives & property was
aimed at curbing corruption
 Gave theory divided line, theory of Forms/idea, and
allegory of caves
 Sabine said, “What Aristotle calls the ideal state is
always Plato’s second-best state”
 He was idealist, romantic, and utopic thinker
 Was student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle
 His school in Athens: The Academy

Aristotle (384– Concepts Theory of Form  World of being (ideas) and

322 BC) and Causes world of becoming (material

212
 world of our senses) are one and
same
 Reality can be understood from
our senses, no need for
imagining any other(intelligible)
world
 4 Causes- Formal, Material,
Efficient, Final

Theory of Justice  Justice is virtue, virtue in action

 Distributive justice- justice as
'fairness’ in distribution of
income, offices, rewards,
honours
 based on the principle of equity-
proportional and arithmetic
equality
 Corrective or rectifactory
justice : regulating the social or
ethical relationships between the
citizens - simple reciprocity- do
with others what you would do
with yourself

Theory of State  Historical theory of origin of

state
 State in time: after individual &
family but in essence state prior
to individual & family
 State (Polis) represent supreme
moral and ethical virtue of a
political community
 State is required for fulfilled and
flourished individual life
(Eudemonia)
Types of  6 types, based on rule by whom,
Constitution/Govt and whose interest?
 Rule by one- Monarchy &
tyranny

213
  Rule by few- Aristocracy &
Oligarchy
 Rule by many- Polity &
democracy
 Tyranny, Oligarchy, and
Democracy are unjust, perverted
forms of govt
 His choice- combination of
Polity and Aristocracy
Revolution- cycle Cycle of change- Monarchy-
of change of Govt tyranny-aristocracy-oligarchy-
form polity-democracy-monarchy

Household/family  Household -Husband, wife,

children, slave, property
 Low opinion about Women:
 inferior to men, an
incomplete defective male!
 has reason, but without
authority;
 hence, she has to be under
command of male!

Property & Unlike Plato, he supported private

Wealth property & wealth but with
conditions
Slavery Slave- like household property
Supported slavery but with many
conditions
Theory of  Aristotle denied citizenship to
Citizebship foreigners, slaves and women
and other manual and menial
workers.
 Who is Not a Citizen?
 mere residence in the polis
does not make a persons a
citizen-aliens and slaves
reside along with citizens
in the same city.

214
  Also right of suing and
being suied also doen not
make one ekigible for
citizenship
 Merely descent from a
citizen also not sufficient
critiera for citizenship.
 a citizen is anyone who is
entitled to share in deliberative
or judicial office.
 Citizen posses Ethical & Moral
virtue
 Citizen are those who rule and
are being ruled
 Citizenship was a public duty
 Good Citizen- good human
being
Books  Politics
 Nicomachean Ethics
 Metaphysics
 Rhetoric
 Poetics
 On the Soul

Other  Student of Plato in his ‘Academy’;

important  Teacher of young Alexander the Great of Macedonia
facts
 Founded Lyceum -his own Academy
 Master writer on Biology, Mechanics, Astronomy,
Logic, Economics, Politics, Theology, rhetoric,
Poetics
 Considered as true Scientist, ‘The Philosopher’, ‘First
Teacher’, The Master of Them That Know'
 Father of Political Science, Political Realism, founder
of Historical and Comparative methods,
Constitutionalism, and formal Logic
 He belonged to Mecodonia and fled from Athens to
Calchis to save his life after growing animosity
between Athens and Mecodonia

215
Machiavelli Concepts Statecraft- real-  Supreme goal of the Prince
(1469 – 1527) politic (king)- to maintain the state-
safety & security
 State- non-ethical amoral entity,
not bound by conventional
morality
 Political actions are to be judged
only by its outcome- ‘end
justifies means’
Virtù- qualities  "Flexible Disposition “,
required in the Pragmatism, Ruthlessness,
Prince/king Cunningness, Deceitfulness,
Boldness, courage, and
Shrewdness, and Will power
 Loin & Fox: combined qualities
of strength/force and
Shrewdness
 Mastery in power politics
 Judicious mix of
violence/cruelty and
benevolence
 Fear rather than Love for
political obligation
 Pretentions: should wear mask

Fortuna: Fate,  Fortuna is a malevolent and

Destiny uncompromising source of
human misery, pain, and
disaster.
 Compared Fortuna with fickle,
tempestuous (angry, violent)
women- like furious river
 Fortuna is enemy of political
order, the ultimate threat to the
safety and security of the state
 A prince having Virtù can
respond to and tame the Fortuna.
Republicanism  Favoured Republic than
Monarchy as form of
Government

216
  Republics more flexible, public
spiritedness, better able to
achieve common Good, and
secure freedom to
people/community
Good Republic  His ideal was Ancient Roman
Republic
 His Ideal Republic
 Good Laws & good Institution,
Flexible Institutions, Mixed
Constitution: Monarchy
+Aristocracy+ Democracy,
Public Discourse, Active
contention (conflict) between
the people and nobility, Armed
people, Encouraging
Immigration, Inculcating Public
spiritedness, Civic Virtue and
Civic Religion among the
citizen, Renewal or re-invention
of the Republic every 10 year
 Republicanism of USA
represent many of these
qualities.

Religion-  Politics should be separated

Secularism from Religion
 Instrumental view on religion-
in disciplining people and help
ruler manipulate people’s
emotions
 Criticized Christianity, raised
the Pagan( Pre-Christian beliefs)
civic religions of ancient
societies such as Rome
 kept silence on his views on
after life, eternity of soul,
salvation,

Books ‘The prince’

‘The Discourses on Livy’- his idea of Republicanism

217
 Other  Was a senior diplomat in Florence Republic after fall
important of Medici Monarchist rule
facts  Represents Italian Renaissance- humanism,
secularism, scientific reasoning
 Called ‘child of his time’
 Founder of modern political science, modern
conception of nation-State, Secular politics, and
Republic, Father of political realism

Quotes on Teacher of Evil- Leo Straus

him the murderous Machiavelli -Shakespeare

Thomas Hobbes Concepts Nature of  Negative view of nature of man

(1588 –1679) Man  Bundle of matter in motion, motion
creates emotions
 Man guided by appetites, desire, and
passions
 Self-preservation and glory- chief
appetites
 Power is the means to satisfy man’s
desires
 Happiness -continuous progress of
desire, restless and perpetual desire for
more power
 Competition, fear & suspicion of others

State of  Human life without any political order-

Nature no civil society/Government
 no limit to right of natural liberty
 Private Judgment- each one judge, jury,
executioner
 Unsatiable desire for power & glory,
competition, fear & mistrust- war of ‘all
against all’
 life of man, Solitary, Poor, Nasty,
Brutish, and Short
Social  Agreement/covenant with one and all to
Contract form civil society and state/Government

218
  Transferred their rights, will, and power
to a 3rd party- the sovereign- Leviathan
 The Sovereign is Not party to the
contract
 Power of the sovereign is absolute,
unlimited, undivided, unalienable
 People get peace, price- to obey
command of the sovereign
 The contract is valid only till the
sovereign is able to maintain peace and
security

Political  As people get peace, they should obey

Obligation the laws & commands of the sovereign
 Grounds for No Political Obligation-
 to protect right of self-preservation,
to protect family and honour, when
the sovereign is not able to
maintain peace and security

Books ‘De Cive’ (On the citizen), ‘De Corpore’ (On the Body)
, ‘De Homine ‘ (liberating Man)
• ‘The Elements of Law’, ‘Natural and Politic’
• ‘Leviathan’- his seminal creation- social
contract/sovereign

Other  1st modern thinker who gave secular basis of

important sovereignty, individual autonomy and liberty, direct
facts relation of individual to state, social contract,
scientific approach to social arrangements
 Unique combination of individualism and absolutism
 Grandfather of Liberalism and individualism
 Pioneer of realism in IR
 First modern political scientist
 first to modernize the tradition of Natural Law
 First modern thinker to give idea of negative
Liberty

John Locke Concepts Nature of  Somewhat positive view of man’s

(1632 –1704) man nature

219
  Man has God gifted sense of reason
 Able to self-govern and live with
others in peace
 Seeks pleasure, avoid pain, is self-
interested but is rational
State of  Human life without any common
Nature superior authority to judge between
them
 Not pre-political, pre-social- can
happen any time- statelessness
 Each individual is free, equal and
independent; but bound by law of
nature
 Private Judgment: Each one is judge,
jury and executioner
 Each individual possesses natural
right-liberty, equality, life, property
 State of general ‘peace, goodwill,
mutual assistance and preservation’
 But peace is fragile, possibility of
conflict anytime

Social  to remove the inconvenience of

Contract nature of state and to better protect
their rights men enter into contract
with ‘one and all’ to set up sovereign
community by transferring some of
their rights
 Political community, then by
majority set up the Govt.- legislative
and executive;
 legislative is supreme, executive
subordinate to legislative
 Govt/sovereign is not absolute, is
party to the contract and bound by its
obligation to act for common good
 2 stage contract, 1st stage by express
consent of all, 2nd stage by majority
vote and tacit consent

220
Nature of  The Government is also party to the
Government contract
 Govt. is to follow natural law, is not
above law, not absolute
 Govt as trustee to the community
 Limited Government
 The community is permanent-
Government changeable anytime
 Popular sovereignty- sovereignty
resides in people, expressed by
majority of the representatives.
Theory of  property as ‘fruit of labour’ : persons
Property own their own body and labour,
Rights when they mix their labour with that
which is unowned it becomes their
property.
 right to property includes the rights
to life, liberty
 3 principles of property-no wastage,
sufficiency condition, lobour
restriction
 duty of charity toward poor and have
nots
 Govt has no right to take property
without the consent of the property
owner

Political  Consent is the basis

Obligation  Tacit consent by subsequent
generations
 right to dissent against the unjust law
or any immoral law
 grounds of NO political obligation:
 government fails to maintain
peace and order, protect natural
rights, protect them from
external aggression, act
arbitrarily and becomes
tyrannical.

221
Books ‘A Letter Concerning Toleration’ • ‘Two Treatises of
Government’ • ‘An Essay Concerning Human
Understanding ‘• ‘Some Thoughts Concerning
Education’

Other  Considered civil society same as and political

important community
facts  Refuted negative views on human nature of Hobbes
 Refuted divine right theory of Kingship by Robert
Filmer
 Was apologist for the gloriuous revolution-1689
 Spiritual father of European enlightenment
 Father of classical liberalism and capitalism
 Influenced both French and American revolution and
American declaration of Independence

222
 FACT SHEET WPT 2: FACT SHEET: MODERN WESTERN
POLITICAL PHILOSOPHERS- AS PER CBCS SYLLABUS
Thinker Facts to remember

Rousseau Concepts State of  Isolated living of human without speech,

(1712-1778) nature language, society, and private property
 Savage man- 2 innate feeling- 1. self-love
and Pity for others
 life was frugal, lazy, contended, peaceful-
‘noble savage’
Origin of  Private property, division of labour, laws
inequality to protect property rights.
 Resourceful vs resourceless- inequality
 dimensions of inequality: Wealth, rank,
power, personal merit

Impact of civilization corrupted ‘noble savage’ and de-

civilization based human nature
Individualism State based on individual rights and negative
and negative freedom is immoral, unjust, and inequal
liberty State

Social  People as equal enter into contract with

contract others and with all to form political
‘Community’ –Republic or Body Politic
 Individuals subsume their power, rights,
possessions, identity to the community,
become its indivisible part
 They gain: common force for protection,
equal citizenship, sovereignty, civil
liberty, moral freedom, identity, forum for
just & moral act
 The community and each of its members
are directed by ‘General Will’ – ‘sum of
real wills’- serve common interest-
common Good
 By obeying laws flowing from General
Will, one gain moral freedom

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 Features of  Not a one-time event but a continuous
his Social process
Contract  Popular Sovereignty: cannot be
delegated to Government or
representatives
 As citizen of the community, one gets
back both Political and Personal Liberty
General Will  General will is ‘real will’ of the
community
 Real will- guided by the higher self
 Actual will- guided by lower self
 Laws flowing from general will – just,
morally good, liberating
Books  ‘Social Contract’
 ‘Emile, or On Education’
 ‘The Confessions’- autobiography
Essays: ‘discourse on science and arts’ and ‘discourse on
origin of inequality’
Article: ‘Discourse on political economy’
Other  Philosophical father of French Revolution
important  Favoured positive liberty, direct democracy, self-
facts government, unalienable popular sovereignty
 Against representative democracy
 Romanticism and utopic ideas- like Plato

[Link] Concepts Liberty  Liberty and individual autonomy -vital

(1806–73) human interests, propellor of civilization
 2 sources of threat: State/govt and mass
Society ( greater threat)
 Harm principle- one is free to act as per
one’s will until no one is harmed
 Any unique, new idea/thought should be
protected even if it is false or partially
true
 Self-regarding vs other-regarding Actions

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  Personal liberty expressed through
'experiments in living’ is everyone’s right

Minority  Minority voice threated by state, mass

Rights society
 In democracy, harmed by Populism,
Majoritarianism, tyranny of Majority
 To protect Minority rights: PR electoral
system, Plural voting, Second chamber of
parliament

His  Added quality in estimation of pleasure

principles of  Higher vs lower pleasure
utility
 Higher pleasure- pleasures “of the
intellect, of the feelings and
imagination, and of the moral
sentiments”
 Lower Pleasure: physical and
sensual- men share with animals
 He made Bentham’s classical
utilitarianism more moral, ethical but also
diluted its pureness.

Subjection of  Women’s subjection by men has its origin

Women in physical superiority of men
 No logical or rational basis of women’s
subjection
 Men & women equal in moral goodness,
virtue, capabilities
 Gender is social construction, not natural
 Utility loss: by stopping 50 % of human
to flourish as rational, equal being
 Marriage- the chief institution of
Subjection
 Women should get property, custody,
legal, and political rights.

Liberal  Referred himself as a qualified socialist

Socialism  Supported worker’s participation in
management, distribution of profit
between workers and managers, decent

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 wages to workers, and worker’s
cooperatives.
 Advocated distribution of lands of big
landlords to landless tillers, diffusion of
wealth, laws for limit on inheritance,
inheritance and wealth tax, labour unions,
and decent wages to workers
 supporter of cooperatives- farmer’s
cooperative, consumer cooperative,
worker’s cooperatives.

Books A System of Logic (1843), Principles of Political Economy

(1848) • The essay On Liberty (1859), Utilitarianism (1863)
• Considerations on Representative Government (1861), •
The Subjection of Women (1869)- with his wife Harriet
Taylor

Other  Like his father, he worked for East India Company

important  His father, James Mill, was friend of Jeremy Bentham
facts
 Was contemporary of Marx, who was living in England,
but did not have interactions with him.
 Considered as reluctant democrat, liberal feminist, and
qualified Socialist
 Compared with Nietzsche for range of intellectual
thoughts
 Champion of Liberty, women, and minority Rights.

Karl Marx Concepts Historical  Material conditions of life determine

(1818 – 1883) Materialism consciousness/idea
 Dialectical (inbuilt contradiction)
Conception of matter/object/entity
 History as stages of different mode of
material production
 Mode of production- Forces of
Production plus Relation of Production
 Each mode of production brings its own
superstructure- polity, culture, laws,
media, education

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Alienation  Alienation: a condition of oppression,
disaffection arising from loss of control
over productive activity
 4 Types of Alienation:
 Alienation from product of labour,
Alienation from the act of
production, Alienation from species-
being, Alienation of man from man
 Not only the worker but capitalist class
also face alienation, but they cope up
better with wealth & resources
Theory of  Labour alone generate value in any
Surplus product;
labour  Exchange value of the labour power
(purchased at the market rate) is less than
the use value of that labour put into the
product
 Surplus of use value of labour over its
exchange value is retained by the
capitalist as profit, for Marx, it is theft!
Conception  Freedom in social production, which one
of Freedom joins without any compulsion and as
equal
 Freedom is regaining human essence of
social creativity: Man producing to realize
essence of being Human, act of self-
realization
 Political vs Human emancipation:
political freedom- superficial- part of
superstructure; true freedom only freedom
and equality in base- mode of production
Theory of  Change in mode of production would be
Revolution brought by a social revolution by the
working class
 Social revolution is natural Dialectic
process- contradiction within the existing
mode of production
 At a certain stage of development in mode
of production the forces of production

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 come into conflict with existing relations
of production
 Then comes the period of social
revolution which changes the ‘base’
which in turn changes the ‘superstructure’

Theory of  State is part of the society’s

State superstructure
 State promote and protect the interest of
the dominant class - state is the organ of
class dominance
 “the executive of the modern state is but a
committee for managing the common
affairs of the whole bourgeoisie”
 Relative autonomy of state- state is not
free to act of its own
Books His main creations:
 Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts (1844)- Early
Marx- Theory of Alienation
 The German Ideology (1845), with Engels- materialistic
conception of history; published only in 1932
 The Manifesto of the Communist Party(1848) : with
Engels- class struggle, conflict in capitalist society, social
revolution "The history of all hitherto existing society is
the history of class struggles“
 Das Kapital( Capital)- 1967, later volumes published by
Engels after death of Marx.- Dissection of Capitalism, its
contradiction, destructive tendencies
His other Books/creations:
‘The Poverty of Philosophy’ ; ‘The Eighteenth Brumaire of
Louis Bonaparte’ ;’The Civil War in France’ ; ‘the
Grundrisse’; ‘Theories of Surplus Value’ ;'the critique of
political economy’, ‘The Class Struggles in France’, ‘The
Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte’, ‘The Critique of
the Gotha Program of 1875’
Other  Was from Germany, but lived in England in exile
Important  Influenced by German Philosopher Friedrich Hegel,
Facts Economists Adam Smith, David Ricardo, Ludwig
Feuerbach (a young Hegelian)
 Inverted Hegel’s dialectic idealism

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  Lifelong friendship and partnership with Frederick
Engels, a German Philosopher settled in England.
 Young vs matured Marx- The German Ideology
(1845) is the dividing line ; this division was given
by Loius Althussar

Mary Concepts Women’s  Faulty socio-cultural conditioning and

Wollstonecraft condition wrong education main factors for
(1759 – 1797)) women’s misery
 Women developed artificial ‘feminine
manners’, false sense of power of beauty,
attractiveness, sensuality, ‘women’s
follies’
 In marriage and family, women had no
liberty, equality and property, legal,
inheritance, custody rights
 Through the institutions of Patriarchy,
Aristocracy, Church, Army, prevailing
social norms, habits women’s were
subjugated
Solution for  Revolution in female manners by
improving revamped education system, re-
women’s constitution of social norms, breaking
conditions institutions and hierarchies
 National education plan- co-ed, same
education to boys & girls
 Marriage as friendship
 Women to develop ‘Manliness’- strong,
autonomous, rational women
Her Vision of  Men monopolized learning, denied
Education women cultivating their sense of reason
 Right education to get rid of ‘faulty
women’s manners’
 Aims of Education:
 fit minds in strong and healthy
bodies, cultivation of reason to
develop rational human being,
develop ‘inner resources’, Self-

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 mastery, self-realization, Prepare to
face the inevitable hardships of life
 Compulsory, free education for all class
up to 9 years

Books  Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (1787)

 A Vindication of the Rights of Men(1790)
 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)
 An Historical and Moral View of Origin and Progress of
the French Revolution(1794)
 Letters Written During a Short Residence in Sweden,
Norway, and Denmark (1796)
 Maria; or, The Wrongs of Woman (1798) (posthumously
published unfinished work)
Other  Her ‘Vindication of the Rights of Men’ written against
Important Edmund Burke's ‘Reflections on the Revolution in
Facts France’, a defence of constitutional monarchy,
aristocracy, and the Church of England.
 Her ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Woman’ attacked the
conventional thoughts of Rousseau about women’s
education in his ‘Emile’.
 She was quite radical in her writings as well as life
choices.
 She tried to break the public-private dichotomy.
 To her, women’s liberation should be achieved in private
domain- marriage & family- thereafter civil & political
rights would automatically be granted to her

Alexandra Concepts Her Feminism  Marxist Feminism- main enemy

Kollontai capitalist class, not the fellow men
(1872 –1952)  Issue of proletarian women different
from Bourgeois women
 Triple burden of proletarian women-
worker, housewife, and mother
 Proletarian women fighting both against
class exploitation (with male) and
inequal rights (against men) in private
domains.

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Her Solution  Perfect equality at workplace but also
for working special facilities for women workers
women  Socialization or collectivization of
Motherhood, Child rearing, and
household duties
 Phycological and emotional freedom to
women- not dependent of marriage,
family, husband
Class  Monogamous marriage is feature of
dimension of capitalist society. It is egoistic, inequal,
love, sex, and possessive - wife as male’s
relationships property
 Women should have psychological
freedom to develop mutually respectful
and equal relationship with all members
of the collective
 Relationship between men & women
should have 3 conditions - Equality ,
Mutual recognition of the rights of the
other , Comradely sensitivity
Men-women love relationship is
subordinate to the more powerful emotion
of love-duty to the collective - Love-
comradeship
Winged and  Winged Eros- intense emotional love
Wingless Eros which gives life energy
 Wingless Eros- physical love, no life
energy
 Tribal society- kinship love was prime
 Pre-Christian Ancient Society- love-
friendship above all
 Feudal society- Love in marriage-
wingless Eros ; platonic love with
elusive lady
 Capitalist Society: Mixed winged &
wingless eros into marriage-love
 Love-comradeship: Winged Eros to
strengthen the bond of communist

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 society and liberate women from
emotional need in marriage/family.
 The aim of proletarian ideology is that
men and women should emotional love
not only in relation to the chosen one
but in relation to all the members of the
collective.
Books  Social bases of women's question
 Sexual relation and the class struggle
 The family and the Communist State,
 ‘Free Love’; ‘A Great Love’;’ Love of the Worker’s Bee‘
 • ‘The Autobiography of a Sexually Emancipated
Communist Woman’

Other  Was one of the chief leaders of Bolshevik revolution; was

Important very close to Lenin.
Facts  Served as Central Committee member of Communist
Party, Commissar of social welfare, director of Zhenotdel
 Instrumental in publication of Robotnitsa- women’s
magazine and setting up Zhenotdel- Women's Department
of the communist Party
 In 1922: sent on diplomatic ‘exile’ after falling out with
Lenin on many issues
 Survived Stalin’s purge of old communist leaders and
served as diplomat and ambassador to Norway, Mexico,
Sweden;
 Was quite radical in her writings and life choices; hence
was not given due respect as revolutionary communist
leader.
 Famous quote she believed in : “ There can be no
socialism without women’s liberation and no women’s
liberation without socialism”( Inessa Armand)

Hegel (1770 –  One of the greatest political philosophers of modern era;

1831) chief figure of German idealism.
 Gave historical progression of idea (thesis, anti-thesis,
synthesis) through dialectical process
 Marx turned upside down historical dialectical thought of
Hegel to give historical materialism

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 Absolute idealism: duality of mind-body and subject and
object are overcome
State:
 Organic, historical and integrative theory of state
 State is a super organism
 It is the end in itself
 Embodiment of highest order of Freedom and Right
 Only as a member of the state the individual has
objectivity, truth, and ethical life
 “State is the march of God on Earth”
 State subsumes family and civil society and fulfils
them
 It is above any moral law as it is the creator of
morality
 Civil Society: all-inclusive community within the state;
conception of organic society, in which identity of
individual and family is subsumed
 Civil Society: Differentia between Family & State
 Civil Society: Universal Egoism and System of Needs
 Family- Thesis; Civil Society- Anti-thesis; State-
Synthesis
 Book: ‘Elements of the Philosophy of Right’

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FACT SHEET- WPT 3: OTHER IMPORTANT WESTERN CLASSICAL
THINKERS

Thinker Important facts

Thomas Aquinas  Theological (religious) views on politics
(1225-1274)  Gave 5 proof of ‘existence of God’
 Happiness is contemplation of God
 God is source of reason, wisdom, virtue, and happiness
 But these virtues (reason, wisdom, etc) can be acquired by
anyone, in any culture, any religion
 Gave theory of just war: ordered by legitimate authority( the
sovereign), just cause, to promote good and to avoid evil
 wrote several important commentaries on Aristotle's works
 Division of labour, individual autonomy, against slavery
 Monarchy best form of govt/Constitution
 Book: Summa Theologica
Saint Augustine  Italian philosopher, influenced the development of Western
(354 430) philosophy and Western Christianity
 Wrote: The City of God, On Christian Doctrine, and
Confessions.
 Doctrine of original sin: Man is by nature ‘sinful’, as he is
product of ‘original sin’(sin of Adam and Eve). He cannot escape
from Sin.
 Just war theory: right conduct in war" (Jus In Bello) and
“justification to go to war" (Jus Ad Bellum)
Cicero (106 –43  A Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher
BC)  master of Latin prose- wrote many books on Rhetoric
 Coined new Latin words- evidentia, humanitas, qualitas,
quantitas, and essentia
 Gave concept of Rights based on law and custom
 Wrote: ‘The Bogomils’, ‘De Re Publica (On the
Commonwealth)’ and ‘De Legibus (On the Laws)’
 Cicero's writings are said to initiate the 14th-century Italian
Renaissance
 He also influenced Enlightenment and its thinkers- John Locke,
David Hume, Montesquieu and Edmund Burke

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Epicurus (341–270  Ancient Greek philosopher who founded Epicureanism, a highly
BC) influential school of philosophy
 His Epicurean community inspired Karl Marx and other socialist
thinkers
 His ideas also influenced Enlightenment movement and its
thinkers- John Locke, Thomas Jefferson, Jeremy Bentham
 ‘The Garden’- his academy in Athens
 Gave happiness((eudaimonia) formula- taraxia (peace and
freedom from fear) and aponia (the absence of pain) – have good
friends, seek peace and calm inside, work for yourself and for
pleasure
 Gave secular basis of ethics and morality- be ethical to be happy
Hugo Grotius(1583  Was a Dutch humanist, diplomat, lawyer, theologian
–1645)  Laid the foundations for international law, based on natural law
 Books: ‘On the Law of War and Peace’ and ‘The Free Seas’
 Gave ‘just war’ theory; rationalism in IR
 Contributed significantly to the evolution of the notion of
Rights- belonging to persons, as the expression of an ability to
act or as a means of realizing something.
 Pioneer of the doctrine of ‘international society’- idea of one
society of state bound by laws and mutual agreements
 Hedley Bull (of English school of IR) called him intellectual
father of Westphalia Peace Treaty- 1648
Spinoza (1632 –  Dutch philosopher, considered one of the great rationalists of
1677) 17th-century
 One of the early thinkers of the Enlightenment
 Gave modern conceptions of the self
 Books: ‘the Ethics’; in this book he opposed Descartes'
philosophy of mind–body dualism
 His Ethics: reality is perfection, highest virtue is the intellectual
love or knowledge of God/Nature/Universe
 3 types of knowledge—opinion, reason, intuition ; intuitive
knowledge provides the greatest satisfaction of mind
 Hegel said of him” You are either a Spinozist or not a
philosopher at all”

Marsilio of Padua  Important 14th-century Italian political thinker

(1275 – 1342)

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  Book: Defensor Pacis (The Defender of Peace)- which supported
separation of temporal power ( king) from spiritual power(
church)
 Hence, he is considered to have propounded Medieval
Secularism
Gaetano Mosca  Gave Elite theory- all societies ruled by a numerical minority,
(1858 – 1941) the political class.
 The political class- Elites- superior organizational skills.
 Circulation of Elites: constant competition between elites, with
one elite group replacing another repeatedly over time
 But his theory of political class is different in arguments from
‘The Power Elite’ described by C. Wright Mills.
 Mosca’s Elite theory is more liberal than Elite theory of Vilfredo
Pareto

Bosanquet (1848 –  English philosopher and political thinker

1923)  Student of T.H. Green, influenced by Hegel, Kant, Rousseau,
Plato; considered to be one of the most Hegelian of the British
Idealists
 Proponent of “Absolute Idealism”
 Synthesized German and English Liberalism
 “state is the ethical idea”
Books:
The Philosophical Theory of The State (1899)
Psychology of the Moral Self (1904)

Vilfredo Pareto  An Italian Economist, political scientist and philosopher.

(1848 – 1923)  Elite theory- Circulation of Elites- the ruling class replaced by
another ruling/aristocratic class through revolution
 Pareto optimality- an economic state where resources cannot be
reallocated to make one individual better off without making at
least one individual worse off.
 Many critics, like Karl Popper, called him Fascist supporter-
theoretician of totalitarianism

Hannah Arendt  German-born American political thinker.

(1906 – 1975)  Power as co-creation in group by communication to realize
public realm; power with (against power to or power over)
 Civic republicanism or civic Humanism- active citizenship, civic
engagement and collective deliberation

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  Threat to human freedom from totalitarianism, administrative
bureaucracy
 Nature of power and evil
 Studied and compared American and French Revolutions
Book: The Origins of Totalitarianism(1951), The Human
Condition(1958), On Revolution (1963), Crises of the Republic
(1972)

CB Machpherson  Canadian political scientist of left (socialist) orientation

(1911–1987)  "Possessive Individualism": individual as the sole proprietor of
his or her skills and owes nothing to society for them
 For him, Hobbes gave birth to the culture of possessive
individualism and Locke furthered it
 Capitalism- negative freedom; supported positive freedom
 Extractive (power over other) vs Developmental Power (creative
freedom, ability to fulfil self-appointed goals)
 Book: The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: From
Hobbes to Locke (1962); The Life and Times of Liberal
Democracy (1977); The Real World of Democracy (1965)

Samuel P.  "Clash of Civilizations"- future wars would be fought not

Huntington (1927 – between countries, but between cultures
2008)  “Third wave of democratization”- beginning 1974
 Other books: Political Order in Changing Societies (1968), The
Crisis of Democracy(1975)
Isaiah Berlin (1909  British social and political thinker and historian of ideas.
–1997)  "Two Concepts of Liberty"- negative freedom or freedom from
interference vs 'positive freedom', or freedom as self-mastery
 Positive liberty- slippery slope- may lead to totalitarianism
 “Three Critics of the Enlightenment:” analysed counter-
Enlightenment views
 Value pluralism: moral values- equality, justice, etc.- may clash,
may be incompatible to each other, and to different cultures.
 “The Hedgehog and the Fox”- 2 types of thinkers, 1st who see
world with the lens of a single defining idea; 2nd who draw on a
wide variety of experiences- Fox
 Other Books: ‘Four Essays on Liberty’ ; ‘Concepts and
Categories: Philosophical Essays’; ‘Against the Current: Essays
in the History of Ideas’

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Immanuel Kant  German political philosopher and one of the main Enlightenment
(1724 –1804) thinkers
 Doctrine of transcendental idealism: space and time are mere
"forms of intuition" which structure all human experience
 Categorical Imperative: reason/rationality as the base of ethics
& morality, universal moral principles which guides us to begave
ethically
 Deontological Ethics- moral action only if the action itself is
right under a series of rules (means should be ethical)
 Perpetual peace (among nations): through universal democracy
and international cooperation
 Books: ‘Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch’; ‘Critique of
Pure Reason’; ‘Critique of Practical Reason’

Nietzsche (1844 –  A German political philosopher, cultural critic, composer, and

1900) poet
 One of the greatest political thinker of 19th century
 Post-modernist: critique of objective truth in favour of
perspectivism
 Critique of religion and Christian morality
 "Death of God"- Enlightenment, by excessively focusing on
science & reason, has killed God
 Nihilism : negating knowledge, existence, and the meaning of
life; normlessness, valuelessness; negating all established social
norms
 Will To Power: main driving force within human
 Doctrine of eternal return: universe, energy, and everything will
recur in infinite cycle
 Deep influence on political thoughts of existentialism,
postmodernism and post-structuralism

Jean-Paul Sartre  French Political Philosopher.

(1905 –1980)  Main thinker of Existentialism (explores the problem of human
existence and centres on the lived experience of the thinking,
feeling, acting individual.)
 Also known proponent of phenomenology and Marxism
 Deep impact on critical theory and post-colonial theory

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  Books: ‘Being and Nothingness’ and ‘Existentialism Is a
Humanism’
 Awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature but refused to accept
that!
Mao Zedong or  Charismatic Chinese communist leader and thinker
Mao Tse-tung(1893  Founded the Communist China (People’s Republic of China) in
– 1976) 1949
 His thoughts: communism in rural societies, rejecting elitism,
thought reform, indoctrination, state as supreme educator,
communalism, social experimentation, militant nationalism
 adopted communism to Asiatic form, took it to rural areas,
to agriculture labourer, linked it to cultural revolution
 Gave theory of Antagonistic vs non-antagonistic
contradictions
 His Programs:
 1934- Historic ‘Long March’
 1956- The Hundred Flowers Campaign- ‘Let hundred
flowers blossom and hundred schools of thought
contend’(socio-political openness program)
 1958- The Great Leap Forward- economic transformation of
China
 1966- Cultural Revolution- purging anti-revolutionary
elements from society
 "Two Bombs, One Satellite" project; “Three-anti and Five-
anti Campaigns”
 His Books
 On Guerrilla Warfare-1937
 On Contradiction-1937
 On Protracted War (lectures)- 1938
 On Practice- 1937
 On People's Democratic Rule-1949
 The Little Red Book ( his sayings)
 Art of war
 His famous Quotes:
 “Politics is war without blood, while war is politics with
blood.”
 “Political power grows out of the barrel of the gun...”

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  Three years of hard work : ten thousand years of happiness.
 A revolution is not a dinner party.
 “An army of the people is invincible!”
 “War can only be abolished through war, and in order to get
rid of the gun it is necessary to take up the gun.”
 “Communism is not love. Communism is a hammer which
we use to crush the enemy.”
 “Historical experience is written in iron and blood.”
 “The atom bomb is a paper tiger which the United States
reactionaries use to scare people. It looks terrible, but in fact
it isn't.”

Lenin (1870 –1924)  Bolshevik revolution leader, founder of Communist Russia &
USSR
 Revolution led by vanguard party (the Communist party)
 Democratic centralism, Imperialism as height of capitalism
 Worldwide network of revolutionary activities- Comintern
 Stalin coined the term ‘ Leninism’
 Books: ‘The State and Revolution’ ; ‘Imperialism, the Highest
Stage of Capitalism’

Robert Dahl  American political thinker of liberal & pluralist thoughts

 Pluralist theory of democracy- political competition between
interest groups
 "Polyarchy": political power distributed in many people
 One of chief proponents of “Behaviouralism”
 One of the greatest theorists of Democracy
 Gave the most famous definition of ‘Power’
 Books: ‘A Preface to Democratic Theory’, ‘Who Governs?’

Robert Nozick(1938  Influential American Libertarian Thinker

– 2002)  Entitlement theory of Justice; procedural theory of Justice
against Rawl’s theory of Justice based on distributive Justice
 Supporter of Minimal state, low taxation
 “a distribution of goods is just if brought about by free exchange
among consenting adults from a just starting position, even if
large inequalities subsequently emerge from the process”- his
core thought
 Critic of John Locke’s ‘Mixing of labour’ theory of property

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  Books: ‘Anarchy, State, and Utopia’; ‘a libertarian answer to
John Rawls' A Theory of Justice’

Friedrich Hayek  Very Influential British Economist and Libertarian Thinker

(1899 –1992)  Intellectual father of Neo-liberal Capitalism
 His thoughts influenced Margret Thatcher and Reagon in
bringing Neo-liberalism
 Proponent of minimalist state; free market economy
 Opposed ‘social justice’, ‘distributive justice’ as unnatural and
against human freedom
Book: ‘The Road to Serfdom’
T.H. Green (1836 –  English political thinker of social liberalism tradition
1882)  British idealism movement – as a reaction against the thinking of
John Locke, David Hume, John Stuart Mill, and other empiricists
and utilitarian.
 Hugely influenced by German idealism of Hegel and Kant
 Ethics & morality in social life- moral philosophy: reason is
source of morality/ethics
 State to provide conditions for best moral/ethical conduct by
individual
 Book: ‘The Principles of Political Obligation’

Hobhouse (1864 –  British liberal political thinker and sociologist

1929)  Proponents of social liberalism- social democracy
 ‘wealth had a social dimension and was a collective product’
 Books: Liberalism (1911), Social Evolution and Political Theory
(1911), The Philosophical Theory of the State (1918)

Benedict Anderson  Anglo-Irish political scientist and historian- but lived in USA
(1936 – 2015)  Books: ‘Imagined Communities (1983)- famous theorization of
nationalism- nation as imagined community
 ‘Print Capitalism’: role of print media in bring capitalism and
nationalism
 Print capitalism also meant a culture in which people were
required to be socialized as part of a literate culture- mainstream
language/culture

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  He also theorized nationalism in Multi-ethnic empires, and rise
of nation-states after fall of Empires post WWI

Karl Popper (1902  Austrian-British political thinker

–1994)  ‘Scientific theories are those which can be falsified by
experiments’
 Supporter of liberal democracy and criticism of social injustice
and ailments
 Supporter of flourishing ‘open society’- moral universalism
 His targets : Plato, Marx, Hegel (Enemy of open society)
 Preferred Piecemeal social engineering over Utopian social
engineering
 Attempted to reconcile classical liberalism, social democracy,
and conservatism
 Critic of Plato, Marx, Rousseau- all those who idealized closed
society
 Books: ‘The Open Society and Its Enemies’; ‘The Two
Fundamental Problems of the Theory of Knowledge’

Edmund Burke  Irish statesman, economist, and political philosopher

(1729 – 1797)  A noted Conservative- founder of British modern conservatism
 Opposed French Revolution: ‘Reflections on the Revolution in
France’- Revolution was destroying the fabric of good society
and traditional institutions of state and society
 Was instrumental in impeachment of Warren Hastings,
Governor-General of India

David Hume (1711  Scottish Enlightenment philosopher

1776)  Philosophical empiricism- knowledge only from sensory
experience
 Philosophical skepticism :question the possibility of knowledge
 Naturalism: all enquiry from the method of natural science
 Feelings/emotions/experience over reason: “Reason is, and
ought only to be the slave of the passions”
 “Ethics based on emotion or sentiment rather than abstract moral
principle”
 “Statement of fact alone can never give rise to a normative
conclusion of what ought to be done”- is-ought problem

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  Influenced utilitarianism, logical positivism, the philosophy of
science
 Books: ‘A Treatise of Human Nature’

Jeremy Bentham  English political philosopher

(1747 – 1832)  Founder of modern utilitarianism- Greatest Happiness principle-
moral actions are those which brings greatest happiness to
greatest number
 Supported legal rights; called natural law and natural rights as
“nonsense upon stilts"
 His famous students- J.S. Mill, Robert Owen
Books: ‘A fragment on government’(1776); "Essay on Political
Tactics"(1791)

Wittgenstein (1889  Austrian-British philosopher

–1951)  Considered by some to be the greatest philosopher of the 20th
century
 Attempted to identify the relationship between language and
reality and to define the limits of science
 Wrote ‘Tractatus’ in which he gave Logical positivism- as
influencer of Vianna Circle of philosophers

Schumpeter (1883 –  An Austrian political economist, who taught in Harvard

1950) University, USA
 Wrote ‘Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy’ – critique of
classical democracy
 Negative view of democracy: “democracy is the mechanism for
competition between leaders, much like a market structure”
 “Participatory role for individuals in representative democracy
is usually severely limited”
 Minimalist definition of democracy “as the method by which
people elect representatives in competitive elections to carry out
their will”
 Criticized, by Robert Dahl and others, for such negative & elitist
view of democracy.
Seymour Martin  An American sociologist and political thinker (political
Lipset(1922 -2006) sociology)
 Studied democracy in comparative perspective

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  Books: ‘Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics (1960)’;
‘Party Systems and Voter Alignments( 1967)’ with Stein Rokkan

Harold Lasswell  American political scientist and communications theorist.

(1902 – 1978)  Father of Policy Science- gave 7 stage Policy Cycle concept
 Defined democracy as ‘Who Gets What, When, and How”
 5 question model of communication: "Who (says) What (to)
Whom (in) What Channel (with) What Effect"
 "Garrison State"- a political-military elite composed of
"specialists in violence" in a modern state
 One of the main contributor to the ‘Behavioural Revolution’ in
1950s
 Founder of Political Psychology
 Content analysis methods- to dissect propaganda messages and
newspaper editorials

Ronald Dworkin  An American political thinker of liberal tradition

(1931 –2013  Gave ‘Equality of Resources’ in his book ‘Sovereign Virtue’
 “every person is entitled to equal concern and respect in the
design of the structure of society”
 “Luck Egalitarianism”- Luck should not make well-off or poor
 Liberty- ‘Do Values Conflict?’- liberty and equality do not
necessarily conflict. ‘Liberty is only liberty to do whatever we
wish so long as we do not infringe upon the rights of others.’
 Criticized Isaiah Berlin's conception of liberty as "flat"

Michael Walzer  Prominent American political thinker of Communitarian

(born 1935) ideology
 Gave ‘Complex equality’ in book ’Spheres of Justice’
 Communitarian critique of liberalism- with Alasdair MacIntyre
and Michael Sandel
 ‘Just and Unjust Wars (1977)’- ethics in wartime
 ‘On Toleration’- toleration in various settings, including
multinational empires

Gerald Cohen  Canadian political philosopher of Marxist ideology

(1941–2009)  Marxism, egalitarianism and distributive justice
 Books: ‘Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence’- defended
Marx’s historical materialism

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  ‘Self-Ownership, Freedom, and Equality’- criticism of Lockean
‘self-ownership’ principle and moral argument in favour of
socialism

David Gauthier  Canadian-American Political Thinker

(1932)  Pioneer in moral theory and revisiting social contract theories
 ‘Morals by Agreement’ -neo-Hobbesian social contract theory of
morality
 Gave ‘contractarian ethics’
 ‘Justice as Mutual Advantage’-moral norms are those that
rational, self‐interested persons would accept in regulating the
pursuit of their self‐interest
 Wrote history of political philosophy, especially of Hobbes and
Rousseau
Will Kymlicka (born  Canadian Political Thinker
1962)  ‘Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority
Rights’: gave his concept of multiculturism, toleration. and
minority rights
 Note: Bhikhu Parekh wrote ‘Rethinking Multiculturalism:
Cultural Diversity and Political Theory’
David Easton (1917  Canadian-born American political scientist.
2014)  Proponent of both Behavioralist and post-Behavioralist
revolutions
 Gave ‘system concept’- political system- input, conversion,
output, feedback and environment; political system as ‘black
box’.
 Defined Politics “ as the authoritative allocation of values for
the society”
 Books:
 ‘The Decline of Modern Political Theory(1951)’
 ‘The Political System. An Inquiry into the State of Political
Science(1953)’
 ‘A Framework for Political Analysis(1965)’

Leo Strauss (1899 –  German-American political philosopher of classical political

1973) tradition

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  Gave ‘‘Straussian’ Approach’ to interpret classical texts by
esoteric method
 Deeply influenced by Martin Heidegger, great German thinker
 ‘post-Behavioralist revolutions’- revival of normative political
theory
 Rejected ‘fact–value distinction’; politics cannot be separated
from norms/values; politics include value judgment
 Wrote path-breaking books on Spinoza and Hobbes
 Critic of modern form of liberalism and its individualism
 Advocated return to classical political philosophy- Plato,
Aristotle
 Books:
 ‘Natural Right and History’ ; ‘What Is Political Philosophy?’
 ‘The Crisis of Political Philosophy’;’ Liberalism Ancient and
Modern’

Martin Heidegger  German philosopher- regarded as one of the most important

(1889 –1976) philosophers of the 20th century.
 Phenomenology: study of the structures of experience and
consciousness.
 Hermeneutics: methods of textual interpretations
 Existentialism: study of problem of human existence and
centres on the lived experience of the thinking, feeling, acting of
individuals
 Wrote ‘Being and Time (1927)’- his philosophy of being-
“Dasein”- experience of being peculiar to human

Lucian Pye (1921 –  American political scientist, known for his theory of political
2008) development and modernization of Third World nations
 His theory of political development: equality to the political
culture, the problems of capacity to authoritative governmental
structures, and the question of differentiation to non-authoritative
structures.
 Books:
 ‘Political Culture And Political Development’(1965) ; ‘Politics,
Personality, And Nation-Building (1962)’
 Note: Rostow, Organski, David Apter, Edward Shils, etc also
gave theory of political development and modernization

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Johan  Norwegian sociologist, known as father of peace studies
Galtung(1930)  Negative and Positive peace:
 Negative Peace: absence of violence
 Positive Peace: restoration of relationships, the creation of social
systems that serve the needs of the whole population and the
constructive resolution of conflict
 Books:
‘Violence, Peace and Peace Research (1969)’
‘Peace By Peaceful Means (1996)’ ;
‘50 Years: 100 Peace and Conflict Perspectives (2008)’

Thomas Paine  English-born American political philosopher

(1736– 1809)  Contributed in American independence by his 2 influential
writing : ‘Common Sense ‘ and ‘The American Crisis’
 wrote ‘Rights of Man (1791)’ in defence of French Revolution
 In his ‘Agrarian Justice (1797)’, he introduced the concept of a
guaranteed minimum income through a one-time inheritance tax
on landowners.

Montesquieu (1689  French political philosopher, best known for his ‘ Spirit of the
–1755) Laws (1748)’ in which he gave the principle of separation of
power between legislatives, executive, and Judiciary
 His ‘separation of power’ ensures Liberty
 Influenced both French and American revolution.

Robert Michels  German-born Italian Political Philosopher

(1876 1936)  Gave ‘Iron law of oligarchy’ - rule by an elite, or oligarchy, is
inevitable within any democratic organization
 Book: ‘Political Parties(1911)’

Steven Lukes  British political thinker

(1941)  Gave ‘3 Facets of Power’- power as dominance, power as agenda
setting (power of non-decision), ideological and hegemonic
power

August French philosopher and Sociologist

Comte Gave the term’ Sociology’
Formulated the doctrine of positivism
Influenced by the utopian socialist Saint-Simon
Influenced- [Link], Émile Durkheim

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Created ‘Religion of Humanity’- a secular religion
Books:
 Course of Positive Philosophy
 System of Positive Polity
 A General View of Positivism

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FACT SHEETS-
IPT:
INDIAN
POLITICAL
THOUGHTS

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 FACT SHEET IPT 1: ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIAN POLITICAL
PHILOSOPHERS- MAIN THINKERS

Thinker Main concepts/facts/books

Manu  Mythical first man and lawgiver of Ancient India

 Compiled ‘Manu Smriti’- code of social conduct for Hindus
 First Sanskrit text to have been translated into English in 1794
 Views on Manusmriti :
 Negative: Vivekanand thought Manusmriti is obsolete; Ambedkar
burnt it in a bonfire, Gandhiji didn’t agree to its contradicting and
dehumanizing parts
 Positive: by Dayanand Saraswati, Annie Besent, Friedrich Nietzsche
 Core theme: maintain the 4-fold Varna System (Varna Ashram Dharma)
and follow the Dharma- moral virtues, moral obligations/duty, justice in
individual & social life
 Basis of Manu’s social laws- Shrutis (Veda, Upanishads), Social practices,
Analysis(reason), and Self-satisfaction
 Manusmriti became controversial and politicized due to derogatory
comments on ‘Shudra’ and Women. Became rallying point for anti-
Brahmanical movements
 Dharma: Righteousness, Virtues, Moral order, Duties, Just thoughts and
actions, natural qualities or characteristics or properties of anything, law,
Justice, Religion
 Purushartha: Goals of human life- Dharma, Artha, Kama, Moksha :
Dharma should guide Artha, Kama, then only Moksha can be attained
 4 Ashrams : Celibate studentship( Brahmcharya), Family life( Grihastha),
Retreating from worldly affairs( Vanaprashtha), wandering medicant in
search of Moksha( Sanyas)
Veda Vyas-  The Mahabharta- Great Epic- 18 Parva(books)- largest Parva-Shanti-Parva-
Raja Dharma contains Rajadharma
 Shanti-Parva: in dialogue form- between Dying Bhisma and Yudhishthira in
which others also join
 Rajadharma: Duties and obligations of the King/ruler, Dharma (laws and
rules ) and Good Governance, Theory of origin of State/Kingship, Art and
science of Governance and Politics– Danndaniti , Political Obligation of the
citizen
 Rajadharma is also mentioned in Manusmriti, Arthashastra, Śukranītishātra,
Purans

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  Rajadharma is the ultimate Dharma; only if the King follows Rajadharma all
other Dharma can be up-holded
 State originated, by divine intervention, to maintain Peace, Order,
Prosperity, and Dharma
 Duties of King: to maintain peace, order, and Dharma (prime duty),
Welfare and Prosperity of the people, follow Dandaniti in statecraft,
Maintenance and expansion of the State, Give preference to interest and
happiness of his people over his own
 Political Obligation: Dharma is supreme and sovereign, NOT the King;
political obligation only till the King follows Rajadharma
Kautilya-  Also called ‘Chanakya’ and ‘Vishnu Gupta’; lived in about 4th century BC
Arthasashtra  He is mentioned in ‘Mudra-Raksha by Visakhadutta, ‘Das-Kumar-Charit,
by Dandin, Kathasaritsagar by Somadeva and Jain & Buddhist Texts
 Was a scholar at Taxila university , the teacher and mentor
of Chandragupta Mourya
 Manuscript of Arthashastra was discovered by R. Shamasastry in Mysore
Oriental Library in 1909
 Arthashastra –Nitishastra; contains: Statecraft, Science of Politics,
Political Economy, Social norms & customs, Civil & Criminal Law, Justice
system, Inter-state politics, Warfare, Criminology, Intelligence & Espionage
 Core theme: Arthashastra is the science which explains the means of the
attainment and protection of that earth (resources/artha) - Science of Politics
 Prgamtism and Political realism- like Thucydides, Machiavelli, and
Morgenthau
 Origin of state: State originated to end Matasyanyay and maintain peace,
order, and welfare of the people
 Saptang: 7 limbs of state: Swami Amatyas, Janapada, Durgas, Kosha,
Danda, Mitra
 Kautilya’s Saptang: 7 elements compared to limbs of body part: Swami-
Head, Amatya- Eye; Suhrid ( mitr/allies)- eyes; Kosha- Mouth; Durg- arms,
Janpada- Legs, etc.
 An able king can fine tune Saptang to make his state strong and victorious
 Mandal Theory: International-state real politics
 Basic premises: Neighbours are natural enemy, Enemy of Enemy is friend,
Friend of friend is friend, Friend of Enemy is Enemy, No permanent friend
or enemy in politics, Power is the means to maintain the state, The King
may adopt any means to protect & maintain the State
 Mandala: circle of Kings: 5 in front: Ari, Mitra, Ari-Mitra, Mitra-Mitra,
Ari Mitra-Mitra

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  4 in back side: Parashanigraha: enemy at back, Akranda:friend at back,
Parashanigrahasara: Ari-Mitra, Akranda sara: Mitra-Mitra
 Vijigishu : King aspiring to conquer the world
 MADHYAMA: Powerful Kingdom close to both the Vijigishu and his
immediate enemy
 UDASIN : Neutral state out of the circle of States of Vijigishu; more
powerful than any of the kings in the circle.
 72 elements ( or Prakriti ) of IR and foreign policy in Mandala theory

Ziauddin  Main Political thinker during Delhi Sultanate- Khalji and Tughlaq
Barani  His ‘Fatwa-i-Jahandari’ is considered valuable political treaties on real-
(1283–1359) politic and compared to Machiavelli's Prince and Kautilya’s Arthashastra
 Also wrote ‘Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi’ ( Firuz Shah's History)
 His ‘Fatwa’, like Machiavelli’s Prince, is advise on statecraft to Muslim
Kings in non- Muslim land such as India
 Attempted to reconcile demands of Shari’a and maintenance of State in
lands of non-Muslims
 Formulated ‘Jawabit’- secular state laws
 Barni’s ideal king- had God like virtues, Shouldn’t have 5 mean qualities:
falsehood, changeability, deception, wrathfulness and injustice
 Mahmud of Ghazni represent his idea of an ideal King
 ‘Fatwa’- 24 Hidayat (advices) covering all aspects of Kingship/Statecraft
 Elements of The State- Nobility, Army, Law, Justice, Bureaucracy,
Intelligence System
 His controversial thoughts: hate against low born, ignoble; banning
education to low born; hatred for science, reason, logic ;dynastic principle
for stability of nobility

Abul Fazl  Political thinker of Mughal era; secretary & companion to Akbar
(1551 –1602)  Wrote: ‘Akbarnama’- 3rd volume of it ‘Ain-i-Akbari’
 Gave: Social contract theory as basis of Sovereignty, theory of divine light,
religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul), state promoting science & reason
 ‘ Farr-i- Izadi’- theory of divine light: King receiver and reflector of divine
light
 Sovereignty: both temporal & spiritual sovereignty vested in the King
 Just vs unjust sovereignty: only just one receives divine light and lasting

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 Sulh-i-Kul (absolute peace)- universal peace, religious tolerance and social
harmony
 4 fold division of the society: 1. The warriors 2. the learned men 3. farmers
& labourers 4. artificers & merchants (compare them to Fire, Air, Water,
Earth)
 4-fold division of the state: 1. Nobility 2. Assistants of victory 3.
companions of the King 4. Servants

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 FACT SHEET IPT 2: MODERN INDIAN POLITICAL THINKERS

Thinker Main concepts/facts/books

Raja Ram Mohan  Lead the 1st wave of modern Indian Thinkers
Roy (1772 –  ‘Father of Modern India’; ‘Pioneer of Indian Renaissance’
1833) Concepts:
 Liberal Humanism- all mankind are one great family of which numerous
nations and tribes are only various branches
 Judging socio-religious practices through reason and social utility
 He saw unity in all religion: 1. Universal Supreme being 2. Existence of
soul 3. Life after death
 Note: But he ssems Not to believe in Existence of soul and Life
after death; Brhamo Samaj does not believe in both these things.
 Spiritual Synthesis: synthesized transnational humanist culture
 Cosmopolitanism: proposed ‘World Congress’
 Social reforms before political freedom
 English rule- God sent opportunity for social reform and modernization
of Indian society
 Champion of Civil Rights, women’s education, liberal political economy
Societies:
 Atmiya Sabha in 1815, the Calcutta unitarian Association in 1821 and the
Brahmo Sabha in 1828
Journals:
 Brahminical Magazine’; Bengali weekly- ‘Samvad Kaumudi’ ; Persian
weekly -‘Mairat Al Akbar’; English weekly -‘Bengal Gazette’
School/colleges:
 Hindu College(Presidency College); the Anglo-Hindu School; Vedanta
College
Books/essays:
 Tuhfat-ul-Muwahhidin (A Gift to Monotheism)- 1803 ;
 The Precepts of Jesus- The Guide to Peace and Happiness (1820)
 Modern Encroachments on the Ancient Rights of Females (1822)
 The Universal Religion (1829) ; History of Indian Philosophy (1829)
 Many translations of Vendantic texts and Upanishads in Hindi, Bengali,
English

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Swami Great Hindu Vedantic philosopher and social reformer
Vivekananda His main Concepts/theories:
(1863 –1902)
 Humanism: Man is divine; man is mirror of god; service to man- service
to God
 Monism- Advait Vendanta: Human soul is part of the infinite universal
omnipresent force- Brahaman
 Perfectibility: Man can achieve salivation by realizing his inner
Goodness, by moral perfection of the Soul
 Oneness of universe- all are one in the universe
 Unity of all religion: all have same purpose- unity with God
 Religion provides – Liberty(salvation), equality (equal before God),
fraternity (creation of same God)
 Cycle of Caste rule: Human societies have seen successive rules of
Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra
 Ideal Society-in which truth becomes practical, in which divinity of man
is realized; combination of best of rules by Brahman’, Kshatriya,
Vaishya, Shudra; harmony between individual & society; just, equal, and
liberating
 Realization of ideal society- mass education, cultural Revolution, social
reforms
 Nationalism: proud in our Indianness, our ancient civilization, our
Spirituality, and our Universal motherhood
Societies:
 Ramakrishna Math and Missions
Books:
 Bartaman Bharat (in Bengali) (1899), Essay published in
‘Udbodhan’
 The East and the West (1909)
 Practical Vedanta
 Karma Yoga, raja-yoga, Jnana Yoga, Bhakti Yoga
 Complete works of Swami Vevekanand.
Quotes on him:
 “The greatest man India produced in recent centuries was
not Gandhi but Vivekananda.” (AmbedkarJI)
 “Vivekananda saved Hinduism, saved India"( Chakravarti
Rajagopalachari)
 “Vivekananda was maker of Modern India"( Subhash Chandra Bose)

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 Other facts:
 His birthday, 12 January, is celebrated as National Youth Day.
 1893: participated in World Parliament of Religions at Chicago. Became
celebrity after his famous speech on Hindu Religion
 Supported idol worship

Pandita Ramabai First Feminist of Modern India

Saraswati (1858 – Her thoughts/concepts:
1922)
 3 major Gender Issues: child-marriage, the plight of widows, and
education for women
 2 socio-cultural factors against women: Ancient ‘Shastras’/’Smritis’
and Hindu social codes of conduct- such as Manusmriti and Patriarchy
 3 strategies for improving women’s conditions: Self-Reliance,
Education, and self-help- Women as Teachers/doctors
 Women’s subjection de-based Indian men and degraded Indian nation
What she did for Women?
 Arya Mahila Sabha: A forum to make women aware of their rights and
fight for them
 Sharda Sadan: shelter, education, vocational training to High caste Hindu
widows
 Mukti Mission: Support and education to widows, unmarried women
and girls, abandoned wives, and victims of the terrible famine and the
plague
Books:
 ‘Stree Dharma Niti’ : by income from this she could travel to England
 ‘The High-Caste Hindu Woman’: published in USA in 1887: An
unofficial Indian Feminist Manifesto
Other facts:
 Title of 'Pandita' and 'Saraswati' awarded to her by the University of
Calcutta due to her deep knowledge of Sanskrit
 Was awarded the Kaiser-i-Hind Gold Medal In 1919 by the Colonial
Govt.
 Attended the Indian National Congress session of the year 1889 ; also
participated to the Third National Social Conference in 1889
 First Indian women to get her book published in USA in English
Language
 She adopted Christian Religion. Was re-named Mary Ramabai

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  First Indian women to have a society in her name in USA- Ramabai
Association

Rabindranath Greatest Philosopher poet of Modern India

Tagore (1861 – His thoughts/concepts:
1941)
 Universal humanism- nothing should divide humanity and rob human
freedom
 Against western nationalism: divides humanity, make one less humane,
less moral, and constrain freedom
 cosmopolitanism/internationalism- unity of humankind, man, culture,
countries
 Self-regulated swadeshi Samaj (society) in place of nation-state
 Social reconstruction, reform, and united community than political
nationalism
Books:
 What is nation? ; ‘Nationalism in India’ (essay)
 ‘Swadeshi Samaj’ ; ‘Crisis in Civilization’
 Gitanjali (Song Offerings to God)- won Noble Prize
 Gora (Fair-Faced), ‘Ghare-Baire’(The Home and the World) ; ‘Char
Adhaya’

Other Facts:
 National song of two nations- India and Bangladesh- written by him !
 First Asian to get Noble Prize in 1913
 Returned title of Knighthood in 1919 protesting Jallianwala Bagh
massacre
 He called Gandhiji ‘Mahatma’; Gandhiji called him’ Gurudev’
 Established ‘Sri-Niketan’- Institute of Rural Reconstruction and ‘Shanti-
Niketan’- called ‘Vishwa Bharati’ University

Bhimrao Great scholar and architect of Indian Constitution

Ambedkar(1891 – His thoughts/concepts:
1956)
 Caste system: biggest weakness of Indian social system
 Graded inequality- hierarchy of caste system in which each level below
Brahmin is both exploited and exploiter.
 Only by elimination of Caste system, socio-economic progress possible

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 Social democracy: Socialism with liberal democracy and constitutional
Government-“Democracy to work towards socialism but have its basis in
a regime of rights”
 Supported state socialism
 Constitutional morality: adopted it from George Grote;
 Pragmatism: from John Dewey, his teacher at Colombia University
 Graded inequality: inequality based on group identity- caste system
 Social Justice- Justice prevails upon ensuring Liberty, Equality,
Fraternity
 Trinity of Rights: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity
 Social reform is prior to political and Economic reform
 Political democracy useless without social democracy

Books:
 ‘Castes in India- 1916’ ;
 ‘Annihilation of caste-1936’
 ‘Who Were the Shudras? 1946’ ;
 ‘The Untouchables -1948’
 Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development
 ‘The Budhha and his Dhamma-1957’
 Gandhi and Gandhism
 Philosophy of Hinduism
 The Problem of the Rupee: Its Origin and Its Solution
 States and Minorities
 Book on him : ‘Ambedkar: Towards An Enlightened India’- Gail Omvedt
Journals:
 ‘Bahishkrit Bharat in Marathi’ ; ‘Mook Nayak’
 ‘Janata’ and ‘Samata’ magazines
Societies:
 Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha 1924
 Samata Sainik Dal -1924
 Samaj Samata Sangh-1927
 Depressed Classes Education Society-1928
Political Parties:
 1937: Independent Labour Party

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  1942: Scheduled caste federation
 1956: The Republican Party

Other Facts:
 Publicly Burnt ManuSmriti in 1927
 Participated in Round table conference, got separate electorate for Dalits
 But agreed to leave separate electorate as per the ‘Poona Pact’ with
Gandhiji
 Was member of Viceroy’s executive Council
 Chairman of the drafting committee of constituent assembly
 Was against the Panchayati raj System- it would sustain caste system
 First law minister of India, but resigned on issue of ‘Hindu Code Bill’
 Converted to Buddhism in 1956; in 1936 he declared he would not die a
Hindu

Gandhi- his idea  His idea of swaraj contained in ‘Hind Swaraj’, published in 1909
of Swaraj  Gandhi’s Hind Swaraj influenced by Mazzini’s Italy
 Influence on political thoughts of Gandhiji
 John Ruskin (Unto This Last), Henry Thoreau ( civil disobedience),
Leo Tolstoy- an pacific anarchist ; Italy’s Mazzini, Dada Bhai
Naoroji Un-British Rule in India , Gopal Krishna Gokhle ( his
political Guru), Jainism( non-violence), Vaishnavism(Catholicism)
 Swaraj- meaning
 Literal: self- governance, freedom, liberation
 For Individual: self-mastery, self-restrain, self-realization, moral
goodness
 For community/polity- self-governing autonomous community life
without any formal coercive authority (state)-A kind of Enlightened
Anarchy
 4 components of Swaraj: Polity, Economy, Social Order, and Dharma
 His other thoughts/concepts:
 Oceanic circle: self-governing, self-reliant, autonomous communities,
starting from village in concentric circle- nation as communities of
community
 Vision of decentralized, non-hierarchical, participative and
substantive democracy

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 Satyagraha: active resistance based on truth and non-violence, involving
soul-force and power of truth
 Sarvodaya- Good for all; Antyodaya- good to the last one in the row-
the poorest of the poor
 Trusteeship: Capitalist class as trustee of wealth of the society, uses it
for welfare of the masses and society
 Bread labour: each one need to do the manual work equivalent to value
of his material consumption- honour/dignity to manual labour
 Freedom from want: limiting our want- voluntarily poor
 Instead of western modern civilization, he had vision of ideal civilization,
which is not materialistic, individualistic, mechanistic, and dependent on
western medical treatment, transport, trade, and way of life
 Rejected Determinism, believed in relative truth and one step at a time
 News paper/Journal/Magzines
 Indian Opinion- Newspaper
 Young India - weekly journal
 Navajivan - Newspaper
 Harijan - weekly newspaper in English
 Gandhi’s Ashrams: Chronology
 Phoenix Settlement, established in 1904 in KwaZulu Natal;
 Tolstoy Farm, established in 1910 outside of Johannesburg
 Sevagram Ashram (est. 1936 in. Wardha).
 Kochrab Ashram was the first ashram in India by Gandhiji;
Founded in 1915 near Ahmedabad
 Sabarmati Ashram- 1917 (Kochrab Ashram shifted and re-named)
 Other facts:
 Went to South Africa to fight case of Gujrati businessman
 Considered himself Enlightened Anarchist
 He followed Deontology- Means ( to achieve end) should also be good;
choices and rules should be right
 Won Kaisar-i-Hind in 1915, which he returned in protest against
Jallianwala Bagh massacre
 Satyavir Ki Katha, translated into Gujarati by Gandhiji was from
Apology of Plato; he called Socrates ‘Satyavir’
 Translated John Ruskin’s ‘Unto This Last’ as ‘Sarvodaya’ in Gujrati; he
published it in nine instalments in Indian Opinion

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  Was given title of ‘Mahatma’ by Rabindranath Tagore
 Considered Gopal Krishna Gokhle his political guru
 Sadagraha (Satyagraha) term was suggested by his borther Maganlal
 His autobiography- My Experiments with Truth

Sri  A philosopher, yoga guru, maharishi, poet, journalist, and Indian

Aurobindo(1872 – revolutionary nationalist.
1950)  Unique combination of spirituality and revolution
 After 1910 left active politics and became a spiritual reformer
 Found world famous Sri Aurobindo Ashram - a spiritual community in
Puducherry
 Societies:
 Anushilan Samiti.
 Lotus and Dagger- secret societies
 Jugantar Party
Journals/Magzines:
 Vande Mataram- editor (founded by Bipin Chandra Paul)
 Karmayogin- Newspaper
 Dharma
 Arya- Philosophical Magzine
 Bhawani Mandir - a revolutionary political pamphlet
Books/Essays:
 The Life Divine (1919)’
 ‘Essays on the Gita (1922)
 The Bhagavad Gita
 ‘Savitri: A Legend and a Symbol (1940)’
 ‘Synthesis of Yoga (1948)
 Integral Yoga
 ‘The Secret of the Veda’
 The Renaissance in India
 On Education
 The Human Cycle
 The ideal of human unity
 ‘The Mother’

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  The ideal of human unity
Other Facts:
 Lord Minto called him the most dangerous man
 Was proponent of ‘Integral Yoga’- The central theme of his vision
was the evolution of human life into a divine life in divine body
 Gave 4-fold objective: Swaraj, Swadesh, Boycott, and national
education.
 Was active during the Sadeshi movement-1905
 In May 1908 was arrested in connection with the Alipore Bomb
Case.
 His spiritual collaborator- Mirra Alfassa (referred to as "The
Mother")

Muhammad Great Urdu Poet and political thinker

Iqbal(1877-1938) Concepts/thoughts
 Influenced by humanism, universalism, Sufism, and modern western
philosophy
 ‘Khudi’- spiritually evolved self; 3 layers of self- physical, relational,
universal
 Community ( Millat- community of Muslims)- morally evolved people
united by common bond of religion/spirituality
 Such community is same as political community and nation
 In his community 3 realms – spiritual, political, social- merged
 Rejected western nation-state, which to him, divides people on basis of
geography, race, colour, language, and other external identities

His creations:
• "Tarānah-e-Hindi“- Sāre Jahāṉ se Acchā -1904
• Tarana-e-Milli- Anthem of the Community-1910
• Asrar-i-Khudi - Secrets of the Self (1915) ; Rumuz-i-Bekhudi - Hints of
Selflessness (1917)
• Payam-e-Mashriq The Message of the East (1924)
• Javed Nama -(Book of Javed)-1932;
 Collection of Essay- The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam-
1930
Other facts:
 Inspiration behind separate Muslim Nation-Pakistan

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  Articulated his vision of Pakistan in – 1930- Speech in 25th session of
Indian Muslim League at Allahabad.
 Brought back Ali Jinnah back from political exile to lead Indian Muslims
 National Poet of Pakistan, called Allama (most knowledgeable)
 Revered in Iran, called Iqbāl-e Lāhorī

Vinayak  Revolutionary Hindu nationalist leader and political thinker

Damodar Concepts/thoughts
Savarkar (1883-
 Who are Hindu?
1966)
 People following religions of India,
 whose ancestors had lived on ‘Bharatvarsha’,
 and who consider ‘Bharat’ as Punyabhumi

 Religion of India: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, etc

 Hindutva: Hinduness; feeling of being Hindu
 3 elements of Hindutva: Hindu Nation ( territory), common Racial
Identity( Jati), and common Cultural Identity

Societies:
Abhinav Bharat, India House, Free India Society
Books:
 ‘The Indian War of Independence-1909’ ;
 ‘Mera Aajewan Karawaas – 2007’
 ‘Hinditva: Who Is a Hindu? -1923’ ;’
 Kaala Pani’ -2007’ ;
 ‘Mopla- 1967’

Other Facts:
 He called 1857 revolt as 1st war of Independence
 Influenced by Joseph Mazzini, western Enlightenment and nation-state
 1910: arrested in London for revolutionary activities; sentenced to life
imprisonment at Kalapani- A&N islands
 1923- conditional release, sent to Ratnagiri Jail- social reformer, writer
 President of Hindu Mahasabha for 7 years- 1937-43
 Despite being its philosophical founder, never Joined RSS
 Was a rationalist Atheist- was against ‘Hindu ritualism’, Cow protection

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  In 1970, PM Indira Gandhi released Postal Stamp on Savarkar

Jawaharlal  Architect of Independent India

Nehru(1889 –
 His Concepts/thoughts
1964)
 Secularism:
 Based on scientific humanism, western concept of separation of
state & church
 State should observe neutrality in regard to all religion
 neither irreligion nor anti- religion -equal respect for all faiths
 State - neutral Umpire to religious practices but would intervene to
protect individual’s rights, freedom, public order, morality, social
welfare, justice.
 Socialism:
 Inspired by Fabian socialism- democratic, peaceful, gradual change
 Mix of libertarian Marxism, Fabian socialism, Gandhian moral
Philosophy
 Mixed economy- both Pvt and public sector, but greater role to
latter
 Central planning: for rapid economic development
Books:
 The Discovery of India;
 Glimpses of World History
 Toward Freedom- his autobiography
 Letters from a Father to His Daughter

Other Facts:
 5 times President of Congress: 1929 (Lahore session)- ‘Purna Swaraj’-
celebration of Indian Independence every year on 26th January ; 1936
(Lahore), 1951-52 ( Lahore), 1953( Hyderabad), 1954 (Kalyani)
 Drafted ‘Nehru report’- a Constitution of India with his father Motilal
Nehru and other prominent Congress leaders in 1928
 1955- Avadi resolution of Congress- socialist mode of economy
 Major social reforms: Abolition of Jamindari system, land reforms,
Hindu code bill, community development program
 Set up Planning commission, National development council

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  1st Constitutional amendment: put land reforms in 9th Schedule- non
justiciable; curtailed right to freedom by increasing reasonable
restrictions

Dr. Ram  Socialist leader and centre of anti-Congressism

Manohar Lohia  His concepts/thoughts
(1910
 Wheels of History: All human history hitherto has been an internal
–1967)
oscillation between class and caste and an external shift of
prosperity and power from one region to another
 Prosperity, progress- caste open up to become like class
 Degeneration, decline: class closes to become like caste
 Halting the Wheel of History: True Socialism by Willed
Approximation
His Socialism:
 3rd way- sandwiched between Soviet style communism and Nehru’s
democratic socialism
 Synthesis of Communism, democratic socialism, and Gandhian
philosophy
 Multi-dimensional Equality: Internal/External vs Spiritual/ Material
 7 Revolutions: against Gender inequality, caste system, class and racial
inequality, protecting individual privacy, and civil disobedience
 60: 40: 60 % reservation to Dalits, women, backward class, minorities
 4 Pillared state: central, provincial, district, and village govt- political
decentralisation; people’s participation
 Jail, Vote, Spade: Jail: Communist struggle; Vote: Representative
Democracy; Spade: Gandhian constructive actions for social reforms
“Daam Bandho, Kharcha Bandho”: control price and consumption
“Jaati Todo”- break the Caste System
 Ridiculed ‘side looking’, backward looking, imitating, shallow
modernism
 Quotes:
 “Politics short term religion; religion long term politics”
 “ Zinda Kaume 5 saal intzar nahi karti”- living community don’t wait
for 5 years
Journal : Mankind
Books:
Wheel of History( 1955) ;

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The Caste System ( 1964)
Fragments of World Mind: (1949) ;
Guilty Men of India’s Partition( 1970)
Marx, Gandhi and Socialism (1963)
India, China, and Northern Frontiers

Other Facts:
 Did his research on Salt Taxation in India
 1934- joined Congress Socialist Party (CSP)
 1948 : Left CSP to form Socialist Party of India
 1952: Socialist Party of India merged with the Kisan Majdoor Praja
Party to form the Praja Socialist Party ( PSP);
 1956: formed Socialist Party (Lohia) by splitting PSP;
 1965: merged the Socialist Party (Lohia) into the ranks of the Samyukta
Socialist Party ( SSP)
 1952-his famous Pachamarhi Speech- outlined his socialism
 Vision of organising mega cultural fest -Ramayana Mela at Chitrakoot
 Actively participated in liberation of Goa
 Icon of Non-Congressism
 Biggest Inspiration for the contemporary socialist parties- SP, RJD,
JD(U),JD(S)

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 SECTION 2

FACT SHEETS PYQA :

THEME WISE
ANALYSIS OF PAST
YEAR’S NET PAPERS

267
Note : PYQA of Political Theory is incoporated into the facts sheets of that theme; for
remaining themes separate sheets as below is given;

FACT SHEET PYQA WPT: THEMES/TOPICS ASKED IN PAST YEAR

PAPERS FROM WPT

Main Theme Themes/Topics asked

Classical  Plato- father of normative philosophical political theory
thinkers  Aristotle- Father of science of politics
 Correct sequence of Aristotle’s thery of causation- the material, the
formal, the efficient, and the final
 Golden Mean- Aristotle
 Allegory of cave, theory of divided line, theory of Form/idea- Plato
 Character of a good city: wise, brave, temperate [equanimous, level-
headed], and just (Plato in his ‘Republic’; note the order of these
virtues)
 Plato was deeply influenced by Socrates, from whom he adopted the
Dialectical approach; he was also influenced by Heraclitus,
Parmenides, and the Pythagoreans.
 In Plato’s ‘Law’- Nocturnal Council
 Plato’s principle of community of wives & property was inspired by
Sprata and was aimed at curbing corruption
 Functional division of society- Plato
 Plato’s Justice: one man- one work; one class- one duty
 Principal Character in Plato’s Republic- Polemarchus, Adeimantus,
Glaucon
 Aristotle adopted empirical, scientific and inductive approach
 Dialectic method was used for the first time in the writing of Plato
Modern  Bosanquet: synthesized German and English Liberalism
Thinkers  Bosanquet and Ernest Barker were influenced by T.H. Green
 considered to be one of the most Hegelian of the British Idealists
 Proponent of “Absolute Idealism
 Locke, Rawl, Berlin, Green- Deontological view; Machiavelli,
Bentham- Teleological view
 Rule of Law- A.V. Dicey

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 Separation of power- Montesquieu
o Aim-securing liberty
 Natural Rights- Locke
 Doctrine of overlapping consensus- John Rawls
 Dictatorship of the proletariat- Marx
 Hegemony- Gramsci
 Leninism- Stalin
 Consent theory; tacit consent; Constitutional and limited
Government, Tabula Rasa - Locke
 Absolute Sovereignty - Hobbes
 Perpetual Peace- Immaneual Kant
 Monoist and legal theory of sovereignty – John Austin
 Idea of Participatory Democracy- Rousseau
 Labour theory of value- Marx
 Labour theory of Property- Locke
 Justice as mutual advantage- David Gauthier
 Veil of ignorance; original position- John Rawls
 Nightwatchman State- Nozick
 Revolt against reason- Rousseau
 Piecemeal social engineering- Karl Popper
 Welfare state as enslavement; taxation as forced labour- Robert
Nozick
 Procedural theory of Democracy – Robert Dahl
 Idea and not the material condition of production are the effective
cause of revolution- Lenin
 Moral Indifference; double standard of morality- machiavelli
 Father of Positivism- August Comte
 Father of modern political thought- Machiavelli
 Hobbes: first modern political thinker who deliberately ignored
Aristotle
 Montesquieu’s theory of separation of powers emphasises primarily
on Liberty
 Rawlsian concept of justice is based on the Difference principle
 Rawls’ well-ordered society- Stable, Efficient, just but may not be
equal

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 John Rawls’ theory of Justice Combines People’s democracy, market
economy, and the redistributive welfare scheme. It also synthesises
normativism with rationality.
 Under the veil of ignorance, the parties are not aware of their special
psychological prpensity neither are they know their conception of
good
 Locke’s view on ‘state of nature’ is Social and pre-Political ( note- it
is Not pre-social and pre-political)
 Mao – Tse – Tung adopted communism to Asiatic form
 Highest possible achievement of Mind as expressed in social life was
in The Contemporary Prussian State- Hegel
 Machiavelli advised the Prince to pursue- Moderate behaviour
 Fortuna as furious Woman- Machiavelli
 Chronology of Mass movements led by Mao Zedong
• 1956-57: The Hundred Flowers Campaign
• 1958: Great Leap Forward
• 1966-76: The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution
 Machiavelli blame The Churh for the moral degradation of Italy
 Hegel’s thoughts:
• Family is the thesis, Bourgeois society is the anti-thesis and the
State represents synthesis.
• The rational is real and the real is rational.
• Contradictions are not obstacles preventing us reaching truth.
 Antagonistic vs non-antagonistic contradictions- Mao Zedong
 Beitz and Thomas Pogge- Global Justice
 One country socialism - Stalin
 Marx’s theory of the state and revolution is taken from French
revolutionary tradition
 Susan Moller Okin: Feminist conception of Justice
 Gramsci compared civil society as fortress and earthworks (trenches)
standing behind the state
 Machiavelli is regarded as the first modern political thinker because
1. Separated religion from politics 2. Concept of nationalism and
nation-state
 Hobbes state of nature: pre social and pre political
 Society as cooperative venture for mutual advanatage- John Rawls
 Hayek dismissed John Rawl’s concept of social justice as a ‘mirage’

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  Lois Althusser distinguished young Marx from the matured Marx
 Fascism as passive revolution- Gramsci
 Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding was a refutation of
Leviathan of Hobbes
 Locke’s Two Treatises on Civil Government is a critique of Filmer’s
Patriarcha
 Machiavelli preferred Republican form of Govt over Monarchy
 Marx’s Alienation:
• Alienation from product of labour
• Alienation from the act of production, labour process
• Alienation from species-being (Gattungswesen)
• Alienation of man from man
 Rawls- critic of Utilitarianism
 Rousseau differentiated between natural and conventional inequality
 Inductive approach- Hobbes, Machiavelli, Aristotle
 Deductive approach- Plato, Thomas Aquinas
 Plato’s Education timelines:
• 20 Years- all 3 classes
• 35 years- Guardian Class
• 50 years- Philosopher Kings
 Michael Sandel, Michael Walzer, Charles Taylor, and Alasdair
MacIntyre: Communitarian liberal thinker
 Rousseau- naturalism (education as process of developing man as
natural man and women as natural woman)
 Marx’s theory of surplus value:
• Extension of Richardo’s theory
• Labour power equals the brain, muscle and nerve of the labourer.
• The worker must be paid a price proportional to the number of
Labour hours that entered into its production. Select the correct
answer

Books/creations  Chronology of classical texts/books

• De Cive(1647)’- Hobbes
• ‘A Letter Concerning Toleration( 1689)’- Locke
• ‘The Confessions( 1782)’- Rousseau

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 • ‘ ‘Political Liberalism(1993)’- John Rawl
 The Statesman – Plato
 Emile – Rousseau
 A Fragment of Government – Bentham
 Art of War – Machiavelli
 Books by Marx- German Ideology, Critique of the Gotha Programme,
Paris Manuscripts
 Science of Logic (1812 -1816)- By Hegel
 The Road to Serfdom- Friedrich Hayek
 Lectures on the Principles of Political Obligation- T.H. Green
 Anarchy, State and Utopia- Robert Nozick
 Rousseau’s Books
• Discourse on science and arts (1749)
• Discourse on origin of inequality( 1754)
• Emile ( 1762)
• The Social Contract( 1762)
• The Confessions (1782)
 5 works of Marx which contain his thoughts on Alienation:
• Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts (1844)- Paris
Manuscripts
• Thesis on Feuerbach (1845)
• The German Ideology (1845)- separates young from matured
Marx
• the Grundrisse (1857-58)
• The Capital (1867)
 Plato’s Republic is a book both on ethics and politics
 Chronology of 3 most important books of Rawl
1. A theory of Justice (1971)
2. Political Liberalism (1993)
3. The Law of Peoples (1999)
 Models of Democracy- David Held
 Carole Pateman- Participation and democratic Theory
 C.B. Macpherson- The real world of Democracy
 Rousseau essay which won him award: ‘“Has the progress of the
sciences and the Arts contributed to corrupt or purify morals?”

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 Plato developed his theory of the nature of the ultimate reality
explaining the actual world in Timaeus
 The End of Ideology (1960)-Daniel Bell
Ishiah Berlin’s Books
• Karl Marx: His Life and Environment– 1939
• Four Essays on Liberty – 1969
• Vico and Herder: Two Studies in the History of Ideas – 1976
• Concept and Categories: Philosophical Essays – 1978
 Liberalism and limit to justice: Michael Sandel
 Foundation of modern Political Thought- Quintten Skinner
 Democratic Theory- Giovanni Sartori
 Philosophy and human science- Charles Taylor
 ‘The History of Political theory’- GH Sabine
Marx books
• Thesis on Feuerbach – 1845
• Poverty of philosophy– 1847
• Communist manifesto – 1848
• Contribution to the critique of political economy – 1859
Gramsci’s Books:
• Prison Notebooks (1929-35)
• The Southern Question
• A Great and Terrible World: The Pre-Prison Letters, 1908-1926
• The Modern Prince and Other Writings
• The Modern State and Politics
Green’s book:
• Lectures on the principles of political obligation ( 1885)
• Prolegomeria to Ethics
• Essays: Moral, Political, and Literary – with David Hume
Hannah Arendt Books
• The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)
• On Revolution (1963)
• On Violence (1970)
• The Life of the Mind (1977)
• Between Past and Future (1961)
• Men in Dark Times (1968)

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 • Civil Disobedience (1972)
• The Promise of Politics1993)
Rousseau’s Books
• whether restoration of science and arts contributed to the
purification of morals? (discourse on science and arts )-1749
• what is the origin of inequality and is it authenticated by nature?-
• (Discourse on Inequality-1755)
• ‘Social Contract’-1762
• Emile, or On Education- 1762
• The Confessions- 1782
 Frantz Fanon (1925-1961) Books: French West Indian, Psychiatrist,
political philosopher and author;
‘Black skin, while mask (1952)’ ‘A dying Colonialism (1959), ‘the
wretched of the Earth (1961)
 Friedrich Hegel’s Book:
• ‘Elements of the Philosophy of Right’ ;
• Science of Logic;
• The Phenomenology of Spirit;
• Philosophy of History
• A History of Political Theory’- by Sabine
• A History of Political Theories- Dunning
• Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle-Barker
• Great Political Thinkers: From Plato to the Present- Ebenstein
 The Zig Zag of Politics- Robert Nozick
Quotes  State is individual writ large: Plato
 “Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is
sovereign”- [Link]
 Man in the state of Nature was solitary, nasty, brutish and short-
Hobbes
 “Laws are the rules of just and unjust; nothing being reputed unjust
that is not contrary to some law”- Hobbes
 Functionalism can indeed be interpreted as a conscious alternative to
Marxism- W.G. Runciman
 Thomas Carlyle- Bentham’s Philosophy as “Pig Philosophy”
Mao Zedong’s Quotes;
 Political power grows out of barrel of gun.

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  Three years of hard work : ten thousand years of happiness.
 A revolution is not a dinner party.
 “All existence is simply a matter in motion.”- Hobbes
 Man is what he eats- Feuerbach
 “the emancipation of the working class is the work of the working
class itself”- Marx
 “Turn the imperialist war into a civil war, that is, into a proletarian
revolution.” - Lenin
 “Science is the fruit of idle curiosity; philosophy is mere intellectual
frippery; the amenities of polite life is tinsel”- Rousseau
 ‘in order that the Athenians might not commit a second crime
against philosophy’ -Aristotle
 Felicity ( Happiness) is “continued success in obtaining those things
which a man from time to time desires”- Hobbes
 “Man must eat before he thinks. To eat he must produce. Production
is a basic activity”- Marx
 “Leninism is Marxism of the era of imperialism and of the
proletarian revolution”- Stalin
 “Prince” the great and true conception of a real political genius
with the highest and noblest purpose”- Hegel
 Family is the only natural society- Rousseau
 Thinking man is a depraved animal- Rousseau
 Felicific calculus is absurd- JS Mill
 “Each person possesses an inviolability founded on justice that even
the welfare of society as a whole cannot override”- John Rawls
 Aristotle’s ideal state was always Plato’s second best- GH Sabine
 Every state is known by the rights it maintains- Laski
 “The English think they are free. They are free only during the
election of members of parliament.”- Rousseau
 ‘That art, religion and philosophy differ only in form, their purpose is
the same’- Hegel
 Religion is the opium of the people: Marx

Mixed/Misc.  The Greek word for Justice is dikaisune.

 Timocracy: in Aristotle's Politics is a state where only property
owners may participate in government. A kind of Plutocracy.

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 The Roy-Lenin debate on colonial policy: the main issue revolved
around Lenin’s assertion that Communist parties in all colonial areas
must assist “bourgeois-democratic liberation” movements.
 General Will refers to: My Own Real Will, Group Mind , A
common Me
 “Making someone better without making others worse’- Pareto’s
Optimality principle

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FACT SHEET PYQA IPT: THEMES/TOPICS ON INDIAN POLITICAL
THOUGHT (IPT) IN PAST YEAR UGC-NET PAPERS

Major Themes/topics asked

themes
Ancient  Arthasashtra- Nitishastra
IPT  Kautilya’s mandal- total 72 Prakriti or elements
 Kautilya’s Saptang: Swami- Head, Amatya- Eye; Suhrid ( mitr/allies)- eyes;
Kosha- Mouth; Durg- arms
 Aggansutta- 27th Sutta of Digha Nikaya: Buddhist thought- origin of life and
socail order
Modern  Gandhi’s Hind Swaraj influenced by Mazzini’s Italy
IPT  Note:
o [Link] moderates like Gandhiji and militants like Savarkar were
influenced by Mazzini and his role in making Italy a unified nation-state
 2. Gandhiji was influenced by:
 John Ruskin (Unto This Last), Henry Thoreau ( civil disobedience),
Tolstoy- an pacific anarchist ; Plato & Aristotle; Dada Bhai Naoroji
(drain of wealth) , Gopal Krishna Gokhle- his political Guru
 Gandhiji rejected determinsm, believed in relative truth and one step at a time
 Gandhi described himself as a Philosophical Anarchist
 20th century Jacobinism: M.N. Roy
 Voluntary Poverty- Gandhiji
 Integrated theory of evolution- Aurobindo
 Most dangerous man (British called): Aurobindo ( by Lord Minto)
 Father of Indian unrest: Tilak ( by author Valentine Chirol)
 Lloyd and Sussane Rudolph- Indian economy as Bullock Cart Capitalism;
India as ‘weak-strong state’ ; caste in India fosters democracy’ ; tussle
between a “demand polity” and a “command polity” ; State in India as
‘Polymorphous’
 Subhas Chandra Bose: idea of planning commission
 M.N. Roy formed the Communist Party of India on 17 October 1920 at
Tashkent.
 Secret Society: Lotus & Dagger- Aurobindo
 [Link]: Kanpur conspiracy case ; The League of Radical Congressmen

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 E. V. Ramasamy Naicker (popularly called Periyar)- started self-respect
movement- He first joined Congress party; DK founded in 1944 by Periyar, as
new Avatar of the Justice Party, which he joined in 1939
 Periyar brecame atheist after the Kashi Pilgrimage incidence
 Ambedkar was opposed to Panchayati Raj System
 Savrakar gave first the idea of Hindu Rashtra (Hindu Nation) ; he first called
1857 revolt the Indian War of Independence
 Gandhi’s Satyagraha- positive force of soual; different from passive
resistance- negative and weapon of weak
 Jaya Prakash Narayan ( JP) formed Congress socialist party and later on in
1952 formed the Praja Socialist Party.
 JP was awarded Bharat Ratna in 1999
 Barni’s Fatwa-i-Jahandari- advise to Muslim ruler on statecraft
 1919: Tagore surrendered Nighthood in protest gainst the Jalianwala masscre
 1984: GOI decided to celebrate birthday of Vivekananda – national youth day
 MN Sriniwasan- Sanskritisation
 Lohia was opposed to both capitalism nad communism- gave 3rd way- his
brand of socialism
 Gandhi’s Ashrams: chronology
o Phoenix Settlement, established in 1904 in KwaZulu Natal; and
Tolstoy Farm, established in 1910 outside of Johannesburg
o Sevagram Ashram (est. 1936 in. Wardha).
o Kochrab Ashram was the first ashram in India by Gandhiji;
Founded in 1915 near Ahmedabad
o Sabarmati Ashram- 1917
 Ramabai was called ‘Pandita’ due to being scholar of ‘Sanskrit’
 Gandhi: Deontology- Means should also be good; choices and rules should be
right
 Tilak published; Kesari and Maratha newspaper
 Aurobindo: weekly- Karmyogi and Dharma
 MN Roy: New Scientific Humanism- radical or new humanism; he prepared a
model constitution for India
 MN Roy founded Maxican Socialist Party; he formed league of radical
congressmen; founded Indian Renaissance movement; run a weekly
‘independent India’; was part of ‘Comintern’ but was expelled from it later on
 Gandhiji was influenced by Plato, Ruskin, Tolstoy, Jainism, Vaishnavism
 Gandhiji went to South Africa to fight case of Gujrati businessman

278
  Aurobindo- most dangeoros man- Lord Minto
Books  India Wins Freedom- Azad
 My Experiments with Truth- Gandhiji
 Idea of Justice- Amartya Sen
 Idea of India- Sunil Khilnani
 The Indian struggle- Subhas Chandra Bose
 The Life Divine (1919) ; Savitri: A Legend and a Symbol(1940)’’- Aurobindo
 Satyavir Ki Katha, translated into Gujarati by Gandhiji was from Apology of
Plato; he called Socrates ‘Satyavir’
 ‘Political Economy of Development in India’- Pranab Bardhan
 Books by M. N. Roy
• Poverty Or Plenty? (1944)
• The future of Indian Politics
• Gandhism, Nationalism, and Socialism
• New Humanism
• Radical Humanist
• India in Transition (1922)
• The Historical Role Of Islam
• The Communist International (1920)
• Revolution and Counter-revolution in China(1946)
 Atul Kohli books
• Democracy and Discontent: India's Growing Crisis of Governability
(1990)’
• Poverty Amid Plenty in the New India
• Democracy and Development in India
• State-Directed Development
• The Success of India's Democracy
 : Rajni Kothari Books
• Politics in India(1970)
• Caste in Indian Politics(1970)
• State Against Democracy(1988)
• Rethinking Development(1988)
• Rethinking Democracy(2005)
• Communalism in Indian politics(1998)

279
Morris Jones Books
• ‘Parliament in India’(1957)
• ‘The government and politics of India( 1971)’
• ‘Politics Mainly Indian(1978)’
Paul Brass Books:
• ‘Factional Politics in an Indian State(1965)’
• ‘The Politics of India Since Independence(1990)’
• ‘Ethnicity and Nationalism(1991)’
• ‘The Production of Hindu-Muslim Violence in Contemporary India
(2004)’
• ‘An Indian Political Life: Charan Singh and Congress Politics, 1937 to
1961 (2011)’
Myron Weiner books:
• Party politics in India(1957)
• State Politics in India(1968)
• Sons of the Soil: Migration and Ethnic Conflict in India(1978)
Achin Vanaik Books
• ‘Communalism Contested: Religion, Modernity and
Secularization(1997)’
• ‘Hindutva Rising: Secular Claims, Communal Realities(2017)’
• ‘India in a Changing World1995)’
 “A Plea for Reconstruction of Indian Polity”- Jayaprakash Narayan
 Pandita Ramabai: High caste Hindu Women- An unofficial Indian Feminist
Manifesto; first book published in English by an Indian woman.
 Tagore’s books and their meaning/theme- Geetanjali, Gora, Sadhna, Ghare-
Baire
 JP: ‘Why Socialism?’
 Lohia: ‘Salt Taxation in India’
Iqbal’s Creations:
• "Tarānah-e-Hindi“- Sāre Jahāṉ se Acchā -1904
• Tarana-e-Milli- Anthem of the Community-1910
• Asrar-i-Khudi - Secrets of the Self (1915) ;
• Rumuz-i-Bekhudi - Hints of Selflessness (1917)
• Payam-e-Mashriq The Message of the East (1924)
• Javed Nama -(Book of Javed-1932;

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 • Collection of Essay- The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam-
1930
• Bang-e-Dara- The Call of the Marching Bell
 Integral Humanism: An Analysis of Some Basic Elements(2009)-Deendayal
Upadhyaya
 His Integral Humanism: human life not isolated; harmony between
individual, society, and nation; essential unity of the man
 Rambriksha Benipuri wrote biography of JP
 Gandhi & Gandhism: Ambedkar
 Marx, Gandhi, and Socialism- Lohia
Ambedkar’s Books/Essays/papers:
• Castes in India- 1916 ;
• Annihilation of caste-1936
• Who Were the Shudras? 1946 ;
• The Untouchables -1948
• The Budhha and his Dhamma-1957
Quotes  “Swaraj will not be a free gift of the British Parliament, it will be a
declaration of India’s full expression.”- Gandhiji
 Indian Politics as “Politics of Scarcity”- Myron Weiner
 Indian federalism as “bargaining federalism”- Morris Jones
 India as quasi-federal state- [Link]
 emergence of “a market polity” in India- Morris Jones
 nature of Indian State as ‘incremental democratic modernization’ – Rajni
Kothari
 Hinduize all politics and militarize Hinduism
 Lambs are shorn of the wool; they are feeling the cold- Ambedkar
Misc.  Acharya Vinoba Bhave- first Satyagrahi of the Individual Civil Disobedience
Movement started by Gandhiji in October 1940
 The term 'Dharmshala Capitalism', 'Hindu rate of growth' was coined by
Professor Rajkrishna, an Indian economist, in 1978 to characterize the slow
growth and to explain it against the backdrop of socialistic economic policies.

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 FACT SHEET PYQA CP: THEMES/TOPICS OF COMPARATIVE
POLITICS ASKED IN UGC NET PAST YEAR PAPERS
Main theme Themes/topics asked
Approaches to  Rajni Kothari and Morris Jones used structural functional approach
CP to analyse Indian Polity
 Modern Democracy as Polyarchy- Robert Dahl
 System approach- Easton identified 4 types of Input functions as
demand: Participation in political system, Allocation of goods and
services, Communication and information, Regulation of behaviour
 Structural functionalism as a method was developed to study the
politics of Politics of developing countries
 Communications theory of Karl Deutsch- engineering orientation to
human behaviour- goal change, learning, feedaback, receptors
 Functionalism as an alternative approach to Marxism - W.G.
Runciman
 Structural–functional approach was weak in change, the social
process approach was weak in politics and the comparative history
approach was weak in theory- Huntington
 Ludwig Von Bertallanfy- general systems theory; This model
subsequently adopted by various disciplines of social science in
following sequence: Anthropology, Sociology, Psychology and
Political Science
 David Easton gave a ‘flow model’ of political system ?
 Almond borrowed most of the terminology of his structural-
functional approach from Talcott Parsons
 James Bryce: Institutional Approach
 Anthony Giddens: Structuration
 Economic theory of democracy (rational choice models): Anthony
Downs
 Herbert Marcuse: Conveyance theory
 System theory of Easton: The sequence of regulatory mechanism by
Easton is: Gate-keeping at the boundary, Socio-Cultural norms,
communication channels and Reduction processes.
 Almond and Verba suggested a ‘sleeping dogs’ theory of
democratic culture that implies that low participation indicates
broad satisfaction with government

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  Herman Finer and Carl Fredrich: institutional approach
Political  Harry Truman the US President: gave special meaning to
Development and development in his famous speech after WWII, this started
Dependency modernisation theory
theory  Features of Dependency theory
 Aspects of political development- Lucian Pye
 Lucian Pye identified 6 crises in political development: 1. Identity
2. Legitimacy 3. Penetration 4. Participation 5. Unification 6.
Distribution
 “The poor are poor not because of what they do not have, but
because of what they cannot do.” is said by Amartya Sen-
capability approach to development- development as freedom
 Max Weber, Talcott Parsons, A.M. Henderson and Joseph la
Palombara: political development is linked with legal and
administrative development
 Huntington identifies political development with the
institutionalisation of political organisations and procedures
 Organski: 4 stages of political development: unification,
industrialization, national welfare and abundance
 Fred Riggs: balance between the principles of equality and
capacity in political development; Development Trap- imbalance
between equality and capacity
 “will and capacity” approach to the study of political development-
Halpern
 Huntington challenged the idea of political development as an
unilinear process
 Edward Shils’ categories of political system: (i)Political
Democracy (ii) Tutelary Democracy (iii) Modernizing Oligarchy
(iv) Totalitarian Oligarchy (v) Traditional Oligarchy
 Dos Santos: 3 types of dependency: colonial, financial-industrial,
technological-industrial
Elite Theory  Elite Theory- critique of democracy, pluralism, and socialism
 The elite theory was first started in Central and Western European
Countries
 Robert Michels: ‘Iron Law of Oligarchy’
 C. Wright Mill’s ‘The Power Elite’ is a study of the contemporary
politics of USA
 Elites and society: Thomas Bottomore

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  Michels’ Iron law of oligarchy was formulated on the basis of the
study of German Social Democratic Party
 Mosca: political formula (a set of doctrines propagated by the ruling
elites)
 Burnham: economic approach to elitism
Comparative  UK, New Zealand, Israel have unwritten constitution
Polity of USA,  Federal Councilors of Switzerland- Plural executive-unique
UK, Switzerland, institution
France, etc
 It is collective head of state and government of Switzerland.
 It has 7 members
 The position of President of the Swiss Confederation rotates
among the members of the council on a yearly basis
 One year's Vice President of Switzerland becoming the next
year's President of Switzerland
 Once elected for a four-year-term, Federal Councillors can
neither be voted out of office by a motion of no confidence
nor can they be impeached
 McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): USA: supremacy of federal over
the states
 Marbury Vs Madison, 1803, the U.S. Supreme Court first declared
an act of Congress/Parliament unconstitutional, thus establishing
the doctrine of judicial review
 Philadelphia Convention - Declaration of independence and
signing of the Constitution in US.
 USA- Due process of law- 5th & 14th amendment
 USA and Switzerland: Dual Citizenship
 India and UK: Single Citizenship
 In USA all courts including all levels of the State Courts have the
power of Judicial review
 Roosevelt: 4 times USA president
 Swiss federal tribunal can declare a state law unconstitutional but
Not the federal law
 Residual power is vested with federal governments in Canada.
India, Belgium, it rests with the state governments in the U.S.A.,
Australia, Switzerland.
 Robert Walpole: 1st PM of England and World

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  France and Sri-Lanka- semi presidential system
 Once a speaker always a speaker- UK
Political Culture  Almond- homogeneous culture in developed nations
 Meaning of clash of civilisation (Huntington)
 Kumbh Mela: intangible cultural heritage of Humanity
 [Link]: Low, Mature, and Developed Political Culture
Misc./Mixed  Johann Gottfried, a German: father of cultural nationalism
 Consociational state: in which has major internal divisions along
ethnic, religious, or linguistic lines, with none of the divisions large
enough to form a majority group, but which remains stable due to
power sharing among these groups
Examples: Lebanon, Israel. Northern Ireland, South Africa, etc
 Authoritarianism vs Totalitarianism: Totalitarianism is
ideological and cultural project to bring new civilization by the state
led by a political party; state intervene in all aspects of citizen-
private and public- both features not in Authoritarianism
 Nation and Nationalism: Ernest Gellner
 Bendict Anderson- nation as an ‘Imagined Community’
 Samuel Huntington: Political Order in Changing Societies
 Functions of political party
 Primordialism ( birth based identity): caste, clan, kinship,
community, etc,
 S.M. Lipset- ‘Political Man’
 Huntington: 3rd wave democratisation
 Subaltern School- New Democracy
 Govt without Constitution is power without Rights: Thomas Paine (
Rights of Man)
 The Anatomy of Revolution (1938): Crane Brinton- revolution as
fever
 Stasiology: The study of political parties.
 Gabriel Almond: sequential order of Interest group: (a) Institutional
groups (b) Non-associational groups (c) Associational groups (d)
Anomic groups
 Book: The man on horseback- [Link]
 Book: Comparative Politics Today- Almond

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 Revolutions:
• Islamic Revolution: Iran
• Puritan Revolution: 1649: to limit arbitrary powers of
Charles II
 Winston Churchill: There can be no comparison between the
positions of number one and numbers two, three or four.”( about
British PM)
 Pseudo-pressure groups- Duverger
 Charles Tilly: Political conflict approach in analysis of revolution
 Interest group as anonymous empire – [Link]
 Political socialisation in traditional society is Ascriptive (birth
based status)
 Fusion of power between legislature and executive – parliamentary
form of Govt
 No judicial review powers to courts- UK and France
 Features of Constitutional govt- rule of law, limited
 Legitimation Crisis (1973)- Habermas
 Paul Sweezy (1910 –2004) Wrote ‘Monopoly Capital: An Essay on
the American Economic and Social Order (1966)’
 Co-operative federalism- ideal type of federalism
 Second chamber an indispensable part of legislature in Federal form
of govt
 Karl Deutsch Tried to give an essentially engineering orientation to
human behaviour
• The nerves of government (1963)- Karl Deutsch
• The Nerves of Government applies concepts of the
theory of information, communication, and control to
social science.
• Uses the concepts of feedback, channel capacity and
memory.
• Explains human and social organization which hold &
process information/communication are nerves of
Government
• It considers Government as communication system

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 FACT SHEET PYQA PUB AD: THEMES/TOPICS ASKED IN
PREVIOUS UGC-NET EXAMS ON PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Major Theme Themes/topics/facts asked

Pub Ad  5 stages in the chronology of the evolution of Public
theories/thinkers Administration as a discipline: (By Nicholas Henry)
Stage 1: politics administration dichotomy (1887–1926)
Stage 2: principles of administration (1927–1937)
Stage 3: era of challenge (1938–1947)
Stage 4: crises of identity (1948–1970)
Stage 5: public policy perspective (1970–Present).

 6 Managerial Abilities (Physical, mental, Moral, educational,

technical, experience): Fayol
 Taylor’s Functional organizational structure:
• Functional foremanship: each labour reports to 8 functional
expert supervisors/foreman
• 4 planning foreman-route clerk, instruction card clerk, time
and cost clerk, Discipline clerk
• 4 execution foreman- Gang boos, speed boss, repair boss,
and Inspector
 Fred Riggs found Max Weber’s model of bureaucracy irrelevant
and inappropriate for explaining the administrative ecology of
developing
 Parkinson's Law: The Pursuit of Progress (1958)
 His laws: “work expands so as to fill the time available for
its completion.“
(1) "An official wants to multiply subordinates, not rivals,"
(2) "Officials make work for each other.”
 Public administration as “the activities of the Executive
Branches of the National, State and Local Government”- Herbert
A. Simon
 Riggs’ : Ascriptive( birth based) values are found in Fused
societies

287
 The Informal Channel of Communication is also known as
Grapevine
 Gulick was influenced by Fayol’s fourteen principles.
 Fredrick Herzberg: Motivation Hygiene Approach or two factor
theory
 Abraham Maslow: Hierarchy of need theory
 [Link]: concept of partnership; dominance, compromise,
integration( conflict management); circular response
 Riggs: Fused, Diffracted, Prismatic, Sala, Clect, Bazar Canteen
 Chester Barnard:
 Barnard’s authoritative order: feasible, intelligible, aligned
to organisation’s purpose; Zone of Indifference
 Barnard: Organisation: "system of consciously coordinated
personal activities or forces of two or more persons”
 Organization features- Bernard: systematic arrangements of
human affairs, cooperation, regimentations, collectivity,
determinism, dis-integration of person
 By maintaining Contribution-Satisfaction Equilibrium,
individual motives are satisfied, making organization
efficient
 Edward Weidner defined development administration as
“Action-oriented, goal-oriented administrative system”
 Taylor’s concept of Mental Revolution stands for Harmony and
Cooperation for both labour and management
 Elton mayo: Behavioural Revolution, Human Relation theory,
Howthronian experiments, Social Man, Socially situated worker,
non-economic incentive, group dynamics, Informal organisation
 F.M. Marx’s Guardian, Caste, Patronage and Merit Bureaucracy
 The principle of unity of command mainly ensures
Accountability
 Technical and administrative tasks require dilution of Unity of
Command
 Riggs’ “Prismatic Society” is based on Structural-functional
analysis of public administration in developing countries.
 Classical theory of organisation: Mechanistic model, formal
organisation, closed model Simon was positively influenced by
the ideas of Barnard
 Principles of Organisation (1931)’-Mooney and Reiley

288
  Principle of coordination:
 The principle of scalar process
 Principle of functional effect or functional principle:
 Herbert Simon, a decision is usually compounded of one value
statement/judgement and several fact statements/judgements
 Mayo’s Howthronian Bank Wiring Experiment:
o Rate-buster: - one who produce more than the social
norm. ·
o Chiseller: - the one who produces less than the
social norm/target
o Squealer: - the one who complain the management
about his peer/co-worker
 Feature of Weber’s bureaucracy: Impersonality- Separation of
office from its incumbent, rigid rules, hierarchy, specialisation,
merit based, rational-legal, career orientation,
 Delegation, as per Mooney, is conferring of specified authority
by a higher authority
 According to F.W. Riggs, there are five functional requisites for
any society :1. Economic, 2. Social, 3. Communicational, 4.
Symbolic and 5. Political.
 Chester Barnard: Effective communication essential to achieve
organisational goal; authority lies with subordinate who accept I;
Zone of Indifference
 Cybernetics: science of communication and control
 Vincent Ostram, Anthony Downs, James Buchanan, Kenneth
Arrow- public choice approach
 Weber, like Riggs, also adopted ecological approach-
considering impact of larger socio-cultural environment on
administration
 Ecological approach came out of system approach

NPA/[Link]/GG  Features of NPA: less "generic" and more "public", less

"descriptive" and more "prescriptive", less "institution-oriented"
and more "client-oriented", less "neutral" and more "normative"
 New Public Administration:
o 1st Minnowbrooke Conference, 1968
o 5 themes of NPA: relevance, values, social equity,
change and client focus

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  Michael Cohen, March, and Olsen: Garbage Can Model of
decision making
 Critics of the Bureaucratic theory: Riggs, Talcott Parsons, M.
Crozier, Robert Presthus
 Rigg’s Ecological approach: Agraria- Trnasitia- Industria
 Theory X and Y : Mcgreger
 Theory of Needs: McClelland
Pub Ad Books  The Administrative State: Dwight Waldo
 The Art of Administration: Ordway Tead
 Dynamic Administration (1940)- Mary Parker Follett-
psychological Approach
 Principles of public administration- Pfiffner
 Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution- A. V.
Dicey
 An Introduction to Administrative Law- James Hart
 The principles of the administrative law- Frank Johnson
Goodnow
 Understanding Public Policy- Thomas R. Dye
 Personality and organization- Chris Argyris
 The Art of Judgment: A Study of Policy Making- Geoffrey
Vickers
 Elements of Public Administration- Fritz Morstein Marx(editor)
 The intellectual crisis in American public administration ( 1974):
Vincent Ostrom
 Toward a New Public Administration: The Minnowbrook
Perspective(1971)- Frank marini
 Ideas and issues in public administration- Dwight Waldo
 The frontiers of public administration- John M. Gaus, Leonard
D. White, and Marshall E. Dimock
 Morality and Administration in Democratic Government- Paul
H. Appleby.
 The Science of Public Administration: Three Problems · Robert.
Dahl
Pub Ad practices  Ashok Mehta committee, 1978, recommended two-tier
Panchayati raj- Zila Parishad and Mandal Panchayat; it was 1st
committee to recommend Constitutional status to Panchayati Raj
Institutions

290
 Indian Institute of Public Administration was set up in 1954
based on the recommendations of Paul H. Appleby
 CVC was set up in 1964 on the recommendations of Santhanam
Committee (on Anti-corruption)
 Performance Budgeting and functional specialisation was
recommended by 1st Administrative committee report-1966
 The institution of ‘Ombudsman’ was first introduced in Sweden
in 1809
 Re-appropriation: transferring fund from one budget head to
other
 To review Panchayat Raj System in Rajasthan. Sadiq Ali
Committee was Constituted in 1964
 [Link] committee: Report on Public Administration
(1951)
 Maharashtra: 1st State to have Lokayukta
 Rajashthan: 1st state to implement Panchayati Raj Institutions
 Kerala: 1st state to have ombudsman for local govt
 Sweden- 1st country to implement RTI in 1766
 All small savings, and state providend funds, etc. are deposited
to Public Account, created under Article 266 (2) of the
Constitution
 CBI came out from the special police establishment set up in
1941
 Administrative Tribunals came up through 42nd Constitutional
amendments
 [Link] Committee: criminalisation of Politics- 1993
 Statutory bodies: NCW, NHRC, UGC, National commission for
minorities, CVC, Atomic Energy Commission,
 Constitutional body: CEC, CAG, UPSC, AG, Finance
Commission, Inter-state council, National SC/ST commission,
National backward class commission ( by 102nd Amendment
Act, 2018)
 Delegated or subordinate Legislation: Executive Legislation,
Rule and regulation making power
 Procurator system- Russia ; Administrative Courts- France
 Efficiency rating for civil servants- USA
 Sweden- 1st to implement freedom of Press Act, 1st
ombudsman, 1st RTI

291
  Reservation of seats for backward clss Not compulsory feature
of 73rd Amendments
 74th Amendments: Ward Committee as per article 243S and
District Planning Committee under Article 243ZD
 Committed Bureaucracy- Indira Gandhi
 Security agencies and para-military forces are exempted from
RTI
 CIC may have maximum 10 information commissioners
 L. M. Singhvi Committee-1986- was a committee on the
revitalization of the Panchayati raj institution for democracy and
development. ; it also recommended Constitutional status to PRI
 Niti Aayog- staff agency; Public Works Department- Auxiliary
agency
Misc./Mixed UK and USA: Administrative reform committee
 Fulton Committee-1968 UK- Generalist vs Specialist Civil
Services- preferred specialists•; Unified Grading Structure
 Assheton Committee (1944)- UK-Training of Civil
Servants
 Brownlow Committee (1937)- USA: proposals for
reorganizing the executive branch; President's Committee
on Administrative Management-1937
• Hoover Commission (1947-49)- USA-ways to reduce the
number of federal government departments and increase
their efficiency in the post-World War II
• Taft Commission- The Commission on Economy and
Efficiency-1910
• The Hoover Commission, officially named the
Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of
the Government- 1947
• The Grace Commission-Private Sector Survey on Cost
Control -1982
• USA: Hatch Act of 1939- No political Activity by Civil
Servants
UK: Committee on Civil Services
 Northcote-Trevelyan Committee- 1854- Merit System
 Fulton Committee-1968- Generalist vs Specialist Civil
Services;preferred specialists

292
  The Redcliffe-Maud Report -1969 on Local Government in
England
 Tomlin Commission (1929-31) Report: Royal Commission
on civil services
 Donoughmore Committee- Delegated Legislation
 Assheton Committee- Training of Civil Servants
 Whitleyism : Permanent council to sort out labour-
management issues
 Masterman Committee: Pollitical Activities of Civil
Servants in Britain ; 3 categories- politically free,
politically restricted, Conditional
 Atchison Commission- 1886- scheme for fulfilling the
claims of Indians to higher and more extensive
employment in public service
 Gladstone committee- 1895- on Prison Reforms

 Line vs Staff agency: adopted from Military

 Line: make and defend policy, carry out crucial job of the
organisation; vertical hierarchy- scaler chain
 Staff: Support and advise ‘line’ with specialised/expert
knowledge- horizontal hierarchy
 Auxiliary: purely supportive and housekeeping role-
Horticulture, house-keeping, security, etc.
 ‘Span of Control’ is also known as Military Type of Foreman
 The word ‘Bureaucracy’ was first coined by Marie Vincent de
Gournay
 ‘Budget is a series of Goals with price tags attached’-
Wildavsky
 David Nachmias and D.H. Rosenbloom: participatory
bureaucracy
 Jacksonian Theory’ is also called Spoils system (patronage
Bureaucracy)
 Peter Drucker: Entrepreneurial Spirit, Management by
Objectives
 Scaler process: Mooney & Reiley
 Vertical job loading is the terminology used by Herzberg to
describe his principles for enriching positions and giving
employees more challenging work

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 Horizontal job loading, which often involves giving employees
more work without changing the challenge level
 Shafritz and Russell, in their book ‘Introducing Public
Administration’, provided 18 definitions of public administration
 Thinkers who made difference between public & private admin:
Josiah Stamp, Paul H Appleby, Herbert Simon, John Gauss,
Peter Drucker
 Thinkers who did not make difference between public & private
admin: Fayol, Follet, Gullick, Urwick
 Managerial Vs Integral View of Pub Ad
 Managerial Views: Only managerial functions are part of
Public Admin
o Supported by : Luther Gullick, Herbert Simon,
Smithburg nd Thompson,Fayol, Merson
 Integral View:That all works- managerial and routine- are
part of Public Admin
o Supported by : Taylor, Dimmock, Woodrow
Wilson, L. D. White, Marshall, Dimock, John
Pfiffner and Percy McQueen
 Spoil system or Patronage Bureaucracy in USA: by President
Jackson
•Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act 1883- removed the
spoil system; merit system
 China: 1st country to have sound recruitment policy for Public
Administrators
 Nonfesance: failure to perform an act ( by Public
Administration) that is required by law.
 The four management systems or leadership style identified by
Rensis Likert : Exploitative Authoritative, Benevolent
Authoritative, Consultative and Participative
 Mixed Scanning model: 3rd way between rationalism and
incrementalism- Amitai Etzioni
 Bureaucrat as ruling servant- Robert K merton
 Informal organisation: authority flows across and downward
 The notion of a representative bureaucracy was first articulated
by Donald Kingsley in 1944
 Zero based budget- creator Peter A Phyrr
 Quotes on Bureacracy

294
 o Bureaucracy as continental nuisance- Thomas
Carlyle
o Bureaucracy (in England) thrives under the cloak of
ministerial responsibilities”- Ramsay Muir
o Cabinet as “new despotism”- Lord Hewart
o “Dictatorship of cabinet in Britain”- Ramsey Muir
o Bureaucracy is the price of parliamentary
Democracy –Herbert Morrison
 Span of control depends upon: Age of organisation,
personality of supervisor, caliber of subordinate, organisational
structure, delegation, etc.
 Civil Services Exam- reforms:
 Kothari committee-1976- 3 stage CSE
 Satish Chandra Committee-1989- essay paper
 Y.K. Alagh Committee- 2001- CSAT
 Hota Committee, 2004: Age-21-24; aptitude and leadership
tests
 Second Administrative Reforms (Veerappa Moily)
Commission-2008- CSAT, and present model
 All India Services mentioned under article 312: IAS, IPS, IJS(
Indian Judicial Service)
 Incremental model of Public Policy: Charles Lindblom

295
 FACT SHEET PYQA IR: THEMES/TOPICS ASKED FROM
INTERNATIONAL RELATION IN PAST YEARS PAPERS OF UGC-
NET

Major themes Themes/topics asked

IR theories  Realism- Power ( and interest)
 Marxism- class struggle
 Game Theory- Pay off
 Constructivism: Identity
 Neo-liberalism- economic interdependence; IGOs
 Decision-making: Environment (national & international)
 6 principles of classical realism- Hans J. Morgenthou
 major argument of Neo-realism of Kenneth Waltz is that
Structures are more important than actors, hence called
structural realism
 Woodrow Wilson- liberal perspectives on international
politics: 14 point principle; League of nation ( based on Kant’s
theory of perpetual peace)
 Realism: International Peace through A balance of power
between States.
 International society tradition is also known as the English
School
 System Theory in IR: Mortan kaplan
 correct sequence of Morton Kaplan’s models of systems
analysis: (i) Balance of Power (ii) Loose Bipolarity (iii) Tight
Bipolarity (iv) Universal International System
 neo-realism: restate the basic ideas of realism in a more
‘scientific’ form.
 Chronology of IR thinkers: Reinhold Niebuhr ; (ii) Immanuel
Kant ; (iii) Antonio Gramsci ; (iv) Robert W. Cox
 Martin Wight, of English school, used rationalism of Hugo
Grotius, Realism of Hobbes, and Revolutionism of Kant to
develop a synthetic IR theory
 Functionalist theory of Integration- David Mittarany

296
  John Mearshemier, an offensive neo-realist, builts on Kenneth
Waltz’s argument concerning the stability of bipolar system as
compared to multipolar system
 Neo- Marxism: Economic globalization is an uneven,
hierarchical process and benefits only a tiny minority
 Sandra L Whitworth- Feminist/critical theory
 Elisabeth Prügl – Feminist social constructivism
 Charlotte Hooper- feminist post-structiralism
 Chandra Mohanty- feminist post-colinialism
 Three images of politics- Kenneth Waltz
 Bargaining Theory- JF Nash, Thomas Shilling, Roger Fisher
 Realistic Liberlaism: John Herz
 Dependency Theory- facts/thinkers
 Just war Theories- Thomas Aquinas, Samuel Pufendorf,
Hugo Grotius
• Jus in Bello (Just conduct of war)
• Jus Ad Bellum (just causes of war)
 In Johan Galtung's 1969 paper, "Violence, Peace and Peace
Research, “- Conflict Triangle, a framework used in the study
of peace and conflict- Structural, Cultural, and Direct violence
 Bi-polarity- most stable structure for global peace- Kenneth
Waltz (father of neo-realism)
 Interest defined in terms of power- Morgenthau (father of
classical realism in modern era)
 States seeks to maximise their relative power positions- John
Mearshiemer (offensive neo-realist)
 Nicholas Onuf and Alexander Wendt (’Social Theory of
International Politics’)- ‘World of our making’
 Classification of Ideologies by Morgenthau
India’s foreign Policy  Non-reciprocity principle of India’s policy towards
neighbouring countries envisages providing one way
concessions to neighbouring countries to improve ties; this
policy was given by Indian PM [Link]
 Non-alignment as India’s foreign policy meant independence
and judging each issue on its relevance to our national interest.
 Chronology of Foreign ministers of India

297
 Indira Doctrine: India’s security is coterminous with the
region and any interference of external powers is taken as a
threat to India’s security.
 Chronology of Indo-US Nuclear Treaty; (ii) Indo-Soviet
riendship Treaty; (iii) Tashkent Agreement ; (iv) Shimla
Agreement
 Main purpose of the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord ( 1987) was To
end the ethnic strife between the Sinhalese and Tamils.
 India has neither signed nor ratified NPT and CTBT ; Only 3
countries- India, Pakistan, and Israel- have not signed NPT
 CEPA( Japan, South Korea, UAE), CECA( with Singapore),
BECA( with USA)
 India in UN Peace-keeping missions- facts, which operations,
etc.
 India’ border disputes with Nepal, Sri-lanka, Pakistan,
Bangladesh
 Sri-Lanka (Katchatheevu Island)
 Nepal- Kalapani and Susta
 Bangladesh (New Moore Island, Dahagram-Angarpota,
Farkka Barrage)
 Pakistan- Sir Creek, Siachin, Wular barrage
 Dahagram-Angarpota is one large Bangladeshi enclave that
has not changed hands in the swap between India and
Bangladesh
 India is Not party to the Rome Statute- through which ICC
was set up at Hague, Nertherland
 Landmark events in India’s foreign Policy- Shimla Agrrement
( 1972), Panchsheel ( 1954), Indira Doctrine, Gujral Doctrine,
Look East, Look West, lahore declaration ( Bajpaiji), Genuine
NAM ( Morarji Desai), Ind-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Indo-
Sri lanka Peace accord- 1987
 India in UN- members of which body, particiapted in which
Pecae keeping Mission, etc
Indus water treaty- 1960
o World Bank played role of mediator
o India got waters of Ravi, Beas, Sutlaj
o Pakistan got- Jhelum, Chenab, Indus water

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  On 27 March 2019, India tested an anti-satellite weapon
(ASAT) during an operation code named Mission Shakti
 India became a Sectoral Partner of the ASEAN in 1992,
Dialogue Partner in 1996 and Summit Level Partner in 2002
 Different operations- military and
disaster/protection/evacuation- by India- Operation Raahat,
Mausam, Parakram, Brasstacks, Sahkti, Smiling Buddha, etc

Books/Authors  Huntignton: Clash of Civilisation

 Joseph Nye- Soft Power
 Susan Strange- Retreat of the State
 Immaneual Wallerstein- The World System
 Monsoon: The Indian Ocean and the Future of American
Power ( 2010)’- Robert D. Kaplan
 ‘The Anarchical Society (1977)’: Hedley Bull (Eng. School)
 ‘Failed States (2006)’: Noam Chomsky
 ‘Conflict and defense (1962)’: Kenneth E. Boulding
 “Stable Peace”- Kenneth E. Boulding
 Twenty year crisis- EH Carr (classiacl realist)
 Neo-realism and its critics- Robert Keohane ( neo-liberalism)
 The Tragedy of Great Power Politics- John Mearsheimer (
offensive neo-realism)
 From Wealth to Power- Fareed Zakaria ( Neo-classical
realism)
 Theory of Games and Economic Behavior: John von Neumann
and Oskar Morgenstern
 Globalization and Its Discontents- Joseph Stiglitz
 In defense of globalisation- Jagdish Bhagwati
 A Globalizing World? Culture, Economics, Politics- David
Held
 The End of History and the Last Man (1992): Francis
Fukuyama
 World of our making- Nicholas Onuf
 People, state, and Fear- Bary Buzan
 Soft Power- Joseph Nye
 The transformation of political community- Andrew Linklater

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  Cooperation Under Anarchy- Kenneth Oye ( English School)
 Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch (1795)- Immanuel
Kant
 From International to World Society- Barry Buzan
(Copenhagen School)
 International Regimes- Stephen D. Krasner
 The Art of War- Sun Tzu
o Note: Machiavelli and Mao Zedong also wrote
books named ‘Art of War’
 Politics Among Nations: the Struggle for Power and Peace-
Hans Morgenthau
 Neo-colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism- Kwame
Nkrumah
 The analysis of international relations- Karl Deutsch (famous
for communication theory and ‘The Nerves of Government’ )
 The Implosion of Capitalism- samir Amin (famous for coining
‘Eurocentrism’, theory of unequal exchange’)
 World Order- Henry Kissinger( famous for his shuttle
diplomacy)
 The wretched of the earth- Farntz Fanon
 Runaway World: Anthony Giddens
UN and IGOs  ‘An Agenda for Peace (1995)’- Boutros Boutros-Ghali ; It
included Preventive diplomacy, peace making, peace-keeping,
and peace-building- UN reform process
 Committee of UN General assembly
 Tenure of UN Secretary General
 First Generation Peace keeping operations
 ‘Uniting for Peace Resolution’- Acheson Plan
 Collective Security System of the UN is based on the principle
of All for one, one for all ; The term was made famous by
Alexandre Dumas in the 1844 novel The Three Musketeers.;
Popularized in IR by Morgenthau ; NATO, Warsaw Pact, and
other security alliances are based on this principle
 About Chapters/articles of UN charter
 Facts about different UN organisations/agencies
 The decisions of the security council are binding, and must
only be passed by the majority of nine out of the 15 members,
as well as each of the five permanent members.

300
 UN Peace building Commission- Dec, 2005
 Brahimi Report: Panel on United Nations Peace Operations
was set up by the UN Secretary General Kofi Annan
 Organization of American States (OAS), Arab Maghreb Union
( AMU), NAFTA, SEATO
 Vianna Conference-1993- Human rights
 Cairo- 1994- Population
 Beijing- 1995- 4th UN Women conference
 Demand for NIEO was first made at the Algeris Summit of
NAM
 Facts about BIMSTEC, ASEAN, SAARC, EU, OAS ( its
organs)
 About ASEAN:
• Founding members of ASEAN: Indonesia, Malaysia,
Philippines, Singapore and Thailand- 1967- Bangkok
Declaration
• Brunei Darussalam became the sixth member after it
joined on 8 January 1984
• Vietnam -seventh full member on 28 July 1995
• Laos & Myanmar- 1997
• Combodia-1999
 Years/places of NAM summits
 BSEC: Black Sea Economic Cooperation
 Visegrád Group-V4: Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, and
Slovakia
 OSCE: Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.
 7 Asian country G-20- China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Saudi
Arabia, South Korea, and Turkey.
 Maastricht Treaty- birth of EU ( from European Community)
 APT: ASEAN + 3 ( Japan, China, South Korea)
 The Regional Cooperation Agreement on Combating Piracy
and Armed Robbery against Ships in Asia (ReCAAP) is the
first regional government to-government agreement to
promote and enhance cooperation against piracy and armed
robbery against ships in Asia
 the European Commission: executive branch of EU,
responsible for proposing legislation, enforcing EU laws and
directing the union's administrative operations.

301
  Lesser Known regional organisations in Africa- economic
community of west African states, south African Development
Community, Economic community of central African states,
Eastern African Community
 The IBSA Dialogue Forum (India, Brazil, South Africa) is an
international tripartite grouping for promoting international
cooperation among these countries; set up in 2003
 G-20- in 1999 ; G-7- in 1975
 The Flying Bee- ASEAN
 OPEC created at the Baghdad Conference on September 10–
14, 1960, by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela.

IR GK  Chronology of world events: Ostpolitic (normalization of

relations between the West Germany and East Germany
beginning in 1969), Warsaw Pact; NATO ; Helsinki
Agreement (1975: 35 participating states, including almost all
European nations, USA, and Canada signed the Final Act in an
attempt to improve the détente between the East and the
West.)
 Chronology of Cold War events: Fall of Berlin Wall ; (ii)
Cuban Missile Crisis ; (iii) Korean War ; (iv) Berlin Blockade
 Chronology of : Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship (ii) India’s
first Nuclear Explosion at Pokhran (iii) Cuban Missile Crises
(iv) Adoption of structural adjustment programme of India
 Chronology of : i.U.S. Policy of Containment of the Soviet
Union. ii. Dissolution of the former Soviet Union. iii. Iran-
Iraq War. iv. US War on terrorism in Afghanistan.
 Barack Obama: 1. Af-Pak Policy 2. Pivot to Asia Policies
 Canada adopted Responsibility to Protect ( R to P) as Policy
 MDG- 8 goals- 2000-2015 ; SDG- 17 Goals- 2015-2030
 Marshall Plan ( 1948): Rebuilding Western European
economics post WWII; Official name: European Recovery
Program
 The Bretton Woods Agreement- 1944- IMF and World bank
 MAD : Mutually Assured Destruction (nuclear strategy)
 The US approach to the Cold War was originally set out in the
Truman Doctrine- the containment Policy- Checking globally
the influence of the Soviet Union

302
 the post Soviet era Russia’s outlook at global level is marked
by Pragmatic de-ideologised worldview
 The principle of reciprocity within WTO framework envisage
lowering of trade barriers by a State to be matched in return.
 Gorbachev: Glasnost and Perestrioka
 Structural adjustment programmes require that Governments
of poor countries should adopt privatization and other
‘liberalizing’ measures.
 IMF led the structural adjustment program as per the
Washington Consensus
 Bandung Conference held in 1955- Twenty-Nine Afro-Asian
countries
 SORT: Strategic Offensive Reduction Treaty
 RMA; Revolution in Military Strategy
 The Axis of evil is a phrase used by President George W. Bush
in January 2002 to characterize Iran, North Korea and Iraq
 Facts about Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA)
 Post-westphalian warfare: Non-state dimension of warfare;
Mary Kaldor termed it New war to haracterize warfare in the
post-Cold War era
 The Tehran Conference was a strategy meeting of Joseph
Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill from 28
November to 1 December 1943, after the Anglo-Soviet
invasion of Iran; It was one of major conferences to discuss
post WW2 world order; others were in 1945 - 1945 Yalta and
Potsdam conferences
 Goldstone report: UN fact finding mission on Gaza Conflict
 Bay of Pigs incidence: Cuban Missile Crisis
 Black widow women terrorist- Chechneya
 Chronology of famous environmental treaties/UN conventions
 Dates of famous arms reduction treaties- INF, SALT, START,
NPT, PTBT, CTBT, etc.
 Types of diplomacy- track 1, tract 2, shopkeeper, shuttle, gun-
boat
 Facts on south-south cooperation; 19 Dec- UN day for south-
south cooperation
 Operation Infinte reach and enduring freedom of USA
 P5+1: 5 permanent members of UN plus Germany

303
 Nuclear weapon as currency of power in IR
 Panchsheel Doctrine- 5 principles
 UN conventions on rights of disabled persons- 2006
 Balance of terror: It describes the tenuous peace that existed
between the two countries as a result of both governments
being terrified at the prospect of a world-destroying nuclear
war
 Famous doctrines of USSR leaders:
 ‘Peaceful Co-existance’- Nikita Khrushchev
 Socialism in one country- Stalin
 Doctrine of limited Sovereignty - Leonid Brezhnev
 Permanent Revolution- Leon Trotsky
 Breaking of the Berlin wall in 1989 signalled end of the cold
war
 US president Ronald Reagan called USSR the evil empire
 Operation Enduring Freedom: official name used by the U.S.
government, under president George Bush Jr, for the Global
War on Terrorism.
 The responsibility to protect (commonly referred to as ‘RtoP’)
rests upon three pillars:
• the responsibility of each State to protect its populations
(pillar I);
• the responsibility of the international community to
assist States in protecting their populations (pillar II);
• and the responsibility of the international community to
protect when a State is manifestly failing to protect its
populations (pillar III).
 Atoms for Peace- Speech- Atoms for Peace" was the title of a
speech delivered by U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower to
the UN General Assembly in New York City on December 8,
1953
 Martin Shaw: Degenerate war
use of armed force against a civilian population as the
extension of military struggle
 Mary Kaldor- New war- intra-state and cultural wars in the
post cold war era
 Raymond Aron: Hyperbolic war

304
 Chronology of UN Women Conferences- Mexico City,
Copenhagen, Nairobi, Beijing
 Credible minimum deterrence- Nuclear Weapon
 Jus ad bellum ( just cause of war):
• Legitimate Authority
• Just Cause
• Just-intentions
• Just Peace
 3 just Reasons for war: self-defense, the recovery of property,
and punishment- Hugo Grotius
 Jus in Bello- Just conduct of war
 Main Security Theories:
• Security Complex concept of Barry Buzan
• Security Regime concept of Robert Jervis
• Security Community concept of Karl Deutsch
• Security Dilemma was used by John Hertz
 Facts about International Criminal Court ( ICC) – Headquarter
at peace palace Hague, same building in which International
court of justice loacted; ICC was established under the Rome
statute, of which India is Nota party
 Facts about IMF, World bank, and WTO – set up year,
objectives, role, organisation, CEO, etc
 ILO was created in 1919, as part of the Treaty of Versailles; In
1946, the ILO became a specialized agency of the newly
formed United Nations.
 India is a founder member of the International Labour
Organization (ILO)
 India was elected to the United Nations’ top human rights
body 3rd time January 1, 2019, for 3 years period
 India had previously been elected to the Geneva-based Human
Rights Council for the 2011-2014 and 2014-2017 terms
 The Palm and Five Fingers of is a Chinese foreign policy
attributed to Mao Zedong that considers Tibet to be China's
right hand palm, with five fingers on its periphery: Ladakh,
Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and Arunachal Pradesh, and that it is
China's responsibility to "liberate" these regions
 The World Bank Group comprises five constituent institutions:
the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development

305
 (IBRD), the International Development Association (IDA), the
International Finance Corporation (IFC), the Multilateral
Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), and the International
Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID)
 Coloured Revolution- Countries
 William Fox coined the word "superpower" in his 1944 book
The Super-Powers: The United States, Britain, and the Soviet
Union
 Nuremberg and Tokyo trials- after WWII
 No violent protest during the Arab Spring in Saudi Arabia
 8 MDGs and 17 SDGs- items
 Chronology of nations becoming nuclear power:
 USA-August 1945.
 the Soviet Union- 1949
 The United Kingdom -1952,
 France -1960
 China – 1964
 India- 1974
 Pakistan-1998
 Montevideo Convention (1933), which provided that a state
must possess
1. a permanent population,
2. a defined territory,
3. a government,
4. and the capacity to conduct international relations.
 Persons associated with coining of term “ Cold War”- George
Orwell, Bernard Baruch, Winston Churchill, and Walter
Lippman
 Kenichi Ohmae is credited with the popular usage of the term
globalization in his book Borderless World( 1990)
 Global village ; Marshall McLuhan coined the phrase "global
village" in his book The Gutenberg Galaxy.
 Time – Space Convergence: Donald Janelle
 Time – Space Compression: . David Harvey
Famous Quotes  ‘War is Foreign Policy by other means’- Carl von Clausewitz
 ‘Imperialism is the highest stage of Capitalism’- Lenin

306
  “In crucial situations, however the ultimate concern of states
is not for power but for security”- Kenneth Waltz ( defensive
neo-realist)
 “the power of man over the minds and actions of other men”-
Hans Morgenthau
 Arms race in itself is experience of terror- Hadley Bull
 The United Nations is ‘sharing in the name of solidarity’- Dag
Hammarskjold
 ‘Realism is likely to remain the single most useful instrument
in our intellectual toolbox’- Stephen Walt
 “Power in International Politics is like the weather. Everyone
talks about it, but few understand it”- Joseph Nye
 When Diplomacy ends war begins- Adolf Hitler
 Justice, law and society are no place or circumscribed in
international politics: Thucydides
 Mussolini: “War is to man what maternity is to a woman.
From a philosophical and doctrinal viewpoint, I do not believe
in perpetual peace.”
 Adolf Hitler: “When diplomacy ends, War begins.”
 Zhou Enlai quote: ‘All diplomacy is a continuation of war by
other means.’
 Morgenthau: ‘diplomacy as an instrument of securing national
interest’
Environment/Climate  Chronology of Earth Summits: Rio-de-Jeneiro, Kyoto , Bali
chnage Summit, Copenhagen Summit
 Kyoto Protocol of 1997 adopted the programme for legally
binding targets for reduction of Green House gases; India and
China were kept out this
 Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective
Capabilities (CBDR–RC) is a principle within the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) that acknowledges the different capabilities and
differing responsibilities of individual countries in addressing
climate change
 The Global Environment Facility(GEF) is an environmental-
focused financial organization that funds grants for projects
related to biodiversity, climate change, clean energy, etc; it is
an initiative of the World bank group

307
  The Kyoto Protocol was adopted on 11 December 1997.
Owing to a complex ratification process, it entered into force
on 16 February 2005.
 5 Global Commons
• High Sea, Deep Ocean, Global Atmosphere, Outer
Space, Antarctica

Current Events  Nagorno Karabakh is a disputed territory between Armenia

and Azerbaizan
 2013-14: Recently there were tensions between Cambodia and
Thailand. What is the issue in conflict- Prachvihar
 2014: Jaitapur nuclear power plant with cooperation of France
 2015: Military of Saudi Arabia intervened in Yemen
Mixed/Misc.  Hans Blix was head of U.N. body for Inspecting places in Iraq
for verification of Weapons of Mass Destruction.
 Raison d'état: : reason of state : justification for a nation's
foreign policy on the basis that the nation's own interests are
primary.
 “Quasi-State”: A State that possess juridical statehood but
severely deficient in empirical statehood.
 Tamils: Minority in malysia
 Rohingyas: Minority in Myanmar
 Uighur Muslims: Minority in China
 Positive and negative peace- Johan Galtung
 Shangri-La Dialogue is Asia's premier defence summit. It’s a
unique meeting where ministers debate the region’s most
pressing security challenges, engage in important bilateral
talks and come up with fresh approaches together.
 Johann Gottfried: Father of Cultural nationalism

308
FACT SHEET PYQA CONST : THEMES/TOPICS ASKED ON INDIAN
CONSTITUTION IN PAST YEAR’S UGC NET

Themes/topics from  Article 21- judicial activism

Indian Constitution in  Sequence of 6 freedom under article 19: speech and expression,
Past Papers of UGC assemble peaceably, form associations, move freely, reside and
NET settle any part of India, practise any profession
 Article 123: Ordinance by President
 President’s power: Disqualify MP on the recommendation of EC-
art. 102, 103
 Articles related to PRI- 243 A to 243 O
 Removal of EC- on the recommendation of CEC; CEC- like
Judges
 Words in Preamble
 Landmark cases related to status of preamble: Berubari
(preamble Not part of Constitution) and Keshavananda
(preamble is part of Constitution)
 5 Writs- matching, conditions for issuing Writ of certiorari
 Veto powers of Indian President, Pocket Veto
 Article 231. Establishment of a common High Court for two or
more States.
 Article 233. Appointment of district judges.
 Members of Cabinet Mission
 Original Jurisdiction of SC- art 32 and centre-state and federal
disputes;
 Governors, The Comptroller and Auditor General of India, the
Judges of the Supreme Court and the Attorney General of India
and the Central Vigilance Commissioner of India are appointed
by the President by a warrant under his hand and seal,
 Government of India Act 1919- features
 5 subjects transferred from state to Concurrent list by 42nd
Amendment-1976
o Education
o Forests,
o Weights & Measures,
o Protection of Wild Animals and Birds, A

309
 o administration of Justice
 Article 1: India as union of State
 Article 144. Civil and judicial authorities to act in aid of the
Supreme Court
 Regarding FR and DPSP- multiple times, facts/features, relation,
articles
 Article 368: Amendment power of Constitution – facts
 Article 70: empower the Parliament to make provisions for a
contingency when the offices of both the President and the Vice-
President fall vacant
 Granville Austin Books : The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone
of A Nation (1966) and Working in a Democratic Constitution:
A History of the Indian Experience
 Election Commission of India(ECI)- Bulwark of free and fair
election- Rudolph & Rudolph
 Grounds of imposing president’s rule in states under article 356
 Chronology and features of pre-independence constitutional
reforms
 Constitutional vs statutory vs other bodies/commissions
 Basic structure doctrine- Keshavananda Bharti case
 Article 312: All India Services- power of Rajya Sabha
 All India serives mentioned in Constitution- IAS, IPS, Indian
Judicial Service(IJS)
 91st amendments- limits the number of Ministers – 15% of total
no. of legislature
 61st amendments- lowering of voting age
 Public Accounts Committee (PAC)- 22 members (15- LS, RS-
07)
 Estimate Committee- largest committee- 30 members only from
LS
 Inter-state council- article 263- who appoints- President; set up
in 1990; PM is the chairperson
 Main functions/role of Inter-state council- center-state relation
 Zonal Councils, set up as per state reorganisation Act, Union
Home Minister is the chairperson
 Oligarchy in the constituent Assembly- Nehru, Patel, Prasad,
Azad ( Granvile Austin)

310
 ‘India’s Constitution was born more in fear and trepidation than
in hope and inspiration’- Paul Brass
 Article 31 B- protect Acts in 9th Schedule from Judicial review
 86th amendments-2002- RTE- 11th duty ( duty of parents towards
education of children)
 State Election Commission- conducting elections of Panchayats
 3 times National Emergency ( Art.. 352)- 1962, 1971, 1975
 Most important characteristic of a Parliamentary Government-
Collective responsibility of the Executive to the Legislature
 The Constituent Assembly was setup under the Cabinet Mission
Plan-1946
 1989- Lok Sabha rules amended to provide for Department
Related Parliamentary Standing Committees
 Government of India Act, 1935 created the Federal Court in India
 Indian federalism as “bargaining federalism”- Morris Jones
 About Rajya Sabha- condition and tenure of members, powers,
roles
 ‘We are under the Constitution but the Constitution is what the
judges say it is’- India and USA
 Art. 51A (Fundamental Duties) and Art. 300A (right to property)
were added later on
 Any fifty Members of the Electoral College may propose name
of a candidate for the Office of President of India
 Who among the following former Presidents of India kept the
‘Indian Post Office Amendment Bill’?- Gyani Zail Singh, who
used his Pocket Veto
 Art. 356 as a “safety valve” and a dead letter- Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
 Correct sequence regarding the passage of the Budget- General
Discussion, Voting on Grants, Appropriation Bill, Finance Bill
 Regarding Money Bill (article 110)- originate only in LS,
Speaker certifies
 Art. 170 and 171: Numbers of MLA and MLC
 Article 335- Reservation for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes in the services
 Art. 280- Finance Commission; Art. 359: suspension of FR
during Emergency
 Inspirations/provisions of Indian constitution from different
nation’s constitution- DPSP- Irish, Emergency- Germany, FR-

311
 USA, Liberty/equality- French, residuary powers with union-
Canada, etc.
 Nos. of members of different parliamentary committee
 The Fundamental Rights guaranteed by Articles 14, 20, 21, 21A,
22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 and 28 are available to all persons whether
citizens or foreigners.
 FR only to Indian- Art. 15, 16, 19, 29, 30
 First Law officer- Attorn General- art. 76
 Article 317: Removal and suspension of a member of a Public
Service Commission.
 Maximum period of Emergency under Art 356- 3 years; under
352/360- unlimited
 About amendment procedure under art 368- no joint sitting
 Conditions of Parliament legislating for states
 Numbers of members in the constituent Assembly of India
 Fundamental Duties- part IV, art. 51 A
 Ordinance and Pardon powers of President/governor- facts
 Nehru Report- 1928; chairperson- Motilal Nehru
 Tension areas in centre-state relation: Art. 356, Role of Governor,
Fiscal federalism
 Article 257:.. The executive power of the Union shall also extend
to the giving of directions to a State
 Art. 365: state emergency if state does not follow center’s
directions as per art. 257
 PRI under 73rd amendments extended to 5th schedule areas by
PESA -1996 ; but it is not applicable to 6th schedule areas
 36th amendment- Sikkim state; 97th- cooperative society; 99th-
NJAC
 LS seats: 543- 79- SC, 41- ST; 423- unreserved;
 6th Schedule states: Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram.
 Art. 105- Parliamentary privileges
 Extension of FR under Right to life- Art. 21: right to pollution
free air, road, reputation, shelter, privacy, education, etc.
 Art. 19(2): Reasonable restriction on Right to Freedom: subject
to sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State,
friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency or

312
 morality or in relation to contempt of court, defamation or
incitement to an offence
 SAARC Bommai case-1994- Misuse of Art. 356 and Centre-state
relation
 Shankari Prasad Case- SC declared that amending powers of
Parliament under Art. 368- UNLIMITED
 Golaknath Case: Parliament cannot amend FR
 Keshavananda Bharti- Parliament can amend any provision but
cannot change basic structure of the Constitution
 Bi-cameral Legislature: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Telangana,
Maharashtra, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh.
 Art. 359: Rights under Art. 20, 21 cannot be suspended during
Emergency
 Sikh got separate electorate – GOI 1919
 Depressed classes (scheduled castes), women and labour
(workers) got separate electorate – GOI 1935
 Article 86. Right of President to address and send messages to
Houses

313
 FACT SHEET PYQA IND. POL.: THEMES/TOPICS ASKED ON
INDIAN POLITY IN PAST YEAR’S UGC NET
Major Themes Themes/topics asked
President, PM, CJI,  Chronoloy of president and vice-presidents
Governor, and other  Matching President- vice-president
Constitutional authority
 PMs of different party/coalition matching
 CMs of NE states; and other major states
 President has the power to declare a caste/tribe SC
 AG: 1st law officer
 Article 317: Removal and suspension of a member of a
Public Service Commission.
 Tenure of CVC- 4 years
 Speakers of Lok Sabha- chronology
Judiciary  Hiralal Jekisundas Kania was the first Chief Justice of
India.
 Branches of HC in other city- Allahabad, Jabalpur,

Parliament/Legislature  Parliamentary committee- nos. of members

 Article 105- Parliamentary Privilages- facts
 1989- Rules regarding department related
parliamentary standing committee
 Bi-cameral Legislature: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Telangana, Maharashtra, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh.

Books and authors  India Wins Freedom (1988)- Abul Kalam Azad
 My Experiments with Truth (1927)- Gandhi
 The Idea of Justice (2009): Amartya Sen
 The Indian struggle (1942): Subhas Chandra Bose
 ‘Political Economy of Development in India’- Pranab
Bardhan
 Idea of India- Sunil Khilnani
 ‘The politics of scarcity: Public pressure and Response
in India (1962)’- Myron Weiner

314
  ‘Democracy and Discontent: India's Growing Crisis of
Governability(1990)’- Atul Kohli
 Indian State as ‘incremental democratic modernization’
(1993)- Jagdish Bhagwati
 Dalit Visions: The Anti-caste Movement and the
Construction of an Indian Identity(1995)- Gail Omvedt
 “India after Gandhi : The History of the World’s
Largest Democracy” - Ramchandran Guha
 State Politics in India(1968)- Myron Weiner
 Factional Politics in an Indian State: The Congress
Party in Uttar Pradesh(1965)- Paul Brass
 State against democracy : in search of humane
governance - Rajni Kothari.
 Explaining Indian Democracy’ and ‘In Pursuit of
Lakshmi’ - by Rudolph & Rudolph
 Books by Francine Frankel:
• India's Political Economy
• Transforming India: Social and Political
Dynamics of Democracy
• India's Green Revolution: Economic Gains and
Political Costs
 Politics of india since independence: Paul Brass
 Child and stae in India: Mayron Weiner
 Hindu nationalist Movement and Indian Politics-
Christophe Jaffrelot
 Poverty Amid Plenty in the New India- Atul Kohli
 The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of A
Nation(1966)- Granville Austin
 Working in a Democratic Constitution: A History of the
Indian Experience (1999)- Granville Austin

Political Parties  ECI criteria for national and state parties

 Formation years, leaders, and states( in case of regional
parties) of parties
 Nature of political parties- national, regional, caste
based, umbrella, linguistic

315
  Trade unions and student’s union affiliated to political
parties
 Syndicate in Congress- 1960s- [Link],
Nijalingappa, Morarji Desai, Atulya Ghosh

State reorganisation  Chronology of new state creation

 Demand for new states
 Gujarat: Saurashtra
 Rajashthan: marupradesh
 Maharashtra: Vidarbha
 West Bengal: Gorkhaland
 Uttar Pardesh; Harit Pradesh
Federalism  Indian Federalism – ‘holding together federalism’-
Pranab Bardhan
 Mayron Weiner termed it ‘quasi-federal’
 Inter state council- article 263; set up in 1990- main role
to promote cooperative federalism by improving
centre-state relation
 Committee/agency/events on Centre-state relation:
• Rajamannar Committee – 1969
• Anandpur Sahib Resolution – 1973
• West Bengal Memorandum – 1977
• Sarkaria Commission- 1983
• Punchhi Commission – 2007

Panchayati raj  Main theme/recommendations of various committee on

PRI- Ashok Mehta, LM Singhvi, Balwant Rai Mehta,
etc.
 Dantwala Committee (1978) recommended Block
Level Planning
 The Hanumantha Rao Committee Report on District
Planning (1984
 Chronology of committee on Panchayati Raj
Institutions-i Balwant Rai Mehta Committee; ii. L.M.
Singhvi Committee; iii. G.V.K. Rao Committee; iv.
Ashok Mehta Committee

316
  73rd amendments: applicable to 5th schedule areas (
vide PESA Act-1996) but Not to 6th schedule states
 74th amendments: not applicable to 5th and 6th
schedule areas
 Tenure of Panchayat: five years from the date
appointed for its first meeting
 Article 243 ZD: District Planning Committee to
consolidate the plans prepared by the Panchayats and
Municipalities
 [Link] Committee: in 1989 to consider the type
of political and administrative structure needed in the
District Planning.

Commission/committee  Ram Nandan Committee- to Identify the creamy layer

 among Backward Classes in India
 Santhanam Committee on Prevention of Corruption-
1962
 Central Vigilance Commission was set up in 1964 on
the recommendations of Santhanam Committee
 Mahajan Commision- boundary dispute between
Maharashtra and Karnataka
 Dilip Singh Bhuriya Committee- Panchayati raj
Extension to Scheduled areas
 Electoral reform committee- Tarkunde committee,
Dinesh Goswami Committee, Indrajeet Gupta
Committee
 Sarkaria Commission ,1983 , M.M. Punchi
Commission, 2007, and Rajmannar Commission-1969-
centre-state relation
Landmark cases-  Shankari prasad, Sajjan Singh, Golaknath,
Constitutional development; Keshavananda, Minerva, SR Bommai, maneka Gandhi
Acts cases
 Selvy case- 2010: right to purchase property in J&K
 Visakha vs state of Rajashthan: Sexual harrasment at
work place
 Consumer Protection Act- 2019: facts
 Chronology of RTE, Food Security Act, Prevention of
corruption Act

317
  Epuru Sudhakar & Anr. v. Government of Andhra
Pradesh (2006) the Supreme Court held that the pardon
power of the President and Governor under Article 72
and Article 161 is subject to judicial review
 ADM Jabalpur case ( 1975): Art. 21 can be suspended
by the declaration of Emergency- Justice H.R. Khanna
dissented
 MC Mehta Case (1986): Absolute Liability of
factories/firms polluting environment
 SAARC Bommai case-1994: To limit abuse of Article
356; centre-state relation

Elections  Statewise Nos. of seats in LS reserved for SC/ST

 Sukumar Sen was the first Chief Election
Commissioner of India
 Article 324- role/functions of Election Commission
 Article 329: On interference of court in election matters
 Facts about NOTA
 Performance of BJP. Congress in recent Lok Sabha
Polls
 Election commission became a 3 member body briefly
in 1989 CEC – RVS Peri sashtri), but was reverted
back to single CEC soon; later on, continously from
1993( CEC- T. N. Seshan)

Govt schemes  PM Gram Sadak Yojna

 Indira Awas Yojna
 Deen Dayal Upadhaya Gram Jyoyi Yojna
 Atal Pension Yojna
Quotes on nature of Indian  Lloyd and Susanne Rudolph
Polity  India as ‘Polymorphous’ state
 demand vs command polity
 India as ‘weak-strong state’
 Bullock cart capitalism
 Indian Politics as “Politics of Scarcity”- Myron Weiner
Morris Jones

318
  Indian federalism as “bargaining federalism”-
 Emergence of “a market polity” in India
 Indian polity ‘ regulated movement’
 Single party dominance
 Indian State as ‘incremental democratic
modernization’- Rajni Kothari
 India a ‘Democratic Developmental State’-James
Manor
 India as an example of “Polycentric Nationalism-
Anthony D. Smith
 Nationalism as ‘Derivative Discourse’
 Indian Society as ápolitical society’- Rajni Kothari
 Politicisation of caste: Rajni Kothari
 Indian Paradox; politics of sacrcity: Myron Weiner
 Post-Congress Polity- Suhas Pulsikar
 Third Democratic Upsurge- Yogendra yadav
 Crisis of Governability: Atul Kohli
 India a Flailing state: Lant Pritchett
 Indian Capitalism as ‘Dharmashala Capitalism’- ;
Hindu rate of growth- Raj Krishna

Misc./Mixed  First all Indian women’s organization which came into

force in 1926 ? National Council for Women in India
 Bi-cameral Legislature : Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Telangana, Maharashtra, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh.
 Indian thinker of Sunaltern Studies
 Dipesh Chakrabarty. Partha Chatterjee. Ranajit Guha,
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak.
 Features of PIL- no locus standi, relaxed procedure for
filing petition, public spiritedness
 Myron Weiner: first to study state politics in India
 Myanmar Sriniwas- Sankritisation, Dominant caste
 Correct sequence of 5 writs in the Constitution- habeas
corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto and
certiorari

319
 The Anandpur Sahib Resolution, 1973- centre-state
relation
 Sikh, Anglo Indian, Christian, etc. got separate
electorate under ? GOI Act 1919
 Chronology of famous social movements
 Constitutional vs statutory vs extra-Constitutional and
non-statutory bodies
 Leaders of famous social/environmental movements
 Locations/regions of famous social movements
 Rettaimalai Srinivasan, M.C. Rajah and Ayothee
Thass: Leaders of ‘Adi Dravida’ Movement
 Ethnic vs nativist movements; Myron Weiner
 Identify civil society organisation
 About Plan Holiday: 1966-69- 3 annual plans
 91st amendments; maximum nos of ministers- 15% of
Lok Sabha Strength
 Madras: 1st state where Government was formed by
engineering split and defection
 Famous peasnat movements
o Champaran Satyagraha – 1917
o Bardoli Satyagraha – 1928
o Tebhaga Andolan – 1946–47
o Singur Andolan – 2006-2008
 Continous Mandamus- Environmental issues
 Adi Ambedkar Samaj Movement- Punjab
 The Janata Government terminated the fifth five year
plan in 1977–78 and launched its own sixth five year
plan for period 1978–83 and called it a Rolling Plan.

320
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POLITICAL SCIENCE

NTA NET JRF

BOOSTER DOSE
(An advanced level course)

Dr. Banti Kumar

Govt. Degree (PG) College Bhaderwah (J&K)
(UNIVERSITY OF JAMMU)

Anoupa Devi
IGNOU Regional Centre Jammu

NOTION PRESS MEDIA PVT. LTD.

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NOTION PRESS MEDIA PVT. LTD ISBN – 979-8885469338

No. 50, Chettiyar Agaram Main
Road Vanagram Chennai 600095 Tamil Nadu

First Edition, 2021

Copyright © Author reserves the copy right of this work.

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reproduced for publication.
This edition can be sold in India only by the Notion Press Media Pvt. Ltd.
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Dedicated to the sweet

memories of my
younger sister Lt. Miss
Ujla Devi
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Thank you for choosing this book a product of Notion

press. If you have any comment, observation or
feedback, I would feel proud to personally hear from you
Please write me at Bantigaddis@[Link]

Dr. Banti Kumar

(Govt. degree college Bhaderwah)
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P R E F A C E
This work is designed as a single book for helping students in their preparation for NTA NET JRF
exam. This book is prepared after a long of hard work by sipping so many books. Old papers of
various exams were also taken into consideration for covering every topic. The students are
suggested to focus on old papers after completing this course. As in 2021 we have this book in
English medium only and if everything goes on right we will produce a Hindi edition of this book in
mid 2022. In addition to NTA NET Exam this book is also helpful for state level exams such as SLET,
PGT etc.
Firstly we would like to thanks Chound Mata, the tribal goddess of Gaddi Tribe for blessing us with
this great work. We are thankful to our Ph.D. Research guide Prof. B. L. Sah, Director UGC-HRDC
Kumaun University Nainital Uttrakhand for helping us in our research work. We are also thankful to
our parents and other family members for their moral as well as financial support. We are also
thankful to our teachers Master Kans Kumar and Sh. Sish paul Singh (Accounts Officer) for guiding
us. We are also thankful to all our colleagues from Department of Political Science, DSB Campus
Kumaun University Naintial and Govt. Degree College Dudu-Basntgarh for making available some
good books in library. We are also grateful to Prof. Neeta Bora HOD Department of Political Science
KU Nainital and Prof. Kalpana Agrari, Prof. M. Kumar and Dr. Hardesh Sharma, Faculty Department of
Political Science Kumaun University Nainital (UK), Prof. Bhavnaish Chand Principal Govt. Degree
College Dudu Basantgarh, Prof. Anil Khajuria, Principal Govt. Degree College Paddar, Dr. Kuldeep
Sharma, Principal Govt. Degree College Bhaderwah and Mr. Kuljesh Kumar, Junior Assistant
(General Administration Department) for their continuous support in this work. We are very thankful
to hub of our friends including Dr. Anchal Singh and Dr. Pawan Kumar. Last but not least we are also
thankful to our parents and other family member especially our son Advik Singh whose smile is the
greatest blessing in our life.

Page | 1
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C O N T E N T S
1. Political Theory 1 - 39
Concepts
Liberty 8
Equality 10
Justice 10
Rights 12
Democracy 14
Power 19
Citizenship 21
Political Traditions
Ideology 25
Liberalism 26
Socialism 31
Marxism 31
Feminism 37
Ecologism 38
Communitarianism 38
Postmodernism 38
Multiculturalism 39
2. Western Political Thought 40 - 61
Confucius 40
Plato 40
Aristotle 44
Machiavelli 46
Hobbes 48
Locke 49
Rousseau 51
Bentham 53
J S Mill 54
Hegel 55
Karl Marx 56
Anarchism 60
3. Indian Political Thought 62 - 97
Introduction 62
Dharamshastra 62
Mahabharta Link between Dharamshashtra and Arthashastra 64
Kautilya 66
Aggannsutta 68
Ziauddin Barani 70
Kabir 72
Pandita Ramabai 73
Bal Gangadhar Tilak 75
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Swami Vivekananda 77
Rabindernath Tagore 79
M K Gandhi 80
Sri Aurbindo 82
Periyar E.V Ramaswami 83
Muhammad Iqbal 86
M N Roy 87
V D Savakar 89
Dr. B R Ambedkar 90
J L Nehru 91
Dr Ram Manhor Lohia 93
Jaya Prakash Narayan 93
Deen Dayal Upadhyaya 95
4. Comparative Politics 98 - 112
Political Economy 98
Political Culture 99
Political Participation 101
Political Parties 101
Political Development 103
Development and under-development 105
Political Modernization 105
Political Socialisation 106
Political Elite 107
Classical Approaches 109
Modern Approaches 110
Important Political Thinkers
Gabriel Almond 111
David Easton 112
Lucian Pye 112
Talcot Person 112
5. Political Institutions in India 113 - 136
Constitutional Development 113
Framing of Indian Constitution 113
Division of Indian Constitution 114
Fundamental Rights 116
Fundamental Duties 118
Directive Principles 118
Borrowed features of Indian Constitution 119
President of India 120
Vice President 121
Prime Minister 122
Supreme Court 122
Budget 124
Committees in Parliament 124
Constitutional Bodies 125
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Famous Commissions 125
Attorney General and Solicitor General of India 126
Parliament of India 126
Panchayati Raj Institutions 127
Federalism 129
Union States and Inter-state Relations 130
Mandal Commission 130
Important Thinkers in State Politics
Hans Kohn 131
Ernest Gellner 131
Rajni Kothari 131
Myron Weiner 132
Amartyasen 132
Sudipta Kaviraj 133
Partha Chatterjee 133
Zoya Hasan 133
Atul Kohli 134
Sugata Bose 134
Ghanshyan Shah 135
Ivor Jenning 135
Gunnar Myrdal 135
K C Wheare 135
Paul Brass 136
Paul Henson Appleby 136
Gravinlle Austine 136
6. International Relations 137 - 194
Important Thinkers
Alfred Zimmern 137
A G Frank 137
Bernard Brodie 137
Barry Buzan 138
Charles McClelland 138
Carl W Deutsch 139
David Mittarany 139
E Haas 139
E. H Carr 140
Farid Zakaria 140
Francis Fukuyama 140
Gunnar Myrdal 141
George F Kennan 141
Hedley Bull 141
Holsti 142
Henry Kissinger 142
Immanuel Wallenstein 142
J Mearsheimer 142
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Joseph Nye 142
John Gultung 143
Kenneth Waltz 143
Kenneth W. Thompson 144
Kenneth Boulding 144
K J Holsti 144
Hans J Morgenthau 144
Michael Doyle 145
Michael Laban Walzer 145
Morton A Kaplan 145
Martin Wight 145
Neibuhr 146
Noam Chomsky 146
Norman Angel 146
Norman Durban Palmer 146
Nornal J Padelford 147
Raymond Aron 147
Robert Kaplan 147
Robert Koehane 147
Richard C Synder 148
Stanley Hoffman 148
Thomas C Schelling 148
Woodrow Wilson 148
Quincy Right 149
Historical background of International Relation 149
Development of IR as an Academic Discipline 152
Scope of IR 152
Liberal Approach to IR 153
Realistic Approach to IR 154
Security Dilemma 155
Eclecticism 155
Dependency Theory 155
World System Theory 155
System Theory 155
Decision Making Theory 156
Communication Theory 156
National Interest 156
Foreign Policy 157
Important treaties 158
National Power 159
Balance of Power 160
Concept of Vacuum 161
Collective defence 162
Collective Security 162
United Nations 163
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Disarmament under League of Nations 166
Disarmament outside UN 167
Disarmament Treaties 168
Cold War 170
Détente 171
End of Cold War 172
Neo-colonization 172
New International Economic Order (NIEO) 173
Lenin Theory of Imperialism 173
Dependencia 173
Central-Periphery Analysis 173
Social Constructivism 174
Critical International Theory 175
Feminism 176
Post-Modernism 176
Conflict and Peace 177
Changing Nature of Warfare 178
Weapon of Mass Destruction 178
Globalization 179
Global Governance 179
Breton Woods System 180
International Monetary Fund 180
North South Dialogue 181
World Trade Organisation (WTO) 181
G 20 181
BRICS 182
International Law 182
International Criminal Court 182
Regionalism 183
Functionalism 183
Neo-Functionalism 183
Inter-governmentalism 183
Regional Organisations 184
European Union (EU) 184
African Union (AU) 185
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) 186
ASEAN 186
SAARC 187
QUAD 188
NAFTA 188
OPEC 188
Diplomacy 189
International terrorism 191
Climate Change and related conventions 191
Human Rights 193
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Millennium Development Goals (MDG) 194
Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 194
International Labour Organisation (ILO) 194
7. Public Administration 196 - 210
Important Works 196
Phases of Development of Public Administration 196
Scientific Theory of Organisation 197
Human Relation Theory 198
Bureaucratic Theory of Organisation 199
Definitions of Public Administration 199
Principles of Organisations 200
Line Agencies 201
Staff Agencies 201
Accountability and Control 202
Administrative reform Committees 202
Traditional Theory of Motivation 203
Modern Theory of Motivation 203
Qualities of leadership 203
Management 203
Important Works on Public Administration 204
Harbert A Simmon 204
Administrative System of USA 204
Right to Information Act 205
Financial Administration 205
Budget 206
Administrative reforms 206
Personal Administration 206
Civil Services in India 207
British Administrative System 207
British Civil Services 208
Administrative System of France 208
Administrative System of Japan 209
Communication 209
Decision making and types 209
Types of leadership 210
Minnow Brooke Conferences 210
Fathers in Public Administration 210

Page | 7
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POLITICAL THEORY

Concepts
Liberty, Equality, Justice, Rights, Democracy, Power, Citizenship
Political Traditions
Liberalism, Conservatism, Socialism, Marxism, Feminism, Ecologism, Multiculturalism &
Postmodernism

Liberty

The word Liberty is derived from the Greek word „Liber‟ which means freedom. At that time scholars were
demanding freedom from the restrains of State. So we can say that liberty means freedom from the restrains of
state. The concept of liberty gave birth to a long ideology known as Liberalism.
Political Liberty in the absence of economic liberty is a myth. G. D. H. Cole
Liberty is freedom of individual to express his personality without external
hindrances do
Liberty is the positive power of doing and enjoying those things which are
worth of doing and enjoying. Green
Liberty is the opposite of over government Seeley
Liberty consists in obedience to General Will Rousseau
Liberty is the maintenance of that atmosphere in which men have the
opportunity to be their best selves. Laski
Liberty is the freedom to own property David Kelley
Liberty is the freedom from constraints of the state Hayek
Freedom is the absence of coercion of a man from his fellow man Friedman Milton
Major works on Liberty:
On Liberty J. S. Mill
Two Concept of Liberty Isaiah Berlin
Three Essays on Liberty J. S. Mill
Four Essays on Liberty Isaiah Berlin
Liberty and Property David Kelley
Defense on English Revolution David Hume
Social Principles and the democratic State Benn and Peters
Democracy in America Alexis de Tocqueville
Spirit of Law Montesquieu
Capitalism and Freedom Milton Freedom
Escape from Freedom Erich Farman
The Struggle against Liberalism in the
Totalitarian View of State Herbert Marcuse
J. S. Mill was the first thinker to gave the two actions of liberty i.e. Liberty as freedom to act and liberty as
absence of coercion and also was the first to gave difference between them. Isaiah Berlin in his work „Two
Concept of Liberty‟ gave two concepts i.e. Negative Liberty and Positive Liberty. Positive liberty is described as
freedom to achieve certain ends whereas negative freedom is described as absence of external coercion.
Alexis de Tocqueville was the first to give two terms i.e. Mutual Liberty and Soft Tyranny in his work
„Democracy in America‟.
Washington Consensus is related to Liberalism.
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Liberty

Negative Liberty Positive Liberty

It was supported by thinkers from Liberalism It was supported by thinkers from Left Wing
J. S. Mill, Hobbes, Locke, Tocqueville, Jefferson, Rousseau, Hegel, Kant, Green, Bosanquet
Burke, Adam Smith, Thomas Paine, Isaiah Berlin, and Laski.
Friedman, Nozick and Hayek
Liberty started its journey as negative liberty, with the development of time concept of positive liberty came.
After the positive liberty there was more improvement in this concept and it gave concept Libertarianism.
During the dominance of positive liberty concept some thinkers stressed for renewal of negative liberty known
as Libertarianism.
Theory of welfare state is associated with positive liberalism. It appeared first in England and then spread to all
the parts of world.
Few of the Libertarian thinkers are Isaiah Berlin, Friedman, Hayek and Nozick.
Isaiah Berlin in his work „Two Concept of Liberty‟ gave difference between negative and positive liberty and
also claimed that positive liberty belongs only to sphere of negative liberty. Positive Liberty belongs to own will
of individual and capacity which is beyond the scope of the state.
Hayek in his work „Constitution of Liberty‟ used the terms liberty and freedom interchangeably.
Hayek also gave three meanings of freedom i.e.
 Political Freedom
 Inner freedom
 Freedom as Power
Freedman mentioned capitalism, freedom and competitive markets as necessary condition of freedom.
Nozick mentions in his work „Anarchy, State and Utopia 1974‟ mentions that in the state of nature it was
difficult for the men to save their property so they hired protective associations for their property holdings. The
function of the state is that of protective associations. He also mentions that there were also some rights in state
of nature.
Marx‟s concept of Freedom: Karl Marx has given his concept (Humanistic concept) in his work „Economic
and Philosophical Manuscripts‟. He criticized the capitalist system.
Herbert Marcuse gave the concept of „One dimensional man‟ in his work „One-dimensional Man: Studies in the
Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society‟. He gave the effect of capitalism on Human being. In his work „Eros
and Civilization‟ gave a blue print of a society where alienation will be removed and Freedom will be restored.
C. B. Macpherson also criticized the capitalist system and said that western democracy is characterized by two
main principles
 Maximization of Utilities
 Maximization of Power
Herbert Marcuse: He was a German-American Philosopher born in 1989. His important works are
S. No Book Year S. No Book Year
1. Reason and Revolution 1941 6. Negation 1968
2. Eros and Civilization 1955 7. An Essay on Liberalism 1969
3. Soviet Marxism 1958 8. Counter Revolution and 1972
4. One Dimensional Man 1964 Revolt
5. Repressive Tolerance 1965 9. The Aesthetic Dimension 1978
C. B. Macpherson: He was a Canadian political Philosopher born in 1911. His important works are
The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke
Democratic Theory: Essay in Retrieval 1973
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The Life and Times of Liberal Democracy 1977
The Real world of Democracy 1965
Democracy in Alberta: Social Credit and the Party System 1987
The rise and fall of economic justice and other essays 1985
Burke 1980

Equality
Historical Development
 British Revolution of 1648, 1688
 American Revolution of 1776
 French Revolution of 1789 (Men are born free and equal and they are free and equal in their rights).
 John Locke talked of a „State of Perfect Equality‟
 Jefferson „All men are created equal‟
 The declaration of Human Rights in 1948
Equal protection of law means two things i.e. equal law for equals and unequal laws for unequal
The idea of equal protection of law owes its origin to American Constitution. Indian Constitution has adopted it
with equality before law.
Axis de Tocqueville in his book „Democracy in America‟ identified the achievement and failures of democracy.
Legal Equality was mainly focused by Hobbes and Austin
Equality of opportunity is freedom, but equality of outcome is repression Feagler
Men are born equal but they are born different as well Fomm
No idea is more difficult in the whole realm of political science than the word equality Lasaki
I am a universalist, passionately devoted to the cause of equality within the human family Theodore
Lord Action and De Tocqueville hold that liberty and equality are antagonistic and cannot coexist.
Works
Principles of Politics J R Lucas
Social Principles and Democratic State S. I. Benn and R. S. Peters
Equality R. H. Towney

Justice
The concept of justice begins with the Greek thinkers. Plato first of all wrote about the Justice. He was so
influenced by the concept of Justice that he gave Concerning Justice as sub title to his work „The Republic‟
Plato: Justice as one person, one duty, one class & one work.
Plato: Justice was the virtue of soul & injustice its voice.
Sabine says that „Justice for Plato is a bond which holds a society together‟.
Aristotle: Justice consists in treating equals equally and unequal unequally
Aristotle: When perfected man is the best of animals, but when separated from law & justice, he is worst of all‟.
Aristotle „The good in the sphere of politics is justice & justice contains what tend to promote the common
interest‟.
Aristotle „General Justice is complete goodness‟.
Aristotle talked about „Distributive Justice‟
American war of Independence and French revolution also favoured justice.
Without Rights there cannot be liberty Laski

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Types of Justice

Justice

Social Legal Economic Administrative Distributive

Justice Justice Justice Justice Justice

Social Justice is based on the idea that in a society which gives individual and group fair treatment and a just
share of the benefits of society
Legal Justice is the justice based on law. In the eyes of law all should be equal and nobody should be above it
Economic Justice means that there should no economic disparity and exploitation in society.
Administrative Justice is a type of Justice as administered by the Courts.
Distributive Justice was first of all given by Aristotle. He makes a distinction between distributive and
corrective law. Distributive law means that every individual in of a society should be given an opportunity to
develop his inherent potentialities. Corrective Justice means, redress is made to a wrong done to an individual.
Theories of Justice
Modern Theory of Justice: The followers of this theory are Grotious, Bodin, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau,
Bentham, Mill, Marx and Rawls. This theory came after reformation, renaissance and industrial revolution.
Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau identified Justice with formation of State by Social Contract.
Hobbes recognized justice with the commanding will of the state whereas, Locke, Rousseau and Kant associated
justice with the synthesis of liberty, justice and positive law.
Hobbes and Rousseau mention Justice only after the establishment of state by social contract whereas Locke also
mentions that there were natural rights before the formation of state i.e. in state of nature.
Bentham and Mill also recognized Justice with the philosophy of greatest happiness of the greatest number.
John Rawls in his work „A Theory of Justice‟ justified the concept of equality in terms of social welfare
measures. Robert Nozick in his work „Anarchy, State and Utopia‟ also justified the minimization of state‟s role
in achieving justice.
Procedural Justice: This notion of Justice is closely related to the tradition of Liberalism. Its champion holds
that it is necessary to determine a just procedure for the allocation of social advantages i.e. goods and services,
opportunities, power and honour, benefits than its outcome which automatically be accepted as just.
This concept focuses on the distinction between procedural and substantive justice (also known as social justice
or distributive justice). They also support that the allocation resulting from a just procedure must be treated as
just.
Contractarian Theory of Justice; John Rawls in his work „A Theory of Justice‟ has pointed out that a good
society is characterized by a number of virtues, justice is the first virtue. Just is necessary but not the sufficient
condition. Justice is not an „ethics of reward but an ethics of redress‟. Rawls has drawn a theory of pure
procedural justice. He used the social contract theory to give his concept of Justice. Rawls asks to imagine
ourselves behind a veil of ignorance which denies us all knowledge of our personalities, social statuses, moral
characters, wealth, talents and life plans and then asks what theory of justice we would choose to govern our
society when the veil is lifted, if we want to do the best that we could for ourselves. He says under this condition
three principles will be accepted to all
a) Equal distribution of the primary goods can be justified
b) Principle of equal liberty can be materialized
c) Principal of fair equality of opportunity can be followed.
Justice is not an ethics of reward but an ethics of Redress John Rawls
C. B. Macpherson has pointed out that capitalist system destroys the creative freedom of human beings who
were constrained to employ their talents, skill and energies to cater to the need of market place instead of
punishing their self appointed goals.
Entitlement Theory of Justice: Libertarian thinkers advocated this theory. Robert Nozick in his work „Anarchy,
State and Utopia‟ justified market freedom and demanded a limitation on the role of state for social welfare
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policies. He defended the justice with the close association of free market. His theory of justice has three
principles i.e.
 The Principle of Transfer
 The Principle of just initial acquisition
 The Principle of rectification of injustice
He appealed to the Kantian idea that people should be treated as ends not merely as means. He criticized the
Rawls Theory of Justice.
Works of Robert Nozick
S. No. Book Year S. No. Book Year
1. Invariance: The Structure of Objective 2001 4. The Examined Life 1989
World
2. Socrates Puzzles 1997 5. Philosophical Explanations 1981
3. The Nature of Rationality 1994 6. Anarchy, State and Utopia 1974
Other important books
 Introduction to the study of law of the constitution A. V. Dicey
 The Road to Serfdom Friedrich Hayek
 Passions and Constraint: On the theory of Liberal Democracy Stephen Holmes
 The Theory of Democratic Revisited Giovanni Sartori
 Economy and Society Max Weber
John Locke talked about three Natural Rights in State of Nature i.e. Right to Life, Right to Property and Right to
security
Bentham Criticised Locke‟s natural rights as Non-Sense
Rule of Law: It means equality before law.
Rule by law: It means law an instrument of the government and the government is above the law.

Rights
Every State is known by Rights it maintains Lasaki
A right is a claim recognized by society and enforced by the state Bosanquet
Rights in fact are those conditions of social life without which no
man can seek in general to be at his best Laski
Rights are the external conditions necessary for the greatest possible
development of the capabilities of the personality Barker
Rights are one man‟s capability of influencing the acts of another by
means of the opinion and force of the society Holland
A right is a power of acting for his own ends secured to an individual
by the community on the supposition that it contributes to the good of
the community. Green
Great Expression of Human Right 1951 R. M. Maclver
Rights of Man 1971 Tom Paine
Grammar of Politics 1938 Laski
Liberty in Modern State do
The Dilemma of our Times do
Reflection on the Revolution of our times do
Democracy in Crisis do
The State in Theory and Practice do
Principles of Legislation 1789 Jeremy Bentham
Principles of Social and Political Theory 1951 Barker
The Cost of Rights: Why Liberty depends upon taxes Stephen Holmes and Cross R.
Development of Human Rights
Thomas Paine, J. S. Mill and Hegel promoted right on the theme of universality in 18th and 19yh century.

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Thomas Paine wrote „The Right of Man‟
Magna Carta, 1215: It was the first written record of some rights given by King John of England. According to
it King agreed renounce certain rights and respect certain legal procedures and to accept that the will of the king
could be bound by the law.
Bill of Rights 1689: These are also some rights given in England. According to it people possess certain civil
and political rights that cannot be taken away.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizens: It is one of the fundamental documents of French
Revolution. It defined a set of individual rights and collective rights of the people.
United States Bill of Rights (1789-1791): It contains first ten amendments of the United States Constitution.
These are also called the Fundamental Rights.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948: Declaration of Human Rights at the universal level. It is an
international document adopted by United Nations General Assembly that enshrines the rights and freedom of all
human being. It was adopted on 10 December 1948. 10 December is celebrated as a Human Right Day.
There are two types of Human Rights i.e. Negative Human Rights and Positive Human Rights
Negative Human Right indicates that individual shall not be restricted by the state whereas the positive rights
indicate that the state can take positive measures for the protection of rights of the weaker and vulnerable
sections.
Generations of Human Rights
Negative rights belong to first generation of human rights
Positive Rights belong to second generation of Human Rights
Theories of Rights
a) Theory of Natural Rights: It was popular in 17th and 18th century. This theory believes that the man has
some natural rights even before the formation of state. This period is described as state of nature. This
theory is based on Liberal theory of origin state by social contract. This theory was mainly given by
John Locke. He says that every before the formation of state by social contract there were natural rights
enjoyed by every people in state of nature. These rights were Right to Life, Property and Security. This
theory was criticised by many thinkers particularly by Tom Paine and Bentham. Tom Paine in his work
‟Rights of Man‟ enunciated the theory on teleological basis. He rejected the doctrine of social contract as
it was eternally binding and hence a cog on the wheel of progress. Green also sought to build his theory
of moral rights on the teleological basis. Bentham also rejected this theory. he treated it as unreal and ill-
founded. He said that the natural rights mentioned by John Locke are non-sense.
b) Theory of Legal Rights: This theory criticises the Theory of natural rights. It claims that rights are
created by the law in a state. In the state of nature there was no law so there cannot be any right. Rights
can only be possible in state and there is no concept of right outside the state. Its chief exponent was
Bentham. He said rights are created and maintained by state alone. There cannot be right outside the
state. The state formulates them, executes them and has power to restrict them. Man has no right against
the state.
c) Theory of Historical Rights: This theory states that rights are neither present in state of nature nor
created by law. They claim that rights are the product of historical growth of the society. Edmund Burke
is its chief exponent. He supported the Glorious Revolution for claiming customary rights of the English
men. This theory defended the revolutions in history and also predicts revolutions in future.
d) Theory of Social Welfare Rights: This Theory postulates that rights are in essence, conditions of social
welfare. The state should promote only those rights which led to welfare of the people in the society.
Bentham is one of its exponents with his principle of greatest happiness of the greatest number. Rosco
Pound and Chafee are its contemporary supporters.
Prospective of Rights
a) Social Democratic Prospective of Rights: It seeks to achieve the objectives of individual liberty and
social justice. It is best represented by Laski‟s Theory of Rights. He has investigated the moral
foundation of rights which postulated a synthesis of liberal and social values within a democratic
structure.
b) Moral Prospective of Rights: This prospective of Rights was best represented by T. H. Green in his
theory on moral foundations. He is seriously concerned with the satisfaction of material needs of the
masses. It postulates equal treatment of all citizens in the matter of securing rights.
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c) Marxist perspective of Rights: Marxist thinkers have analysed that the man particular the workers are
not having any right in capitalist system. The socialist system established by the proletariat after the
overthrowing the capitalist in a violent revolution and socialization of the major means of production
shall ensure the realisation of equal rights of all people.
d) Liberal Perspective of Rights: It was mostly expounded by Robert Nozick. He gives ore prominence to
the individual. It maintains its faith in natural right of the individual and treats the state as a private firm.
Individual hire the state for the protection of their property holdings. They criticise the state for taxation
of rich for the welfare of poor and also criticise the state for its welfare policies.
e) Communitarian Perspective of Rights: This perspective is well advocated by Alasdair Maclntyre. He
focused on individual commitment to the community which represents the common interest. This theory
refuses to recognize the independent interest/right of individual.
f) Feminist Perspective of Rights: This perspective was represented by various Feminist thinkers such as
Shulamith Firestone and Sheila Rowbotham. They stress on restoring the rights of women in male
dominating society. It also seeks to transform this prevalent system of right which is responsible for
subordination of women to men in all societies in all ages.
Tom Paine (1737 – 1809):
He was a British American philosopher. He wrote „Right of Man‟ as a reply to Edmund Burke‟s „Reflections on
the Revolution in France‟. Paine is famous for his book „The Age of Reason‟. In his work „Agrarian Justice‟ he
argued for a public old age pension, anticipating the welfare state and for paying a capital sum to the young to
help them establish a carrier.

Democracy
Democracy is a Greek word which is formed out of two words i.e. Demos and Krates. „Demos‟ means „people‟
and „Krates‟ means rule. So Democracy means rule of people. Democracy is Government of the people, by the
people and for the people. ---- Gettysburg address by A Lincoln
Development of Democracy
a) Ancient Greece: First time democracy appeared in city state of Ancient Greece between 6th and 4th BC.
Athens Democracy fell short because only male citizens were allowed to vote and hold political offices.
The system excluded women, slaves and old age people.
b) Ancient Rome: In 6th Century BC. Ancient Roman developed a system of govt. called republic. It was
not a democracy in the Greek sense, but contained certain democratic elements. Executive power was
placed in the hands of consuls i.e. officials, who were elected annually. They were having right to vote
in each other‟s decision.
c) Middle Age: Other parts of Europe saw rule of kings with absolute authority, yet regularly consulted
with councils of bishops and barous. The council grew in power and expanded to include not just
nobility and clergyman but commoners, known as knights and burghers.
d) Manga Carta (1215): Voiced some freedom
e) Petition of Rights (1628): Curtailed the absolute power of the king.
f) Glorious Revolution (1688): Cut short the unlimited powers of the rulers on one hand and made them
accountable for their actions on the other
g) Bill of Rights (1689):
h) American War of Independence 1776: It emphases on the rights of man
i) French Revolution 1789: Emphasis on Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.
j) Soviet Proletarian Revolution 1917 – Introduction of Welfare State.
k) Modern Age: Newer form of democracy emerged across Europe in 1970 and 1980 with the institution
of representative government were instituted in the nations of south, central, eastern Europe much of
Latin America, Taiwan, South Korea.
Theories of Democracy:
Classical Theory of Democracy: Liberalism in the West was brought by Glorious Revolution of 1688,
American War of Independence 1776 and French Revolution of 1789.
Advocates of classical theory of Democracy
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Locke (1632 - 1704) Two Treatise of Government
Montesquieu (1689 – 1775) The Spirit of the laws
Rosseau (1712 - 1778) The Social Contract
Adam Smith (1723 – 1790) The Wealth of Nation
Immanuel Kant (1724 – 1804) Critique of Pure Reason
Critique of Practical Reason
Critique of judgment
Thomas Jafferson (1743 – 1806) Thomas Jefferson: Wrirings
Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832) Fragment on Government
Principles of Moral and Legislation
James Madison (1751 – 1836) The Federalist Papers
Alexis de Tocqueville (1805 – 09) Democracy in America
J. S. Mill (1806 – 1973) On Liberty
Consideration on Representative Govt
Views on Individuals
Individuals are essentially good, moral, rational and social Locke
Individual know his interest well enough Bentham
Individual is a noble savage Rousseau
Individual is morally enough to see humanity in others Kant
Defence of Liberties (book) Voltaire
Models for enforcing classical form of democracy
Participation of people is the essence of classical democracy. It is secured through institutions like open
assemblies (known as Landsgemeinde in Switzerland) and devices like initiative and referendum.
Landsgemeinde is one of the oldest forms of direct democracy. The first assembly took place in 1294. It is still
practised in two cantons of Switzerland.
Initiative: It is a method by which laws may be proposed by petition and submitted either to the legislative body
for enactment or directly to the people for adoption by vote or possible both.
Initiative is available in a Swiss federal assembly on a question of the amendment, through it is used in cantons
for both legislative as well as amendment proposals. In USA, the initiative is in USA at level of State
Government in 24 States and in District of Columbia (DC)
Constitution Initiative: It refers to the amendment of the Fundamental Law of the Government until National or
State constitution, Municipal Charters through initiative device.
Statutory Initiative: Refers to the process by which voters adopted new states and local ordinances or amend
existing laws using the initiative device
Direct initiative: In this case the once initiative petition has qualified, the proposed measure must be submitted to
the electorate.
Indirect initiative: The measure referred first to legislative.
Referendum: It is a practise of referring measure passed upon by the legislative bodies for acceptance or
rejection. The measure may include the adoption of a new constitution, a constitution amendment, a law etc. It
may be mandatory when the law or the constitution authorities to hold referendum on specific matters and is
usually binding.
Recall: It allows for a specific vote of citizens to remove an elected officials from his her post before regular
term is up. It is an option in about 1/4th of the USA States mostly in West and number of local govt. The first
recall measure was adopted by Los Angeles in 1903.
Plebiscite: It is a vote of all eligible voters in a country or region to decide a specific question. It is used most
often to determine, which nation or form of government people wish to have. It is the most famous plebiscite, the
Saar territory votes in 1935 in favour of Union of Germany. After WW II, the Greek people voted in a plebiscite
for return of King George – II
Elite Theory of Democracy:
Normative Elitism: It suggests that elite rule is desirable political power should be vested in the hands of a wise
or enlightened minority. Classical elitism developed by Mosca, Pareto, Michaels.
Modern Elitism: It is more critical and discriminating about the cause of elite rule. Elite theories were originally
developed in the field of sociology to explain behaviour of men in a social setting.
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Pareto: He first of all used the term „elite‟ and „masses‟ in his work „The Mind and Society‟ in 1915-19 to
indicate superior-inferior groups in the society whereas idea of division of class in society was given by Gaeton
Mosca in his work „Ruling Class‟ 1896 and Robert Michael in his work „Political Parties‟ in 1911.
Pareto suggests that qualities needed to rule are those one of two psychological types
 Foxes
 Lions
Joseph Schumpter gave Elitist theory of Democracy. He also wrote work „Capitalism, Socialism and
Democracy.
Pluralist view of Democracy:
Pluralists idea trace back to Locke and Montesquieu.
First systematic development - - -- James Maidison in his work „The Federalist Papers‟
For stability and order, he proposed a system of divided govt. based on separation of power, bicameral and
federalism. The resulting system is known as „Madisonian democracy‟.
In „A Preface to democratic Theory‟ Robert Dahl developed a model of democratic process, which is described
as „Polyarchy‟
„The group basis of politics‟ usually known as „Pluralism‟ or „Group Theory‟ was given Bentham, Trueman, E
Latham
In Countries such as Belgium, Rumania, Argentina, Netherland, Australia, Thailand and Singapore there is
compulsory voting.
Liberal Democracy: It is also known as western type of democracy. Become popular in 18th and 19th century.
20th century made western countries democratic. In 1990s led Fukuyama pronounced the defeat of communism
and triumph of liberal democracy.
Works of Fukuyama:
S. No. Book Year S. No. Book Year
1. The End of History 1989 4. The Great Distortion 1999
2. The end of History and the Last Man 1992 5. The origin of Political 2011
Order
3. In Trust 1996 6.
Participatory Theory of Democracy
Participation and Democratic Theory Carol Patemann
The Problem of political obligations Carol Pateman
The Life and Time of Liberal Democracy C. B. Macpherson
State, Power and Socialism Poulantzas
The Concepts and theories of Modern Democracy Birch
Machinery of Representations Thomas Hare
Radical Democracy: It contemplates to expand the scope of democracy by recognising and possibly combining
the essential features of procedural and substantive democracy. This theory of democracy is best represented by
Macpherson‟s concept of democracy.
Post Mordenist Openness
Neo-Marxist Equality
Republican Democratic Active Citizenship, Partnership
Other advocates of Radical Theory of Democracy
S. Book Author S. Book Author
No. No.
1. Is democracy possible [Link] 4. International Relations and the R. B. J
democracy concept of the Walker
Political International Theory
2. Nation-State and the World J. Burnheim 5. Democracy is Tyranny of Alexis-de-
System Majority Tocqueville
3. Republican Public sphere H Patomaki 6. Democracy and Territoriality W. E.
and the Connollly
Government of Globalising
Political Economy
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Developmental Democracy: To protect individual rights and interest with development of human individual
and community. This system of development was given by J. J. Rousseau. „No citizen shall be rich enough to
buy another and none so, poor as to be forced to sell himself. J. J. Rousseau.
Marxist theory of Democracy: This Theory insists on the evolution of any political system with reference to its
class character.
Democracy and illusion: An examination of certain aspects of modern Democracy John Plamenatz
Liberty and Equality are antagonistic and cannot coexist. Lord Action and De Tocqueville
People‟s Democracy: It is associated with Marx thought Democracy was not rejected by Marx. He rejected
bourgeois democracy and accepted people‟s democracy. His concept of democracy was influenced by
Rousseau‟s concept of General Will.
According to his concept of people‟s democracy, on the violation of instructions of their electors they could be
removed from office. This system was sought to be implemented in the Soviet Union after 1917 revolution and
in China after Chinese Revolution 1949, however both failed primarily due to abolition of incentives for better
work.
People‟s democracy is left in following countries
 China - People‟s Republic of China
 Vietnam Socialist Republic of Vietnam
 North Korea People‟s Democratic Republic of Korea
 Cuba Republic of Cuba
Feminist Perspective of Democracy: The liberal distinction between the public and private is criticised by the
feminist they characterised relation between men and women as one of unequal power relations.
Feminist Slogan is „The Personal is Political‟
Electoral system and election
Schumpeter described election as a „Heart of Democracy‟
Suffrage: It is a Latin word derived from Suffr gium
Franchise derived from French word Franchise means „right to vote‟.
Universal Suffrage: Denotes a situation in which right to vote is given all without any restriction except for a
minimum age.
New Zealand: Was first Country to introduction universal suffrage in 1893.
S. No. Country Year S. No. Country Year
1. New Zealand 1893 4. U.K 1928
2. Finland 1906 5. France 1945
3. Germany 1919 6. India 1950
4. USA 1920 7. Switzerland 1971
5. Sweden 1920
Voting age for different countries
S. No. Country Age in S. No. Country Age in
years Year
1. Iran 15 5. South Korea 19
2. Brazil 16 6. Japan 20
3. Indonesia 17 7. Malaysia 21
4. India 18
Majoritarian System
a) Single Member Plurality System (SMP): Also known as first past the post system, binary voting
method, Relative Majority, Winner take call etc. In this system candidate securing highest votes is
declared as winner. This system is used in Canada, USA, New Zealand, UK and India.
b) Multimember Plurality System: In this system more than one member is selected from one electoral
constituency.
Proportional Representation system:
a) Party list system
b) Single transferable vote (STV, Quota Achieve)

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Minority Representation system
a) Concurrent Majority: The minority effected by the decision must have the power to vote the decision
b) Consociation Democracy: It i suitable in societies which are deeply divided by religious ideological,
linguistic or ethical difference.
Liberty and Equality:
S. No. Book Author S. No. Book Author
1. The Constitution of Liberty Hayek 5. Social Welfare Theory of Bentham
Rights
2. Theory of Legal Rights Austin 6. Liberty of Conscience Martin Luther
3. Historical Theory of Rights Burke 7. Strong Democracy Benjamin
Barber
4. Idealist Theory of Rights Hegel Theory of Natural Rights Hobbes, Locke,
Rousseau
Rousseau wanted civil liberty for the people in return for natural liberty which they surrender during social
contract. Civil Liberty consists of the rights and privileges which the state create and protects for its subjects.
Principles of Social and Political Theory Ernest Barker
Political freedom is protection against arbitrary and absolute power. Sartori
Equality (Work) R. H Towney
He stressed on economic liberty in additional to political and civil liberty for full development of individuals.
Legal liberty – Mainly focused by Hobbes and Austin
J S Mill was Pioneer of positive liberty. He gave concept of self regarding action and other regarding actions.
Two concept of liberty (Work) Isaiah Berlin
Democratic Theory: Essays in Retrieval Macpherson
The Road to Serfdom F. Hayek
(Political freedom is meaningless without economic freedom)
Liberty is most valuable of all human possession Godwin
Liberty is banner and guide Proudhan
Liberty is the absolute source and condition of all good Bakamin
Liberty is a society which „will leave to the individual man complete and perfect freedom Kropotkin
Liberty or freedom signifies, properly, the absence of opposition, by opposition it mean external impediments of
motion.
No idea is more difficult in the whole realm of political science than the world equality Laski
Political Freedom without economic equality is pretence,
a fraud, a lie and the workers want to lying Mikhail Bakumn
I am Universalist, passionately devoted to the cause of equality
within the human family Theodore Bikel
Equality of opportunity is freedom, but equality of outcome is repression. Feagler
Men are born equal, but they are different as well Fromm
Robert Dahl believes that only a democratic government is consistent with the logic of political equality that
refers to certain criteria which make a democratic process. He gives 5 criteria to make democracy fully
consistent
 Voting Equality
 Effective Participation
 Enlightened understanding
 Controlling the agenda
 Inclusive of all adults member in collective decisions.
Justice is the name to which every knee will bow L. T. Hobhouse
Equality is a word which many fear and detest L. T. Hobhouse
Law, Legislature and Liberty Hayek
The Elements of Social Justice L. T. Hobhouse
Lokpal Bill 2013
 It was first suggested by 1st Administrative Reform Commission. The word „Lokpal‟ was first coined by
L. M. Shingvi (Member of Parliament) in 1963.
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 It shall be applicable to whole India
 It includes not more than 8 members with 50% ST/SC/Women
 The age of candidates must not be less than 45 years
 Usually Judiciary members such as Chief Justice, Supreme Court Judges are elected
 Period of service is 5 years or 70 years age
 Appointment is made by President on the recommendation of high powered committee consisting of PM
(Chairman), Speaker of Lok Sabha (Member), Leader of Opposition of Lok Sabha (Member), Chief
Justice of India (Member), 7 member expert Committee having special knowledge on anticorruption.
History of Bill passing
1968 4th Lok Sabha ------ Dissolved
1971 5th Lok Sabha do
th
1977 6 Lok Sabha do
1985 Bill withdrawn by Govt.
1989 9th Lok Sabha Dissolved
1996 do
1998 do
2001 do
2011-12 Passed in 2013
President signed the bill on 1st January 2014 and date of commencement was 16th Jan 2014.
Countries with written constitution: India, USA, France, Australia, Brazil, Denmark Afghanistan, Japan.
Mostly federal countries have written constitution.
Countries with unwritten constitution: UK, Israel and New Zealand etc. Canada is having partially written
and partially unwritten constitution.
Federal Countries: India, USA, Canada, Russia, Switzerland, Australia, Brazil and Argentina etc.
Unitary Countries: Britain, China, France, Japan, Italy, Belgium, Norway, Spain and Sweden etc.

Power
Constitution as the Autobiography of a power relationship Finer
Power is never the property of an individual; it belongs to a group
and remains in existence only so long as the group keeps together Hannah Arendt.
Power flows from the barrel of Gun Mao
Power of Love and truth emanates from the heart of people M. Gandhi
Power is a kind of human relationship Friedrich
Power is the capacity of the individual or a group of individual to
modify the conduct of other in the manner which one desire Tawney
Power is the ability to get one‟s wishes carried out despite opposition Wiseman
History is a graveyard of aristocracies Pareto
Power is the ability, affect or control the decision policies, values
or fortune of other Guild and Palmer
Politics is nothing but struggle for power Hans J. Morgenthau
Power is a relationship in which one group of persons is able to
determine the actions of another in the direction of the former‟s own ends. David Easton
Hobbes identified it with „future apparent good‟ whereas Lasswell identified it with „influence‟.
Works on Power
 An Anatomy of Power 1983 John Kenneth Galbraith
 Power: A Radical View 1974 Steven Luke
 Powershift: Knowledge, Wealth and Violence
at the edge of the 21st century 1990 Alvin Toffler

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Types of Power by J. K. Galbraith Basis of power by

 Condign: It is based on Force French and Raven
 Compensatory: It is achieved through use of various
resources.  Coercive Power
 Conditioned: It is achieved by persuasion  Legitimate Power
 Personality: It is individual  Referent Power
 Property: Achieved through material resources  Expert Power
 Organization: With help of other in group  Reward Power

Theories of power:
a) Rational Choice Theory: According to this theory human individuals or group can be modelled as
„actors‟ who choose from a „choice set‟ of possible actions in order to try and achieve desired ends‟.
Game theory is based on Rational Choice theory. Keith Bolding is one on its exponent.
b) Marx Theory of power: Gramsci highlighter that cultural hegemony is the main reason beyond the
success of capitalism in western countries.
c) Modern Theory of Power; Its chief exponent is Michael Foucault. He defined power as „power is
everywhere because it comes from everywhere. His concept of power is based on his concept of
„technologies of power‟.
d) Elite Theory of Power: Theorist such as Pareto, Mosca, Michels, Gasset, Burnham, C. W. Mill and
Lasswell has sought to prove that “There may exist in a society a minority of population which takes
major decision in a society”. The word “Elite” was used in 17th Century in military & other high
organization. In 19th Century it was used in Europe & 1930 in Britain & America. Elite Theory was first
started in Central & Western Europe. Kroese defined elite as “They have a special mission to fulfil in a
society”. Elite Theory of Pareto (1848-1923): „History is a graveyard of aristocrats‟. He gave a theory
of elite known as “Theory of Circulation of Elite”. He holds movement of individual elite from higher
level to lower & vice-versa. He gives list of qualities called „Residues‟ which elite must possess for
stable. These 5 are given below
a) Combination b) Persistence of preservation c) Expressiveness d) Sociability e) Sex
Pareto lays use of 1st two and on its basis gives his “Doctrine of Innovation”, “Consolidation”
“Persistence of aggregate”. He also wrote “Mind and Society” “Society is governed by a minority
section called Elite”.
Society

Lower Stratum/Non Elite Higher Stratum/Elite

Governing elites Non Governing Elites

Elite Theory of Gateno Mosca (1858-1941): „The Ruling Class‟ is considered as his independent contribution
to theory of elite. He said in all societies, two classes of people appear – the class that rules and the class that
ruled. The first class always less numerous performs all political functions, monopolizes power and enjoys
advantage. The second class more numerous is controlled by first. He said in his „theory of two classes‟ that one
class need cooperation of other. Ruling class need support of ruled class and the latter need protection of the
former. He says a minority has advantage because it is minority. He says political force possess a quality called
„Inertia‟ in Physics.

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Society

Ruling Class (Elite) Ruled Class

Robert Mitchells (1876-1936): His well known work is „Political Parties‟ 1915 and gave his work „Iron law of
Oligarchy‟ on the basis of study of German Social Democratic Party. He said “Who says organization, say
oligarchy”. According to him for the success and survival of an organization, leadership becomes necessarily.
„Reason for elite is majority of the people are indolent, apathetic and political neutral‟. Mitchells calls the “Mass
Mind”. He also says that “The democratic currents of history resemble successive waves. They break the same
shoal”
Ortega Y. Gasset (1883-1955): Development theory of elite on the basis of his superficial relevance to the
„Dogma of the Masses‟. It is the people who create the elite by responding their faith & rendering support to
chosen elements.
Two American Social Theorists of recent times are Burham & C. Wright Mill, who made good contribution to
theory of elite. Burham offered an economic approach that looks more or less analogue to Marxian approach.
According to him the basis of any elite‟s power lies in the control over the principles means of production and
distribution & gave “Preferential Treatment”
Finally institutional approach of C. Wright Mill is „elite is the production of the institutional landscape of the
society‟. Hierarchy in these institutions constitutes the strategic command posts of the social structure. Mill used
his „Political elite” to explain nature of American political system.
Schumpter and Anthony Downs gave a „New Theory of Democracy‟.
Milovan Dijlas gave „New Class‟. He says that even a social system have an elite having special privilege and
economic preferences because of the administrative monopoly they held.
Burnham – The Political Process of Managerial Revolution
R. A. Dhal – Polyarchial Democracy
John Plamentz – Democracy and Illusion
„Will of the people is myth than will of the Minority also belong to same category.
Maurice Duverger in his work „Political Parties 1945‟ suggested that „Government by the people, for the people,
must be replaced by Government of the people by an elite spring from elite‟.
Works on Political Elite

Citizenship

Citizenship: It is the membership of a political community particularly State in the modern time. They also have
some rights as well as some duties as the citizens of their countries. The concept of citizenship derives its origin
from the Greek City States. Although their concept of citizenship was limited as only a section of the people
enjoyed the citizenship rights. The women, old age persons, children, barbarians were not allowed citizenship.
That is why the Plato fixed the citizen population of a State as 5040, Rousseau gave it as 10000 whereas and
Aristotle hold that the population should neither be too small nor too much it should be according their territorial
area. One thing was good in the case the city state citizenship that among those few having citizenship there was
not discrimination between rich and poor.
Definitions of Citizenship:
Citizenship means positive freedom, the positive capacity of the
individual to develop his personality in the social context Green
Citizenship and democracy are associated with the expansion of state
sovereignty Anthony Giddens
One who has the power to take part in the deliberative activities
are the citizens of the state Aristotle

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Citizenship is in the nature of „Political Bond‟ Barbalet
Citizenship as the contribution of one‟s „instructed Judgement‟ to the
public good Laski
Citizenship as a status attached to full membership of the community,
and those who possess this status, are equal with respect to the right
and duties associated with it. Marshall
Citizenship is analysed in terms of three major dimensions. They are
„Civil Citizenship, Political Citizenship and Social Citizenship‟. Bryan S. Tuner
The essence of citizenship lies in individual liberty, participation
and just apportionment property. Bentham
The modern democratic citizenship is called „Bourgeois Citizenship‟ Marx
Aristotle Perspective of Citizenship: He gave a broad concept of citizenship by forbidding the citizenship to
women, children, old age people, barbarians, slave etc. His concept of citizens is also known as Greek concept of
citizens.
Liberal Perspective of Citizenship: This concept of citizens was supported by the liberal thinkers. T. H.
Marshall in his work citizenship and social class gave it in detail. He mentioned that citizenship prescribes equal
rights and duties, liberties and constraints, power and responsibilities for different individual. He identifies three
type of rights associated with citizenship i.e. Civil Rights, Political Rights and Social Rights
Giddens criticised the Marshal and identified only two rights
 Individual Freedom and equality before law
 Economic Civil Rights
They believed that right constitute the foundation of citizenship. They believed in evolutionary origin of
citizenship.
Libertarian Perspective of Citizenship: They treat citizenship as the product of free choice and contract among
individuals. This theory considers „market society‟ as a suitable model of civic life. Robert Nozick is its chief
exponents and he gave his views in his work „Anarchy, State and Utopia‟.
Communitarian Perspective of Citizenship: This theory focuses on a stronger bond between individual and
state. The important thing about this theory is that it believes in and focuses on „citizen participation‟. Its main
exponents are
 Hannah Arendt with her work „The Human Condition, 1958
 Michael Walzer with his work „Sphere of Justice‟, 1983
 Benjamin Barber with his work „Strong Democracy‟, 1984
Pluralistic Perspective of Citizenship: This theory treats the development of citizens as a complex and multi-
dimensional process. They treat citizenship as a product of diverse group fighting against discrimination on
various grounds. Its exponents are
 David Held with his work „Political Theory and the Modern State 1989
 B. S. Turner with his work „Citizenship and Capitalism: The debate over reformation 1986
Marxist Perspective of Citizenship: This theory is based on class conflict. It criticises the current citizenship as
biased one which promote the interest of bourgeois class and state. Its chief exponent is Anthony Giddens with
his below two works
 A Contemporary Critique of Historical Materialism 1981
 Profiles and Critiques of Social Theory 1982
Indian Citizenship Rules
From Articles 5 to Article 11 in the Part II of the Indian Constitution, deals with the citizenship of India. It
identifies the citizens of India at the time of commencement of Constitution (26 January, 1950). It gives power to
parliament to make law regarding citizenship. With this power Indian Parliament enacted Citizenship Act of
1955 and it was too amended from time to time. Now Citizenship Act of 1955 is the only law governing citizen
related issues in India. Originally this act also provided for commonwealth citizenship but this provision was
repealed by the Citizenship Amendment Act 2003.

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Acquisition of
Citizenship

Birth Registration Naturalization Incorporation Special Provision

Descent
of Territory Assam Accord

Loss of Citizenship

Renunciation Termination Deprivation

Few points to remember

 Art 15, 16, 19, 29 and 30 of Indian Constitution are not available to foreigners
 In India every citizen has a single citizenship. They have only national citizenship i.e. they are citizens of
India. They have no state citizenship
 In USA their citizens have dual citizenship. They are citizen of their nation USA and also of their
respective states.
 In India the citizens have single Citizenship i.e. citizenship of India and no one else foreign country.
 In USA their citizens can also hold citizenship of foreign country along with USA.
Overseas Citizenship of India
In 2000 Govt. of India appointed a committee under L. M. Singhvi for global Indian Diaspora and it submitted
its report in 2002. On the recommendations of this committee the parliament passed the Citizenship
(Amendment) Act 2003 to made provision for acquisition of Overseas Citizenship of India and also omitted all
the provisions related to Commonwealth Citizenship. This act identified 16 countries except Pakistan and
Bangladesh.
This act was again amended in 2015 as Citizenship (Amendment) Act 2015 which introduced a new scheme
„Overseas Citizens of Indian Cardholder‟.
The Issue Liberal Libertarian Communitarian Marxist Pluralistic
Nature Individuals Rational Active participations Member of a Diverse group
negotiating the Consumer of in pursuit of the class fighting fighting against
term of their Public Goods common Goods for their rights Discrimination
Association against the on various
dominant class Grounds
Organization Welfare State Comparative Close Knit Worker‟s State Pluralist
Model Market Community Society
Society
Goal Citizen‟s welfare Provision of The Common Good Worker‟s Coexistence
necessary Rights without
public goods Discrimination
Method Rational Paying the Citizens Class Conflict Diverse Social
allocation of state for its Participation Movements
benefits and services
burdens
Exponents T. H. Marshal Robert Hannah Arendt, Anthony David Held, B.
Nozick Michael Walzer, Giddens S. Turner
Benjamin Barber
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Nature and Scope of Pol. Theory:
Guild and Palmer in their work „Introduction to Politics‟ defined it as „It is heavily and curiously cultural sound‟
Barker „It is moral evaluation of the political power‟
Logical Positivism was originated from Vienna Circle in 1923.
Contemporary Pol. Theory is marked by following essential characteristics i.e. Analytical, Explanatory, Critical
and Prescriptive.
Contemporary concern: I. M. Young in his work „Political Theory‟ hints that new political theory in political
theory are pluralism, feminism, Post Modernism, new Social movements, civil society and liberal
communitarian debate.
Decline and Resurgence of Political Theory
Scholars in favour of decline of Political Theory: Meecham, Robert Dhal, David Easton, Alfard Cobben,
Reimer, Peter Laslet, Barley and Dante Geremino etc.
Scholars in favour of resurgence of Political Theory: Michael Oakeshott, Eric Voegelin, Leo Strauss, P.H.
Pattridge, John Rawls etc.
Important works:
Ethics and the decline of Political Theory Alfard Cobban
The Decline of Modern Political Theory David Easton
Political Theory Today Robert Dhal
What is Political Theory Barley
The Revival of Democratic Theory N. Reimer
Political Truth, Theory and Consequences Robert A Dhal
Barley in his work „What is Political Theory‟ has said „Political Theory has remained a subject of perennial
concern.
Easton and Cobban called it to be decline. Peter Laslett and Robert Dahl declared it as already dead.
Reimer saw it to be in the doghouse.
Major proponents of decline thesis are;
Easton: S P Verma in his work „Modern Political Theory‟ identified following causes of decline of Political
Theory;
 Historicism
 Moral Relativism
 Confusing Science and Theory
 Hyperfactualism
Theory without facts may be a well piloted ship with an unsound keel.
Alfard Cobben: He presents a pessimistic picture of Political Theory. He mentions external causes of decline of
Political Theory as increasing power of state, bureaucratic machinery and military establishment. He mentions
that „they wrote to condemn or support existing institutions to justify a political system.
Robert Dhal: he mentions that „In English speaking world Political Theory is dead, in Communist world it is
imprisoned elsewhere it is moribund‟
Dante Germino: He locates the decline of political theory to the growing ascendancy of scientism. He describes
„ideological reductionism‟ found in writing of Tracy, Comte and Marx. It found its most elaborate
accommodation in the behaviourism characterised by Germino as „Neo Positivism‟
Resurgence of Political Theory: Political Theory met its rival in the work of John Rawls „A Theory of Justice‟
in 1971. He gives cooperation in liberal Democratic society by engaging himself in the problems of distribution
of liberties, opportunities, income, wealth and bases of self respect.
Works of Rawls:
 Veil of ignorance
 Logic of Philosophy
 Political Liberalism
 Doctrine of Overlapping Consensus
 The law of the people

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IDEOLOGY
Ideology: A Set of those ideas which are accepted to be true by a particular group without further examination.
Obscurantism: A policy or tendency involving deliberate efforts at making things obscure so as to prevent
people from knowing truth.
H. H Sabine: This history of political theory is written in the light of the hypothesis that theories of politics are
themselves a part of politics.
The term „ideology‟ generally explains as „science of ideas‟. It was coined by „Destutt de tracy‟ a French scholar
in his writings on Enlightenment.
Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626): Insisted that knowledge deduced from less scientific methods of inquiry was
distorted by false impressions or idols. In short Bacon & Tracy insisted on validity of knowledge obtained by
scientific methods.
 All colours will agree in the dark - Francis Bacon
 Sociology of Knowledge (term) - Karl Mannheim
 Critical Theory - Frankfurt School
 Ideology and Utopia 1924 (book) - Karl Mannheim
Critical Theory: A stem of philosophical thought which maintains that human security has not yet evolved a
rational form of existence, which is still to be achieved. It was given by Frankfort School which was set
originally in 1923.
View of Karl Marx: He dwelled the nature of ideology in „German Ideology (1858): A contribution to the
critique of political economy 1859‟. According to him ideology is a false consciousness.
Marx and Engel: Ideology is an instrument for protecting the interests of the dominant class.
Lenin: (What is to be done) Ideology is not necessarily a distortion of truth to concede the prevailing
contradictions but it has become a neutral concept prefer to political consciousness of different class.
George Lukacs: (1885 – 1971) A Hungarian Marxist, in „History & class consciousness 1923 said „Bourgeois
ideology is false not because ideology itself is false consciousness but because bourgeois class is structurally
limited‟.
Totalitarianism: A system of governance in which the state seeks to regulate and control all aspects of life of its
citizen weather public or private.
Open Society: A social and political system where there is free flow of information regarding public affairs and
matter of public importance.
View of Karl Popper (1902- 94): Australian philosopher „the open society and its enemies‟ 1945 argued that
ideology is the characteristic of totalitarianism. It has nothing to do with an open society. Western liberal
democratic societies are open societies. He treated Plato, Hegel and Marx as its enemies in his book.
Hannah Arendt (1906 – 75): A German Jew philosopher in „The origin of Totalitarianism 1951‟ defined
totalitarianism as a system of total domination, characterized by ideology and terror. It was made possible in
recent Europe by three factors
 Specific political and social position of Jewish and hence anti-Semitism (the tendency of hatred towards
Jews)
 Imperialism
 Dissolution of European Society
Popper mainly focused on Communist regime whereas Arendt mainly focused on Fascism regime.
End of Ideology:
Current status of ideology was reviewed in mid 1950 and 1960s. Its early indication may be found in the
preceding of conference on „The Future of Freedom‟ held in Milan Italy in 1955. Edward Shills report on
conference was published in Encounter (1955) under „The End of Ideology‟. Its main aim was to discover
common grounds to face danger of communism.
Ralph Dahrendorf: In his „class and class conflict in industrial societies (1957) argued that western societies
had entered a new phase of development. They were no longer capitalist societies they had become post-
capitalist societies. The coincidence of economic conflict and political conflict which was the foundation of
Marx‟s Theory had ceased to exist in post capitalist societies.
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Daniel Bell: „The End of Ideology 1960‟ asserted that post industrial societies are prone to similar development
irrespective of their ideological differences. They have lesser proportion of worker in industry then in services.
S. M. Lipset gave his work „Political Man: The Social base of Politics 1960‟
W. W. Rostow: The stages of Economic growth: A non communist Manifesto 1060. He gave a uni-dimensional
model of economic growth applicable to all countries. He said societies pass through five stages of growth
Traditional Society, Pre-conditions for take off, Take off, Road to maturity and The Age of high mass
consumption
The stage at that time in Asia, Latin America and Africa and Middle east was analogous to the stage of pre-
conditions for takeoff and take off which prevailed in the Western Societies in the late 19th and 19th centuries.
J. K. Galbraith: „New industrial State 1967. He identified certain characteristics of advanced industrial
societies which correspond to the end of ideology thesis. He observed that all the industrial societies are
designated to similar development
 Greater Centralisation
 Bureaucratization
 Professionalization
 Technocrtization
These characterisations are visible in Russia as well as in USA although their ideologies are different. He said
new ruling class consisting of bureaucratic and technocratic elite had emerged in all advanced industrial
societies. Power in societies is vested in bureaucracy and technocracy and not in capitalists. He said in
contemporary world, human should be sought in anti-bureaucratism rather than in anti capitalism.
The end of ideology thesis had a message for the new nations of Asia, Africa and Latin America. It says that
they should focus on industrial development and not communism as their weapon. Collapse of Communist
system in East European Countries 1989 & Collapse of Soviet Union occurred in 1991. The end of history
(paper) published by Francis Fukuyama in „The Nation Interest 1989‟. He mentioned that liberal-democracy
contains no basic contradictions and that it is capable of fulfilling deepest aspiration of mankind.
Its victory had heralded an end to the long historical struggle which had obstructed its expansion in the past.
Criticism of end of Ideology
Richard Titmuss, C Wright Mill, C. B. Macpherson and Alasdair Maclntyre several other criticised the end of
ideology thesis.
Against the Self Images of the age 1971 - Alasdair Maclntyre
Communitarianism: Theorist such as Michael Walzer, Michael Sandel, Alistair Maclntyre and Charles Taylor
belong to this school. They reject the liberal liberal conception of individuated self and holds that self is a part
social relation in which he/she is embeded.
Important Works –
 Liberalism and the limits of Justice Machael Sandel
 After Vireture - Maclntye

Liberalism
Liberty: Liberty is derived from Latin word „Liber‟ which means freedom. At that time human beings were
dominated by the authority of state i.e. King. So we can also say that liberty means freedom from the coercion
force of state.
Liberty means „absence of restrains‟ from the power of State. So in order to maintain liberty of the individual,
the state should not impose any restrains on his activities in various spheres of life. Liberty is related to
Liberalism. Some thinkers have used Liberalism and freedom synonymously but there is a lot of difference
between them. Majority of the thinkers have demanded freedom in their writings but a large fraction of the
thinkers such as Marxists are against the liberty.
Liberty demands that the human being has the rational faculty and comes to know that what is best for him. He
has the ability to achieve the desired goal hence his activity should not be hindered by any external,
unreasonable restraints. In the early phase of liberty the philosophers demanded the removal of external
restraints i.e. State hence it is termed as negative liberty.

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The privileged classes have always stood in the defence of the Status Quo i.e. no change in the existing
situations.
Hobbes demanded that liberty must be severely limited to make way for the benefits of State authority
Locke and J. S. Mill were of the view that State authority should be markedly limited so as to leave as much
room as possible for liberty.
Civil Liberty: According to Ernest Barker Liberty of man is the capacity of an individual. It consists in three
articles
a) Physical freedom: Freedom from any injury, threat to health, environment and life. It should not be
restricted except for the interest of public safety, law and order.
a) Intellectual freedom: Freedom for the expression of thought and belief. J S Mill has to favoured that
there should be freedom to criticize the existing institutions.
b) Practical freedoms of a person to enter into mutual obligation i.e. freedom of contract: In this
article of civil liberty problem occurs when this freedom is exploited by a strong party. L. T. Hobhouse
has also mentioned that there shall be initial equality of the contracting parties.
Political Liberty: Whereas a man enjoys civil liberty in individually but he enjoys political liberty in the
capacity of a citizen. William Blackston defines political liberty as the power of curbing the government.
Liberal Individualist view of liberty:
Atlantic Charter of 1941 was a declaration of four rights which were drawn up during the Second World War. It
was given by President Roosevelt of the USA and PM Churchill of UK to indicate their war aims. There four
freedoms were
a) Freedom of Speech b) Freedom of Worship c) Freedom from fear d) Freedom from want
First two points i.e. Freedom from Speech and Freedom of worship symbolize the negative aspect of liberty.
They rely on a negative role of the state. The remaining two i.e. Freedom from fear and Freedom from want
symbolize the positive aspect of Theory. They rely on positive role of the state.
Negative liberty and and positive liberty are not opposite to each other. In fact they are complementary; they are
two sides of the same coin. They are incomplete without each other.
Struggle for liberty started in the 17th century Europe with the rise of new merchant-industrialist class which
raised the demand for negative liberty particularly in the economic sphere. The main belief among the negative
liberty was that „everyone knows his own interest best‟ and state should not decide his ends and purposes. It
believes in individual choice of resources and technology as well as parties to deal with the transactions i.e.
„freedom of contract‟ was its essential requirement.
Liberty was seen as the freedom of trade, freedom of enterprise, freedom of contract, a free competition of the
market forces of supply and demand. They view the state as „a necessary evil‟ which was not allowed to interfere
with natural liberty of men, but to maintain liberty by protecting person and property from the onslaught of other
individuals.
The idea of negative liberty led to the doctrine of Laissez-faire i.e. freedom from Govt. interference in economic
affairs. They were in favour of minimal state i.e. minimum interference by state in the affairs of individual.
Following are some of the advocates of Negative Liberty who supported Lassez-faire
Adam Smith (1723 – 1790)
Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832)
James Mill (1773 – 1790)
Henry Sidgwick (1838 – 1900)
Herbert Spencer (1820 – 1903)
J S Mill who introduced concept of positive liberty. He made a departure from concept of negative liberty to
positive liberty. He started with defence of Lassez-faire individualism and after analyzing its weakness in the
light of socio-economic conditions he modified it. He was the first liberal thinker to realize that the working
classes were deprived from their share in capitalist economy based on Lassez-fare individualism. He discovered
few areas where intervention of state could be justified. He identifies two type of actions of a men i.e. self
regarding actions and other regarding actions. The effect of self regarding actions were confined to individual
himself but other regarding actions effect the others. Mill advocates complete freedom to individual in self
regarding actions unless he was proceeding on a self destructive path due to ignorance. In the other regarding
actions Mill demands the right of the community to coerce the individual if his conduct was prejudicial to its
welfare. He highlights the positive role of the state in securing social welfare. Mill also favoured the taxation of
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the rich for the welfare of poor. He pleaded for the limitation of the right of inheritance, and insisted on state
provision of education.
After Mill, T. H. Green, L. T. Hubhouse and H. J. Laski further developed the concept of positive liberty. Green
gave a theory of right demanded the positive role of the state in cre3ating condition under which men could
easily exercise their moral rights. The idea of positive liberty reached its logical support in the concept of
welfare state.
Contemporary Debate
Some group of thinkers known as Libertarianism have sought to lay renewed emphasis on negative liberty.
These thinkers are Isaiah Berlin (1909-1997), F. A. Hayek (1899 -1992), Milton Friedman (1912-2006) and
Robert (1938 – 2002)
View of Berlin: He made a distinction between Negative and positive liberty. Negative liberty of individual
consists in not being prevented from attaining his goal by other human beings. On the other hand positive liberty
treats individual as his master. In both cases liberty means an absence of restraint.
He has also mentioned that availability or non-availability of resources is entirely an individual‟s capacity and
state cannot be questioned in this matter. The existing social inequalities cannot be questioned from the point of
view of liberty.
View of Hayek: He used the terms „liberty‟ and freedom interchangeably. He argued that a man possess liberty
of freedom when he is not subject to coercion by the arbitrary will of another. He used to contrast individual
freedom with three others i.e. political freedom, inner freedom and freedom as power. He views freedom as
„freedom from constraints of the state‟ in the tradition of James Madison (1751-1836), Alexis de Tocqueville
(1805-1859) and Lord Action (1834-1902). He identifies liberalism as a doctrine which emphasizes the
minimization of the coercion power of government. The state should ensure minimum income to each individual
or family, but should not make market itself an instrument of distributive justice. His argument against equality
consists in two assumptions. Ist that liberty consists in „absence of coercion‟ in the sphere of individual activity.
Second is that every individual has different talent and skill and their equality before law is bound to create
inequality in their actual position in terms of their material status. Any attempt by the state to create material
equality will lead to coercion which will deprive them from their freedom.
He said it is better that some should be free than none and better that many should have full freedom than that all
should have a limited freedom.
Views of Friedman: He identifies capitalism or a competitive market society as a necessary condition of
freedom. He defined freedom as „the absence of coercion of a man by his fellow men‟. The Govt. should be
allowed to handle only those matters which cannot be handled through the market at all. Govt. is required to
sustain and supplement the market society and nothing beyond that.
View of Nozick:
He also opposed the principle of equality in strong terms. He determines the function of state on the basis of his
theory of origin of the state. He follows the Locke‟s method of social contract and claims that individuals have
certain rights in the state of nature. They would hire protective associations for property right holdings. The
dominant protective association would become the state. He maintains that the acquisition or transfer of property
without force or fraud is just but not otherwise. Rights are the product of voluntarily exchange. State comes into
existence for performing limited function particularly for maintenance of property rights of the individual. He
thus gives concept of state having minimal functions. All inequality in the wealth and power is a result of
individual differences in the talents and efforts and it would not be just to remove these inequalities by
redistributive principles.

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Liberalism

Negative Liberalism Positive Liberalism

Liberal View
Libertarian View Humanitarian View

Marx Concept of freedom:

Marx concept of freedom is different from its liberal-individualistic concept. Freedom is not something which
can be enjoyed in isolation. A human being can enjoy it only in society. He does not accept the theory of an
atomized, alienated and possessive individual. The members of society are not atoms. He also does not accept
utilitarian view of the common good. Common good can be achieved only creating socio-economic condition
conductive to enjoyment of freedom within society. The key to freedom lies in establishing a rational system of
production which will be based on the highest development of the forces of production.
Humanist basis of freedom: Marx age his humanist views in his earlier work in 1844 which was published after
his death under „Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts‟ in 1932. He in his work gives four type of alienation
 Man is alienated from his own product
 Man is alienated from nature
 Man is alienated from other man
 Man is alienated from himself
The liberal-individualist was of the view that freedom of man can be achieved with some minor adjustments
within capitalist system whereas Marx was of the view that freedom can be achieved only after replacing
capitalist system by socialist system.
Marcuse‟s concept of one-dimensional man:
Marcuse a Marxist gave the analysis of problem of freedom in contemporary world society. Orthodox as well as
structural Marxist have been insisting on scientific and economic interpretation of Marxism but Marcuse like
other humanist stream of Marxist thinkers underlined subjective, critical and humanist dimension of Marxism.
He declared Soviet Marxism as the distorted version of Marxism and pleaded for revival of original, humanist
interpretation of Marxism. In his work „One-Dimensional Man: Studies in the ideology of Advanced Industrial
Society (1964) gave his idea on alienation in contemporary world. According to him capitalism exercises
monopolistic control not only on production and distribution, it also creates desire and demand for commodities
through a clever manipulation of the mass media. The result is the widespread craze for consumer goods.
In his work „Eros and Civilization (1966)‟ gave a blueprint of society where alienation will be removed and
freedom will be restored. It will be a democratic community where work will become play and necessary labour
will be organized in harmony with liberated, and authentic individual needs.
Freedom as emancipation:
Isaiah Berlin saw positive liberalism as „self mastery‟ a person is free when he controls his own life, rather than
being an instrument of someone else‟s will. David Miller identifies three elements of Berlin‟s concept of
freedom i.e.
 Freedom as power or capacity to act in certain way
 Freedom as rational self-direction
 Freedom as collective self determination.
Like Berlin all libertarian maintains that role of the state should be confined to securing negative freedom of the
individual. On the other hand humanitarian see the positive freedom differently. For the freedom lies not in the
condition of „being left alone‟ but in a positive action by the state to „liberate‟ people who are oppressed or
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Libertarian seek freedom for those who are competent, resourceful and capable of taking decisions while
humanitarian demand freedom for those who are disadvantages, oppressed and placed in un-favourable
condition.
Emancipation: It means to emancipate someone means to free them from social, political or legal restrictions.
In middle time slavery was replaced by serfdom. Serf worked as a peasant and cultivated land which was owned
by the landlords. He received a small, fixed share of the product as rent of his toil. Serf had some freedom as
comparison to a slave. He could have his family and belongings but he could not leave duty without the
permission of his lord. If the landlord sells his land, lord also changed. In modern times all workers are legally
free. But they have some constrains due to market condition. Marx and Engels in Communist Manifesto call for
overthrow the capitalist system to secure worker‟s emancipation. He said „workers of the all countries to unite
for they had nothing to lose but their chains‟.
Development as freedom: This concept of freedom id opposite to libertarian view of freedom. Development as
freedom predicts a situation in which the disadvantaged section of the society would be able to improve the
quality of life by means of their talents and efforts. This view does not invoke mercy of rich toward the poor, it
seek to protect everybody‟s dignity and self-esteem while pursuing the course of self-development. C B
Macpherson and Amartya Sen are linked with this concept of power.
C B Macpherson doest claim to be Marxist but still he is a critic of capitalism. Norman Barry calls him a neo-
Marxist. He says that western democratic theory is characterized by two basic principles i.e.
a) Maximization of utilities
b) Maximization of power.
Under first principle man is recognized as a consumer of utilities. The second is derived from J S Mill‟s revision
of orthodox utilitarianism.
Real freedom can be exercised through development power as distinguished from extractive power. Extractive
power represent familiar concept of power i.e. a person‟s ability to use others capabilities to serve his own
interest. Development power on the other hand denotes a person‟s ability to use his own capabilities for the
fulfilment of his self appointed goals. Macpherson focused on this development power.
He lists three barriers to maximization of power
 Lack of adequate means of power
 Lack of adequate means of life
 Lack of protection against invasion by others
These problems cannot be solved in market society based on capitalist system. These can be solved in a new
system which combines protection of civil liberties with a socialist mode of production.
Amartya Sen: He has worked in the field of welfare economics. Amartya Sen and M C Nussbaum in their work
Quality of life‟ promoted capabilities approach. The replaced the word „physically challenged‟ as „differently
able‟ United Nations Development Programe (UNDP) adopted certain „capacity indicators‟. He was of the view
that people living in the rich as well as poor countries are still un-free.
Name of Important Books
Principal of Social and Political Theory 1951 Ernest Barker
Problems of Political Philosophy 1976 D. D, Raphael
Elements of Social Justice 1922 L. T. Hubhouse
On Liberty 1859 J. S. Mill
Two concepts of liberty 1958 Berlin
An Introduction to Modern Political Theory 1989 Norman P. Barry
Contemporary Political Thinkers 1982 B. C. Parekh
Democratic Theory: Essay in Retrieval 1973 C. B. Macpherson
Social Principles and the Democratic State 1975 S I Benn & R S Peters
Constitution of Liberty 1960 F A Hayek
Capitalism and Freedom 1962 Friedman
Anarchy, State and Utopia 1974 Nozick
Marx and the Open Mind 1976 John Lewis

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Socialism
Anarchism: It stands for a mode of thought which advocates that society should be without coercive authority
of the state. William Godwin (1756-1836) was the first thinker who urged for a stateless society in his work.
Enquiry concerning Political Justice (1793) this work is regarded as the first systematic defence of Anarchism.
However P. J. Proudhon (1809-19565), a French philosopher was the first to call himself as an Anarchist. This
ideology had its great influence in Late 19th & early 20th century. Anarchist thinkers had one common aim i.e.
abolition of all state.
Types of Anarchism: Anarchism is of following types
a) Philosophical Anarchism: He is also known as Individual Anarchism, originally founded by Godwin
himself. In Indian Gandhi Ji also belonged to philosophical Anarchist. Following books are some of the
example of philosophical Anarchism.
Enquiry concerning political justice 1793 Godwin
The Ego and his own 1845 Max Stirner
In Defence of Anarchism 1970 R. P. Wolff
b) Socialist Anarchism: P. J. Proudhon (1809 - 65), a French philosopher is the chief exponent of socialist
anarchism. He postulated „Mutual Aid‟. It is also known as Mutualism. Peter Kropotkin wrote „Mutual Aid:
A Factor of Evolution‟. His vision of Anarchism is also known as „communist Anarchism‟.
c) Revolutionary Anarchism: Mikhail Bakunin (1814 - 76), a Russian revolutionary is regarded as chief
exponent of revolutionary Anarchism.
d) Anarchic Socialism: It is also known as syndicalism anarchism chief exponent was George Sorel (1847 -
1922). Reflection on violence (1908) written by George Sorel is also linked to it. He gave method of
„general strike‟.
e) Pacific Anarchism: Anarchism on moral grounds. Its chief exponent was Leo Tolstoy (1828 - 1910), a
Russian Novelist.
f) Libertarian Anarchism: It is contemporary version of individualism anarchism. Its beginning may be
traced to Herbert Spenser (1820 - 1903). F. A. Hayek (1899 - 1992, an Austrian) & Robert Nozick (1938 -
2002, an American) are also related to it. Following are the some of the works related to it
Law, Legislation and Liberty 1973 F. A. Hayek
Anarchy, State and Liberty 1974 Nozick
Community Anarchy and Liberty 1982 M. TaylorKarl Marx

MARXISM
Karl Marx: He is regarded as God by half of the world and devil by other half of the world. He was born in
1818 in Rhineland Germany and wanted to become a professor but could not become. He became a journalist. In
October 1842 he took up a job as an editor of Lebral paper known as Rheinsche Zeitung. However in 1843 the
government banned his newspaper and he was thrown on the road. Then he wants to France. There he met with
Friedrich Engles, with whom he developed lifelong friendship. He was also influenced by French Revolution.
Engels became his continuous Financer in 1845. Both went to England where they introduced to workers
Education Union of German students. He was greatly influenced by it and on his return to Brussels, he set up a
similar association named it German Working Men Association. In 1847 a congress of such association was held
at London which resulted in the formation of international communist league. At the second meeting of
International Communist League, Marx and Engels were assigned the formidable task of preparing its manifesto.
In 1848 the two drafted the famous communist Manifesto, which contains clearest and most compact statements
of Marx philosophy.
The Manifesto appeared at a time when Chaotic condition prevailed in France, Belgium as well as Germany. The
Authority was greatly alarmed by the Manifesto. Belgium government was so much alarmed that it arrested
Marx and deported him from its territory. Then Marx moved to Germany and brought out „demands for the
Communist Party in Germany‟ which provided the base of revolution in the country. In 1849 he was expelled
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from Germany and moved to England where he stayed till his death. He wrote „contributions to the critique of
political economy‟. Then Marx and Engles became the regular contributor of New York and Tribune.
Sources of Marx Philosophy
Marx was inspired from three ideological currents i.e. The German Classical Philosopher, The Classical School
of British Economy & French Revolutionary tradition. He was also influenced by Hegel as a student and learned
from him as that nature was dynamic and moved in zigzag way. He was also influenced by Hegel‟s Dialect
which explained the process of thesis, antithesis and synthesis. He did not like his idealism and replaced it into
materialism. Marx said „my dialectic method is not different from the Hegelian but it is its direct opposite. He
borrowed the idea of Theory of value and Surplus value from classical school of British Political Economy. The
difference between them and he was that they used it to promote and protect the interest of capitalists but he did
it for wage owners. He was also influenced by Adam Smith, Richardo and William Thompson. Marx was also
influenced by French Socialists Philosophers. Cabinet in France has preached complete state control over
individual and Marx was greatly influenced by him. He also borrowed idea of class war from the French
Socialist who talked much about the clashing interest of the rich and the poor.
Communist Manifesto: It was drafted by Marx and Engels at the behest of the Communist International League
in 1848. It is broadly divided into four parts. The first part deals with history of social revolution. It starts with
assertion that „the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle‟ & proceeds to say that in
modern times society is divided into two hostile parts i.e. haves and haves not, the exploiters and exploited. The
second part deals with doctrine of the Communist Party and its justification. It contains the programme of party
and the means for its realisation. The third part of the manifesto severely criticises and ridicules the various
forms of socialism which preceded the Marxian discovery of scientific socialism. The fourth part gives the
summary of the position of the communist and their tactics.
Definitions
One of the most revolutionary tracts of all times Sabine
The Marxian Theory of Value is nothing but Richardo Transcribed Prof Grey
Every class struggle is a political struggle Marx
Marx defines communism as „It is the complete return of man to himself as a social‟.
His work „Philosophy of poverty‟ is not a work on alienation.
Marx treated religion as „The opium of the people‟.
Lenin‟s philosophy is the Marxism of era of imperialism and the proletarian revolution Stalin
Lenin‟s dialects was dreadful, dull repetitive, dogmatic and superficial survey Wayper
Marx wrote at once the epitaph of new capitalism and prophecy of its ultimate outcome. Laski
Those who owns the means of production, controls not only the economic life but also possesses Political power
Karl Marx
Off all the classes the proletariat alone is the reality revolutionary class Karl Marx
He who doesn‟t work, neither shall eat Karl Marx
The philosophers have interpreted the world, what matters whoever is to change Karl Marx
Communism is the complete return of man to himself as a social Karl Marx
The world at every stage is both a product and prophecy Karl Marx
Violence is the mid wife of revolution Karl Marx
Man is what he eats Feuerbach
Feuerbach (1806-1872) was the teacher of Marx.
We are monkey of an icy good Karl Marx
Sell a man fish, he will eat for a day Karl Marx
Karl Marx was influenced by Feuerbach‟s atheism and criticised his
inconsistent espousal of materialism. Karl Marx
Freedom is always the freedom of dissenters Rusa Luxemberg
I distinguish religion from theism Feuerbach
It is the man who have made the God rather than God who have made man Karl Marx
Historical materialism is the heart of Marxism J Palamantz
Socialism is like a hat that has lost its shape because everyone wears it C E M Joad
Lenin did more to defect the course of world history then any political figure
since Nepolean Chamberlain
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Lenin theory may be defined as an adoption of Marxism to non-industrial
economies to societies with a prevailing present population. Its worldwide
importance depends upon the fact that world is full of such societies George Sabine
Never play at uprising, but once it is begun, remember firmly that you have
to go to very end Lenin
It is necessary to gather a great preponderance of forces in a decisive place. Lenin
One must strive to take the enemy by upraise to take advantage of a movement
when his troops are scattered Lenin.
Capitalists dig their own graves Karl Marx
Kantsky, Bernstein, Rose Luxemburg & Leo Trotsky criticised the Lenin.
Stalin established State Socialism in Russia. He gave concept of revolution in one country.
Concepts given by Marx
 Dialectical materialism
 Historical materialism
 Theory of revolution
 Alienation Theory
 Class Struggle
 Revolutionary system
Works of Karl Marx

BOOKS BY KARL MARX

 The Player (Poem) 1840
 Oulanem 1840
 Rheinische Zeitung 1843
 Criticism of Hegel‟s Philosophy of Rights 1843
 The essence of Christianity 1843
 Manuscripts 1844
 Thesis on Feuerbach 1845
 German Ideology 1847
 On the Jewish question 1848
 Communist Manifesto 1848
 The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte 1852
 Critique of Political Economy 1859
 Civil war in France 1871
 Critique of Gotha Programme 1875
 Holy Family 1845
Books by Engels
 Anti Duhrung 1884
 Origin of the family, private property and the State 1884
 Principle of Communism 1847

Other books related to Marxism

 The State in Capitalist Society Ralph Miliband
 Why Socialism? Marxism & Democracy N Bobbio
 Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy Schumpter
 Prostent ethics and rise of capitalism Max Weber
 Marxism before Marx David Mclellan
 Karl Marx his life and Thought Do
 Marxism after Marx Do
 Social and Political Thoughts of Karl Marx S. Avineri
 Autonomy of State, Politics and ideology Gramsci

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The theory of Surplus Value is discussed in his „Das Capital‟. Marx gave four elements of product i.e. Land,
Labour, organization of these labour is the source of value.
 Alienation: Chief cause of Alienation is private property. He identified four fold alienation i.e.
Alienation from product
 Alienation from Labour
 Alienation from other men
 Alienation from himself
Marx believed that matter (not the idea or consciousness) was the essence of the universe, that all social
institutions were the manifestation of changing material conditions.
Engels in his Anti Duhrang (1878) postulated three laws of material dialects (dialectical materialism) i.e.
 Transformation of quantity into quality
 Interpenetration of opposite
 Negation of negation Marxism
Name derived from the name of Karl Marx. The term was unknown in Marx‟s own life. Marx said „All that i
know is that i am not a Marxist.
G. V. Plenkhanov (1856 -1918) was known as father of socialism in Russia. He announced that „Marxism is
whole world view‟. Marxism in its proper sense appeared in middle of the nineteenth century in response to
oppressive conditions created by Capitalist System.
Liberalism ---- 17th Century
Laissez faire ----19 Century
Saint Simmon (1760-1828) & Louis Blanc in France advocated a centralised economy under state control.
Robert Owen (1771 - 1828) in England and Charles Fourier (1772) in France produced plan for setting up model
communities of free cooperation and free competition.
P. J. Proudhon (1809-1865) in France hoped for setting up a nationwide system of decentralised workers. These
above ideas are known as utopian socialists. During beginning of 1830s and 1840s the idea of Utopian Socialism
was criticised mainly by Karl Marx and Engles. Karl Marx and Engles sought to replace utopian socialism by
scientific socialism for analysis of social problems and their solution.
Marxism is a set of political and economic principles founded by Karl Marx and Engles in order to lay scientific
foundations of socialism.
Marxism
Young Marxism: It includes early work of Marx which remained unpublished and published after his death
Neo-Marxism: It includes contemporary debate and criticism made after death of Marx
Classical Marxism: It includes original tents of Marxism
Neo-Marxism: The ongoing controversies in Marx thought owe their origin to the work of Frankfort School
originally established in 1923 as institute of social research in the University of Frankfurt, exiled from Germany
in 1933 & established in the USA & after downfall of Hitler re-established in Germany in 1950s. The ideas
evolved by Frankfurt School are compendiously described as „Critical Theory‟. The leading figures of Frankfurt
School are
 Theodor Adorno (1903 – 69)
 Max Horkheimer (1895 – 1973)
 Herbert Marcuse (1898 – 1979)
 Jurgen Habermas (1929)
Other Marxist leaders
V. I. Lenin (1870 – 1924) was Russian revolutionary.
Rusa Luxamberg (1871 – 1919) was a polish activist.
Mao Zedong (1893-1976) was a Chinese revolutionary
Young Marx: It is the early work of Karl Marx which remained unpublished during his life time. It was
discoursed by German Social Democrats as late as 1972 and latter published as „Economic and Social
Manuscripts‟ of 1844. His early works contain his humanistic thought on communism and focused on the
concepts of alienation and freedom. It expressed dehumanizing effort of capitalism.
Historical Materialism: Dialectical Materialism represents the philosophical basis of Marxism & historical
materialism represents its scientific basis. It implies in any given epoch the economic relation of the society. The
means whereby men and undertake production, distribution and exchange of material goods for the satisfaction
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of their needs plays important role in shaping their social, political and intellectual and ethical relations.
According to him the structure of the society may be understood in terms of its base (foundation) &
superstructure. Base consists of mode of production, while super structure is represented by its legal and political
structure, religion, morals and culture etc. Mode of production has two components i.e. force of production and
relation of production. Force of production has two components means of production (tools and equipment) and
labour power (human knowledge and skill). Owner of means of production gives rise to two classes i.e. Haves
and Haves not.
Doctrine of class conflict
He gives five stages of historical development i.e. Primitive Communism, Feudal Society, Capitalist Society,
Socialist Society and Communism Society
Communist Manifesto was originally written originally in German Language in London. Then after that it was
converted into various other languages.
Labour Theory of Value was propounded by Hobbes, Locke, Smith and Ricardo
Four elements of production are Land, Labour, Capital and Organization
Criticism of Karl Marx
Marxism is the Monocasual Theory of social change Max Weber
For Marx civil society is a fraud Gellner
Marxism is itself is an ideology Lukacs
David Mclellam seems to believe in Marxism before Marx.
Neo Marxism stresses on „domination and dependence‟
The problem of Freedom in Marxist Thought Rowcke
Only the guns are turned in opposite direction. It will be governed by
the principle from each according to his ability to each according to his work Lenin
Marxism doesn‟t offer a theory of political liberty Milovan Dilas
The dictatorship of proletariat has no democratic institutional mechanism,
It is a party rule and bureaucratic centralism Luxemburg
The optimistic vision of Marx Socialism has failed and there is no escape from it Fukuyama
Capitalists dig their own graves Marx
Kroptkin in his book „Mutual Aid‟ gave an alternative version of history. Hence he explains history as product of
cooperation rather than conflict.
One divides into two: This controversy was an ideology debate that took place in China in 1964. This concept
originated in Lenin‟s work „The Philosophical Notebook‟. The philosopher „Yong Xianzhen‟ originated the idea
of „Two unites into one‟. Relative Autonomy of State and Democratic Centralism are the two concepts given by
Lenin. The work „Leninism‟ was written by Stalin.
Montevideo Convention of 1933 deals with the legal criteria for statehood. The first Article of the Convention
States that the State as a person of international law should possess the following qualifications
A permanent Population, A Definite territory, Government and Capacity to enter into relation with the other state
Base Superstructure Model of Karl Marx
Super
Culture Religion Politics Ideology Structure

Economic base
Basic
Mode of Production Structure

Relation of production (ROP) Force of Production (FOP) Means of Production (MOP)

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Gramsci‟s model of Society

Superstructure Political Institutions

State
Rest of Institutions
Civil Society

Base Economy

Important Definitions of this Chapter

Political Science is the science of the State Gettel

Political Science begins and ends with State Garner
The word „state‟ ought to be abandoned entirely Easton
State is power which has authority over men Machiavelli
The State is considered the sole source of right to use violence Max Weber
State is prior to man Aristotle
State is March of God on earth Hegel
The state came into existence for the sake of life and continues
for the sake of good life. Aristotle
State is the people organized for law within definite territory Woodrow Wilson
The State is power Trietschke
I am the State King Locus XIV of France
I am going away, but the will always remain do
The State is no more than the rule of the stronger Thrasymachus
The more the social bond is extended the more it is weakened Rousseau
The State can justify its existence only as a public service commission Laski
Sovereignty is the absolute and prefectural power of commanding in a State Jean Bodin
Sovereignty is the supreme power over citizens and subjects unrestrained by law Jean Bodin
There can exist within the same territories to sovereign issuing commands
to the same subjects touching different matters Lowell
Every State is known by the Rights that it maintains Laski
Liberty is the opposite of over government Seeley
Liberty is the positive power of doing and enjoying those things which are
worthy of enjoyment and work Green
Liberty is the freedom of of the individual to express without external
hindrances to personality G. D. H. Cole
Freedom unrestrained by responsibility becomes mere licence Dewey
No idea is more difficult in the whole realm of political science than equality Laski
Democracy is a Government in which everyone has a share Seeley
Democracy is only an experiment in government Lowell
The constitution has not been set in a tight mould of federalism B. R. Ambedkar
Liberty is a dead carcass, I kick it Mussolini
Government with the consent of governed Locke
Human consciousness postulates liberty, liberty involves right and right demand
the state Green
Because society is federal, authority must be federal Laski
State is association of association Laski
Power is complex strategy situation in a given society Michael Foucault
Power is everywhere because it comes from everywhere M. Foucault
All men are treated equal T. Jafferson

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Justice is not an ethics of reward but an ethics of redress John Rawls
Without Rights there cannot be liberty Laski
Every State is known by the rights it maintains Laski
State exists to hinder the hindrances Green
Democracy is the way of life John Dewey
Where there is no law, there is not freedom Locke
I infer in a world that the epoch of federalism is over Laski
All nations will arrive at Socialism Lenin
No citizen should be wealth enough to buy another and none
poor enough to forced to sell himself Rousseau

Feminism

This ideology stands for the concern of women in society. They hold that women are suffering in the society
because of their sexual difference. They demand for equal status of women with men in society. Mary
Wollstonecraft, Harriet Taylor Mill etc. are its examples. J. S. Mill also wrote an essay „The Subjection of
Women, 1869. He mentioned in it that women were by no means less talented than men and hence deserved
equal rights with men. Mary Wollstonecraft in her work „Vindication of the Rights of Women‟ highlighted that
women were not only restrained from voting, but was deemed unfit for education, was debarred from many
occupations, and had no legal right to own property.

Broad Streams of Feminism

Radical Feminism Socialist Feminism

Liberal Feminism
Liberalism Feminism: It represents the earliest trend of feminism. They demand the suitable reforms for
women under the banner the liberalism. Some of the main feminist of this stream are Mary Wollstonecraft, J. S.
Mill, Harriet Mill, Betty Friedam & Carole Pateman.
Important Works
The Subjection of Women J. S. Mill & Harriet Mill (UK thinker)
The Feminist Mystique Betty Friedman (American Thinker)
The Second Stage do
The Sexual Contract Carole Pateman (United Kingdom thinker)
Radical Feminism: They focus on the all pervading male domination in society and call for overturning of
gender oppression. Virginia Woolf, Simon de Beauvoir, Shulamith Firestone & Kate Millet.
Some Important work
A Room of One‟s Own 1929 Virginia Woolf
The Second Sex 1949 Simon de Beauvoir
The Dialectic of Sex 1970 Shulamith Firestone
Sexual Politics 1971 Kate Millet
Socialist Feminism: It holds that here Capitalist as well as men are the beneficiaries of women‟s subordination.
Some of the main thinkers of this stream are Charles Fourier (French), Friedrich Engels (German) & Sheila
Rowbatham (British).
Some Important work
The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State 1884 Engels
Women, Resistance and Revolution 1972 Sheila Rowbatham
Hidden from History 1973 do
The Past is before Us 1989 do
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Waves of Feminism
a) First Wave of Feminism: The term „First Wave Feminism‟ was coined by journalist Martha Lear in
„New York Times‟. This wave mainly focused on women suffrage i.e. right to vote to women.
b) Second wave of Feminism: It began in 1960s in USA. It deals with various issues Sexuality, family,
workplace, reproductive system & official inequality etc.
c) Third wave of Feminism: It began in USA in 1990s and continued till the coming of 4th wave in 2010.
It includes various theories such as inter-sectionality, Sex positivity, vegetarian eco-feminism, trans-
feminism, Post-modern feminism.
d) Fourth Wave of Feminism: It started in 2012 and focuses on women empowerment.
UN Conventions on Women
a) First UN Conference on Women: Held in Mexico in 1975
b) Second UN Conference on Women: Held in Copenhagen in 1980
c) Third UN Conference on Women: Held in Naiobi in 1985
d) Fourth UN Conference on Women: Held in China in 1995

Ecologism
It is a new political ideology based on the position that the non-human world is worthy of moral considerations,
and that should be taken into account in social, economic and political systems. It is also known as Green
Theory. It evolved in 1970s. The term Ecology was coined by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. It has three schools of
thought

Ecogolism in strict sense Environmentalism Ecological pragmatism

Important Works
The Death of Nature Caroline Merchant
Radical Ecology do
Small is beautiful Ernst Friedrich
The Fading of the Greens Bramwell
From Red to Green Rudolf Bahro
Socialism and Survival do
Green Political Theory Robert E. Goodin
Earth Day is celebrated on April 22 & World Environment Day was celebrated on June 5. Stockholm
Conference was held in 16 May, 1972 under the banner of UN, it is also known as United National Conference
on Human Environment.
World Conservation Strategy 1980, Our Common Future 1987, Caring for the Earth 1991, United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) was formed in June 1972 as a result of Stockholm Conference. Brandt
Commission Report 1980 was an independent commission on International Development & it was chaired by
Willy Brandt, its report entitled North-South: A Programme for Survival was published in 1980. Montreal
Protocol 1987 deals with Ozone Depletion. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED) also known as Rio Summit or Earth Summit.
Communitarianism: Theorist such as Michael Walzer, Michael Sandel, Alistair Maclntyre and Charles Taylor
belong to this school. They reject the liberal conception of individuated self and holds that self is a part of social
relation in which he/she is embedded.
Some important works
Liberalism and the limits of Justice Michael Sandel
After Vireture Maclntyre
Post Modernism: It got genesis in the writings of Jaccques Derrida and Michel Foucault. They attacked the
universal foundation of political theory and stressed on decentred & fragmented nature of human experience.
Identity and culture are the prominent aspects on which post-modernist emphasized.
Michael Walzer: He was an American Philosopher born in 1935.
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Political Action 1971 Thinking Politically 2007
Just and Unjust Wars 1977 The Paradox of Liberation 2015
Spheres of Justice 1983 A Foreign Policy for the left 2018
Arguing about War 2003
Thinking Politically
Michael Sandel: He is an American Political Philosopher born in 1953. He criticised Rawls theory of justice in
2007
his work Liberalism and Limits of Justice 1982.

Michael Sandel: He is an American Political Alistair Maclntyre: He is a Scottish-

Philosopher born in 1953. He criticised Rawls theory of American philosopher born in 1929.
justice in his work Liberalism and Limits of Justice Works
1982. His works are given below  After Virtue 1981
 Justice: What‟s the Right Thing to do? 2008  Whose Justice? Which Rationality?
 What Money Can‟t Buy: The Moral Limits of 1988
Markets 2012  Ethics in the Conflict of Modernity
 Liberalism and the Limits of Justice 1982 2016
 Democracy‟s Discontent 1996  Marcuse 1970
 The Tyranny of Merit: What Becomes of the
Common Good? 2020
Jaccques Derrida: He was a well known
French philosopher born in Algeria (1930).
Charles Taylor: He is born in Canada in 1931. His He was famous for deconstruction. He is
notable idea is Communitarian critique of liberalism. also known for post-structuralism and post-
Works modernism philosophy.
 Multiculturalism and the Politics of recognition Works
1992  Margins of philosophy 1972
 Reconstructing Democracy 2020  Spectres of Marx 1993
 A Secular Age 2007  On Cosmopolitanism and
 Sources of the self 1989 forgiveness 2001
 Philosophical Arguments 1995  Theory and Practice 2019

Michael Foucault: He was born in French in 1926. His

theories mainly address the relationship between power J. F. Lyotard: He was a French
and knowledge. He is also known for structural and post Philosopher born in 1924.
modernist philosophy. Works
Works Post Modern Condition 1979
 Madness and Civilization 1961 Postmodern fables 1996
 The Birth of the Clinic 1963 Toward the Post-Modernism 1993
 The Order of Things 1966
 Disciplined and Punish 1975
 The History of Sexuality 1976

Multiculturalism: Scholars like Will Kymlica, I. M. Young, Bhikhu Parekh have laid stress on the attribute of
culture as context of experience and human well being. They blame the contemporary political theory of being
cultured biased and neglected the concern of different cultural groups.
Works
Multicultural Citizenship: A Theory of Minority Rights Will Kymlica

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UNIT 2: WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHT

S. No. Name Country Date of Birth

1. Confucius China 551
2. Plato Athens (Greece) (427-347)
3. Aristotle Stagira (Greece) (384-322)
4. Niccolo Machiavelli Florence (Italy) (1469-1527)
5. Bentham Houndsditch (U.K) (1748-1832)
6. Thomas Hobbes England (1588-1679)
7. John Locke United Kingdom (1632-1704)
8. J. J. Rousseau Switzerland (1712-1778)
9. T. H Green United Kingdom (1770-1831)
10. J. S. Mill United Kingdom (1806-1873)
11. Karl Marx Germany (1818-1883)
12. Gramsci Italy (1891-1937)
13. Hannah Arendt Germany (1906-1975)
14. Frantz Fanon France (1925-1961)
15. Mao Zedong China (1893-1976)
16. John Rawls USA (1921-2002)
Confucius
His name was „Kong Fuzi‟ which means „Master Kong‟. He was born on 551 BC in China‟. He was a thinker,
political figure, China‟s first teacher, and founder of the Ru School of Chinese thought. His teachings are
preserved in the Lunyu or Analects. Five gave five Constant Virtues i.e. Benevolence („ren‟), Propriety („li‟),
Justice or righteousness („yi‟), Knowledge („zhi‟) and Integrity („Xin‟). He gave three ways by which we may
learn wisdom: i.e. first, by reflection, which is the noblest; second, by imitation, which is the easiest; and third,
by experience, which is the bitterest.”
Plato: He was born in 428 in Athens. Plato was one of the students of the Socrates. His real name was Aristocle
but because of his broad and long shoulder he was known as Plato. He was born in Athens in 428 BC. He met
Socrates at the age of 20 years. His father died in his childhood. After death of his father his mother Perictioned
married Pyrilamper. He was invited in „rule of thirty‟ by his uncle but he refused. In 399 BC after execution of
Socrates he fled to Italy, Sicily and Egypt. In 388 BC he returned to Athens and founded Academy (supposed to
be first European University). He was known as father of political philosophy, organic and normative theory. He
never married. He died in 348 BC i.e. at an age of 80 years. He is known as father of Political Philosophy, father
of Normative Political Theory, father of Organic Theory of State and father o f modern Fascism.
Family and relatives of Plato
S. No Name Detail
1. Ariston Father of Plato
2. Perictione Mother of Plato
3. Pyrilampes His mothers Second husband
4. Critias His mother‟s uncle
5. Charmides His mother‟s brother
6. Specesippus His nephew

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7. Potone Plato‟s sister
8. Ademintus Plato‟s brother
9. Glucon Plato‟s brother
10. Antiphon Plato‟s half brother
11. Aristocles Real name of Plato (it means best and renowned)
12. Plato His nick name (it means having healthy & strong shoulders)
13. Speciseppus Nephew of Plato & in charge of his academy after Plato‟s death.
14. Xenocrates His disciple and in charge of Plato‟s Academy after Specisuppus‟s
death.
Works of Plato: His works in detail are divides into three classes as given below
a) 1st Stage: It deals with Socrates style of thought and it include following works
i) Charmides, Leaches, Protogoras, Euthyphro, 1st book of Republic
b) Middle stage: Development of his own philosophy
i) Gorgias, Meno, Apology, Crito, Lesser Hippias, Greater Hippias, Ion & Menexenus, Crito, Phaedo,
Symposium & Republic
c) Latter Stage: It includes following works
i) Statesman, Theaetetus, Promenades, Sophists, Philebus, Timaeus and The Law.
The „Appology‟ of Plato was converted into Gujarati by Gandhi Ji and published it titled as „Satya Vir Ki Katha‟
Out of his all works three are important. These three are;
 The Republic: It was started in early life and finalized in 386 BC.
 The Statesman: It was written in the year 360 BC.
 The Law: It was written during his last time and published after his death in 347 BC.
Out of these three „The Republic‟ is very important. It mostly consists of duties of Kings. The word „Republic‟ is
a Greek word which means „Justice. It consists of ten books as described below
a) Book I: It deals with man‟s life, justice and morality.
b) Book (II - IV): Deals with organization of State & System of Education
c) Book (V-VII): Deals with a system of Communism of Wife and Property headed by a philosopher ruler
d) Book (VIII - IX): How Anarchy and Chaos visit when individual and state get perverted
e) Book (X): It has two parts, 1st relates philosophy to art and second discusses capacity of a soul.
The Republic is also known as „The idealists, the philosopher and the radical‟. Three things appetite, spirit &
reason constitute human reason. He relates appetite in producing class, spirit in soldier & reason in ruling class
i.e. producers, soldiers and rulers, which the C. L. Waper calls proper provision, proper protection ad proper
leadership. For the creation of his ideal state he used the words human cattle, the copper or the bronze for
producers, watch dog or silver for soldiers and Shepherd or the Gold for the rulers. His ideology is deductive,
dialectical and analytical.
Definitions
Laski: No theory of state is ever intelligible save in the text of its times.
Prof Maxey: In Plato Socrates lived again.
Plato said „I Thank God that I was born a Greek & not barbarian, a freeman and not a slave, a man & not a
woman, but above all that I was born in the age of Socrates.
Socrates said „Virtue is Knowledge‟ & „The public is ill we must cure our masters‟
According to Plato „Human nature has four elements reason, courage, temperance and justice.
Justice is the main theme of Plato‟s Republic & concerning justice is its subtitle.
Sabine says that „Justice for Plato is a bond which holds a society together‟.
Plato said „Athenian democracy is the worst type of democracy‟.
Plato said „Politics an art which few have capacity to acquire‟.
Concept of Justice: Prevalent Theories of Justice and Plato‟s Concept of Justice
During the time of Plato the condition of the state was not good as there was continues rise and fall of
government. The citizens were not happy with the functioning of government. He traced that there is lack of
justice in the government of Athens. So he gave a concept of justice known as Plato concept of justice to make
state a stable one. Cephalus, Polemarchus, Thrasymachus, Glaucon, Adementus and Socrates are the
characters in Plato‟s Theory of Justice. He gave his second best state in „The Law‟.
Prevalent theories of Justice: Plato gave his theory of justice by examining varies theories of justice of his time
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as described below:
 Traditional Theory of Justice: This theory was given by two main thinkers of that time i.e. Cephalus
and Polemarchus. This theory is known as Father-son theory of justice as Caphalus was the father of
Polymachus. Caphalus define justice as „giving every man his due‟ in other words „doing to other what
is proper‟. Polemarchus define justice as „doing good to friends and harming enemies‟. Plato rejected
the views of both by saying that justice is a virtual concept which is good for the foes as well as friends.
 Radical Theory of Justice: This theory is mainly represented by Thrasymachus. He was of the view
that Justice is the „internet of stronger‟. Plato rejects this concept also by saying that „justice is a spiritual
concept‟. It is internet of all weaker as well as stronger.
 Conventional theory of Justice: This theory was given by Glaucon and Adeimantus, the half brothers
of Plato. This theory was also supported by Socrates. Glaucon holds that „justice is the internet of
weaker section‟. Plato rejected this view by saying that justice is natural and universal.
Plato Concept of Justice: Plato gave his theory after discussion with various characters such as Cephalus,
Polemarchus, Thrasymacus, Glaucon, Adeimants and Socrates. His concept of justice is based upon the
rejection of the prevailing theories of justice. He has given his concept of justice in his work “The Republic”. He
was so influenced with the concept of justice that he gave sub-tile „Concerning Justice‟ to his work “The
Republic”. Justice is the principle that „each one should pursue a function for which one is fitted by nature‟. On
its bases he divides society into three classes of people.
S. No. Class Ideal Values
1. Philosopher Ruler Reason
2. Soldier Courage
3. Peasants Temperance
Concept of Education: Education in Ancient Greece and Plato‟s Concept of Education
Education in Ancient Greece: As Plato gave his concept of justice by examining the prevalent theories of
justice, in the same manner he gave his concept of education by examining the prevalent system of education.
Plato himself clams that he gave his system of education by combing the prevailing system of education of
Athens. During his time there were two main system of education i.e. Athens‟s Education system and Sparta
Education system.
The Athens education system was in the hands of private people. The parents can impart their choice based
education to their children. But its main drawback was that it was only for boys. Girls were not allowed in it.
The Sparta education system was controlled by government. It was for both, boys as well as the girls but its
main aim was to produce a well trained army citizens. Moreover only the fittest children were allowed to
survive.
Plato‟s Concept of Education: Plato combines these two systems and gave his system of education. All the
new born boys as well as girls will be separated from their parents and will be treated as common children of the
state. After separating the children, Plato‟s system of educating is divides into three phases.
S. No. Stage Age (in years)
1. Elementary Education 6 – 20
2. Higher Education 20 – 35
3. Practical Stage 35 – 50
Elementary Stage: This stage is divided into three phases. First phase ranges from 0 - 6 years, second from 6 -
18 years and third from 18 - 20. During the first stage from 0 - 6 years both boys and girls were given the
education of mother tongue and basic education on religion. During the second phase from 6 - 18 years, the
children were given education on music and gymnastic, music for development of internal soul and gymnastic
for the physical development of the body. During the third phase from 18 - 20 years both the boys and girls must
be given compulsory military training.
At the age of 20 years there will be n entrance test. Those who will fail in this examination would join
profession of peasants, merchants and traders. The few passing the entrance will go for further education. They
will be given advanced physical, mental and moral training from 20 to 30 years age.
At the age of 30 years age there will be another entrance test. Those who fails in examination will be sent to join
auxiliaries i.e. soldier in army and navy. Those very few how pass in this exam will be taught philosophy from

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the age of 30 years to 35 years. At the age of 36 years, they will return to worldly life and grapples with the
problems of life till the age of 50 years.
At the age of 50 years there will be another examination, those who will be successful in exam will become ruler
and those who will fail will join other auxiliary ranks of higher order.
Conclusion: From the above discussion it can be concluded that Plato offered a lengthy system of education
ranging from birth to fifty years till the Philosopher king is ready to rule. Plato does not give the right to rebel to
citizens. Jowett in his work „The Dialogues of Plato‟ clearly described Plato as the father of philosophy, politics
& literally idealism.
Definitions on Justice
Sophists: Justice is the interest of Stronger
Aristotle: Justice consists in treating equals equally and unequal unequally
St. Augustine: The essence of Justice is relation between God and man.
Thomas Hobbes: Justice consists in working according to law.
John Locke: Justice implies right distribution of goods.
Marx: Justice is achieved with elimination of class society and establishment of classless society.
Radbaruch: Justice is equality.
Sabine: Justice is a bond which holds the society together.
Plato: Justice as one person, one duty, one class & one work.
Plato: Justice was the virtue of soul & injustice its voice.
Rawl: Justice as fairness.
Aristotle: Justice as proportionate equality.
Morgenthau: Let the Justice be one if the world perish.
Solon (Sermon on the Mount): May I be pleased to my friends & hateful to my enemies.
Clintophon‟s: Justice is whatever the stronger believe to be in their interest.
Cephalus: Justice as telling the truth, being honest in words & deed & paying one‟s debts.
Polemarchus: Giving each man his due.
Thrasymachus: Justice as the interest of stronger party namely the ruler.
Before the execution of Socrates, Anaxagoras (500 - 432 BC) & Protogoras (481 - 411) were banished.
Plato met Socrates in 407BC i.e. at the age of 20 years.
Following three works are also based on Plato
S. No. Name of work Author Date
1. Utopia Thomas More 1516
2. The City of Sun Fra Tomaso Campanella 1602
3. The New Atlantis Francis Bacon 1627
Critics of Plato
S. No. Name of work Author Date
1. Ancient Greek Literature C. M. Bowra 1933
2. Platonic Legend W. Fite 1934
3. Plato today R. H. Crossman 1937
4. The Genesis of Plato‟s Thought A D Winspear 1940
5. The Open Society and its enemies Karl Popper 1945
6. Historical inevitability Berlin 1954
Admirers of Plato
S. No. Name of work Author Date
1. Greek Political Theory: Plato and his Ernest Barker 1918
predecessors
2. Lectures on Republic of Plato Rechard Lewis Nettleship 1929
3. In Defence of Plato Roland R. Levinson 1953
4. Plato‟s Modern Enemies & the Theory of John Wild 1953
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Following books also mentions about Plato
S. No. Book Name Author Year
1. The Dialogue of Plato Jowett 1902
2. Political Philosophy Prof Maxey 1961
3. The History of Political Thought George Sabine 1973
4. The Emile Rousseau 1762
Plato followed Aristophane‟s „Women in Parliament‟ for his discussion on status of women.
Francois-Marine Arouet Voltaire (1694-1778) & Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900) characterized
Platonism as the intellectual side of Christianity. John Ruskin (1819-1900) & William Morris (1834-1896) were
attracted by Plato‟s concern for human perfection and excellence. Last discussion of Socrates at the Academy
was written in Plato‟s „Crito‟. Plato could not attend the discussion because he was ill.
Aristotle
Introduction: He was not Athenian by birth. He was born in Stagira & a pupil of Plato. He taught Alexander
and established has own school „Lycem‟. Aristotle and Mill repudiated major portion of their master‟s teachings
i.e. Plato and Bentham respectively. From Plato comes political idealism and from Aristotle comes political
realism. His father was a physician to court of Amyntas-II. Aristotle lived Athens for more than half of his life
i.e. 20 years in Plato‟s Academy & 12 years in his school the Lyceum. He said „I will not allow the Athens to
commit another sin‟. Alexander appointed about 800 talents in Aristotle‟s service. He studied the 158
constitution of that time. He has written 150 treaties. His work can be divided into three treaties
i) Dialogues and other works of popular character.
ii) Collection of facts and material from scientific treatment.
iii) Systematic work

Personal Detail S. No. Work

S. No. Name Relation 1. The Politics
1. Nicomachus Father 2. The Nicomachean
2. Proxenus Care taker after death of parents 3. Eudemian Ethics
3. Pythias Wife 4. The Constitution of Athens
4. Herphyllis 2nd Wife (Mistress) 5. On the Polity of Athens
5. Nicomachus Son 6. On Justice
6. Phalstis Mother 7. On Poets
7. Hermias His wife‟s uncle 8. On the Soul
9. On Pleasure
Important Definitions/Points 10. On the Science
His admirers titled him “The master of them that know”. 11. On Species and Genus
Aristotelian Logic, Syllogism, Hexis and Hylomorphism are 12. Deductions
some of the notable ideas of Aristotle. 13. Definitions
Definitions 14. Lectures on Political Theory
Colliredge „Everyone is born either a Platonist or an 15. The Art of Rhetoric
Aristotelian‟ 16. On the Pythogoreans
Ross „For Aristotle Justice means what is lawful or what is 17. On Animals
fair and equal‟. 18. Discussions
Ebenstein „Plato found the corrective to his thinking in his
19. On Plants
own student‟.
20. On Motion
Gettel „It is not a systematic study of philosophy but rather
21. On Astronomy
it is a treatise on the art of government‟
22. Homeric problems
Sabine „Aristotle‟s best practicable state is Plato‟s second
best State‟. 23. On Magnets
Aristotle „Man is social animal by nature‟. 24. Olympic Victors
Aristotle „Dear is Plato, but dearer still is truth‟. 25. Proverbs and on the River Nile
Ebenstein „Plato found the corrective to his thinking in his 26. Theory of Revolution
own student‟. 27. Theory of State

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Aristotle‟s Theory of Justice 28. Theory of Justice
Aristotle: When perfected man is the best of animals, but when 29. Theory of Causation
separated from law & justice, he is worst of all‟. 30. Cycle of Change
Aristotle „The good in the sphere of politics is justice & justice 31. Golden Means
contains what tend to promote the common interest‟.
Ross „By Aristotle justice means what is lawful or what is fair and equal‟.
Aristotle „General Justice is complete goodness‟.
Plato‟s justice is performance of one‟s duty to the best of one‟s ability. Aristotle‟s justice is reward to what one
contributes and Plato‟s justice is spiritual i.e. inner & Aristotle‟s justice is that of action i.e. external.
Property: Aristotle‟s theory of property is based on criticism of communism of property given by Plato. Man
must eat, be clad, have shelter & in order to do so must acquire property. Of all means of acquiring wealth,
taking interest is most unnatural method. „to acquire too much property will be as gross an error as to make a
hammer too heavy‟
Family: Aristotle criticise the Plato‟s communism of wives. „for that what is common to the greatest number has
the least care bestowed upon it. Aristotle clarifies man is superior to women. Aristotle justifies slavery & says
„some men are natural free and other slaves‟.
Theory of Causation:
Material cause, Efficient cause, Formal Cause and Final Cause
Theory of Revolution: Revolution is a change in constitution, ruler etc. Book V of politics deals with the
practical suggestion to handle the problems of govt. Gettel says „It is not a systematic study of philosophy, but
rather it is a treatise on the art of government. Aristotle says Tyranny, monarchy & Kingship are bad form of
government. He avoids violence.
Theory of State: A State exists for the sake of good life and not for the sake of life only. For Plato state is a
natural organization but Aristotle‟s state is a product of gradual growth of villages and families. He further says
„the state is prior to family and individual‟. State is Associations of associations. State is like a human organism.
State is self sufficient institution where villages and families are not.
Sabine „Aristotle‟s best practicable state is Plato‟s second best State‟.
Millwain „Aristotle‟s best possible state is simply the one which is neither too rich nor too poor‟.
State is natural organization. He studied 158 constitution of that time and gave classification of following govt.
S. No. No. of persons involved Pure form Perverted form
1. One Monarchy Tyranny
2. Few Aristocracy Oligarchy
3. Many Polity Democracy
He further says „no constitution is either absolutely good or absolutely bad. No forms of govt. remain permanent
and offer a cycle of government.

Monarchy Tyranny

Democracy Aristocracy

Polity Oligarchy

Aristotle's Cycle of Change

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Favourite govt. of different authors
S. No. Author Type of Govt.
1. Plato Monarchy and Democracy
2. Aristotle Polity
3. Machiavelli Monarchy
4. John Locke Democracy

Critics of Aristotle Admirers/Followers of Aristotle

 Skeptics & Stoics
 Thinker Date of Birth
 Justus Lipsus
 Pierre Charron  Polybius (204 - 122) BC
 Michel de Montaigue  Cicero (106 - 43) BC
 Grotius  Thomas Aquinas (1227 - 1274)
 Hobbes  Marsilio of Padua (1270 - 1342)
Favourite govt. of different authors  Machiavelli (1469 - 1527)
Author Type of Govt.  John Locke (1632 - 1704)
Plato Monarchy and Democracy  Sandel (1952 -
Aristotle Polity  Taylor (1856 - 1915)
Machiavelli Monarchy
John Locke Democracy
Critics of Aristotle: Hobbes completely deliberated him.
Prof Maxey described him as „first scientist‟.
This book is as if a single book can be the classical representation of Greek Political Philosophy. Foster
Aristotle‟s Politics as the richest treasure that has come to us from an antiquity Zeller
Treatise on the science and art of government Max Lerner
Politics is a collection of different essays rather than a singular treatise Baker
State was developed from the family to satisfy the needs and desire of people Aristotle
Aristotle is the greatest of all Platonic Foster
Politics is the master science Aristotle
From the hours of birth some men are marked for subjection and other for rule Aristotle
The Politics consists of 8 books
Book I introduce the Treatise and deals with slavery and Book II deals with Plato‟s ideal state. Book III deals
with Citizenship and perverted form of constitution and monarchy where as Book IV, deals with various forms
of governments. Book V & VI deals with oligarchy and democracy where as Book VIII, discusses the
constitution of an ideal state and point discussion.
Books on Aristotle
S. No Book Author Date of Birth
1. Aristotle: Fundamental of the history of his Wagner Jaeger 1912
development
2. Aristotle W. D. Ross 1953
3. The Political Thought of Plato and Aristotle Barker 1948
4. Master of Political Thought Foster 1969
5. Rhetorical Discourage David Young 2001
6. A History of Political Thought Sabine 1973
7. Great Political Thinkers Ebenstein 1959
Machiavelli
He was born in Florence, Italy in 3 May, 1469. He was 3rd child in his family. He was from a middle class
family. His father Bernado was a civic lawyer. In 1500 he visited court of Louis XII as a diplomat. He was
known by „Sir Nihilo‟ which means nothing. In 1513 he was sent to jail for a year but released by Medici family
that is why he dedicated his „The Prince” to Medici family. He gave Prince and Discourage, The History of
Florence. He died in 1927.
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The Prince deals with suggestion for a success ruler, Monarchy and absolute govt where as Discourage admires
expanded Roman Empire & greater emphasis on civic demand of citizens. He joined government as secretary of
chancery. Then he got a chance to handle the department of war and interior. But with the change in government
he was removed and sent to jail. In 1513 he produced „The Prince‟. Eight years later he produced Discourage.
Influences on Machiavelli
i) Condition in Italy: At that time, Italian peninsula was divided into many states especially Kingdom of
Naples, Territory of Roman Catholics Church, The Duchy of Millen and The Republic of Venice &
Republic of Florence. He wrote books like „Art of War, The Discourage on Livy & The Prince. He
pleaded for a strong ruler who could unite the country and excel foreign invaders.
ii) Impact of Republic i.e. Renaissance movement: This movement influenced the Machiavelli a lot. This
movement was the strongest in Florence.
iii) Emergence of strong Monarchies: he was influenced by Aristotle and Marsiglio for strong monarchy.
He learned the idea of separation of ethics from politics, the state was the highest organization of human
beings & three fold Divisions State as Monarchy, Aristocracy and Democracy from Aristotle. Like from
Marsiglio he learned the idea of secularism and political utility of religion. His method was inductive
like Plato. Morley „Machiavelli‟s merit in the history of political literature is his method‟. According to
Machiavelli human being are selfish, wicked and degenerate. He says that man is not social but
antisocial and always tries to promote his own interest. A person can more readily forgive the murder of
his father then the confiscation of his patrimony. Machiavelli proposes two different standards of
morality i.e. one for the ruler and the other for private citizens.
A successful state is one which is found by a single man. He favoured Monarchy and completely abhorred
Aristocracy. He divides state into normal and perverted. In normal citizens were faithful and law abiding, sprit of
patriotism & were prepared to defend their motherland at any cost. But in perverted state these qualities were
absent. In fact expansion was a symbol of healthy state. He was known as father of modern political theory. He
advocates end justifies means. He suggested compulsory military training for 17 - 40 age every citizens. His
method was inductive.
Definitions
State is the power which has the authority over men. - Machiavelli
Either a state must expand or perish - Machiavelli
Some men are ruled by force & some other by law - Machiavelli
„In Machiavelli‟s eyes the state knows no ethics‟ Prof Maxey
„He lacked understanding of just what he most of all need to know‟ Prof Allen
„We find everybody using Machiavelli and still denouncing him‟ Lord Action
Machiavelli‟s merit in the history of political literature is his method Morley
The Prince was written of a Prince for a Prince and for no one else. Allen
Machiavelli was first modern political thinker. Dunning
He was the first modern political theorist and scientist. Olschki
Murderous Machiavelli Shakespeare
A dammed Machiavelli do
„Holds the candle to the devil himself‟ do
Machiavelli gave „Private and public morality‟.
„Machiavelli was first Modern Political Thinker‟. Prof Dunning
According to Machiavelli, human nature was wicked and selfish, egoistic.
Machiavelli was the first to speak of the „raison d‟etate‟ of the state.
S. No. Work Date
1. The Prince 1513
2. The Discourage 1521
3 Belfagor 1521
4. The Art of War 1521
5. History of Florence 1525
6. Theory of change & Fortune as a women

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The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy 1860 - Jacob Burckhardt
Followers of Machiavelli
i) Gramsci - The Modern Prince
- Prison Notebook
Machiavelli‟s suggestion for a king:
These are mentioned in The Prince. It is based on two premises borrowed mainly from Aristotle. They are the
judicious use of law and physical force. He must combine in himself rational as well as brutal characteristics, a
combination of lion and fox. He must be free from emotional disturbances & capable of taking advantage of the
emotions of other. He should be cool and calculating and should oppose evil by evil. In the interest of the state
he should be prepared to sin boldly. He should aim to be feared than loved. To him, preservation of state was
raison d‟état of the Monarch. He must regard his neighbour as likely enemies and keep always on guard. A
clever prince will attack the enemy before the latter is ready. The ruler is the creator of law as also of morality.
Thomas Hobbes
He was born in an Anglican Clergyman in 1581 in England. He was died at an age of 99 years. He was witness
of civil war in England & was supporter of the king. He was known as father of Empiricism. He said man is an
animal motivated by only two considerations i.e. fear and self interest. Man is highly self centred. Man by birth
are are equal. Man is quarrel some, wicked etc. his views are same as that of Machiavelli but difference between
them was that Machiavelli did not gave explanation that why man‟s nature is so but Hobbes explains it
scientifically. He took the idea of social contract from Plato and Hooker, human nature from Grotius and
adequate it with dictates of reason, concept of sovereignty from Bodin and improved it, concept of mechanical
nature from Galileo. His chief contribution was that he universalized a particular problem. Scientific method is
one of the greatest contributions of Hobbes in political theory, before him Plato also gave but Hobbes improved
it excellently. Everything which exists consists of particles moving in mechanical ways. There are three different
parts of his philosophy i.e.
First - Deals with physical phenomenon called Physics
Second - deals with mental phenomenon called Psychology
Third - Civil Philosophy, this third is somewhat complex
According to him, these three works are also a result of moving particles.
Definition
Fear and I were born together Hobbes
He is perhaps the greatest individualistic in the history of political thought Prof Waper
Probably the greatest writer on political philosophy that the English speaking Sabine
people have produced
Hobessian conception of human nature was a libel on individuals, for he Bramhal
characterized them worse than bears and wolves
Hobbes was the first to lay down the science of power politics Macpherson
The Leviathan is the greatest perhaps the sole masterpiece of political philosophy Oakeshott
written in the English Language
Hobbes on state of nature: The human being in state of nature has desire for safety, desire for gain & desire for
glory. The desire for gain leads to violence. There could be no distinction between right and wrong. In state of
nature because of lack of judges no difference between just and unjust in the state of nature because of lack of
superior i.e. sovereign or law. There was no right to property in state of nature. He calls the state of nature as
„war of every man against every man‟.
Hobbes on Social Contract: The violence lead to the necessity for protection and the result is that they set a
common power to protect them. „I authorise and gave up my right of governing myself to this man‟. Contract
was base on reason but not fair „Covenants without swords but words‟. People have no right to oppose the
sovereignty. Minority has no right to objection the choice of majority. No restriction on sovereign law not even
by God. He gives executive, legislative & judicial power to the sovereign and hence discards the theory of
separation of power. He does not permit the sovereign to share it. He permits the sovereign to make any law. His
concept of law was an improvement over Bodin concept of law.

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He gave theory of absolute sovereignty & was first thinker to conceive state as human institution. He said only
man made law can be applicable in human affair. Justice for Hobbes is by product of law. He gave 19 principles
known as „Article of Peace or Law of Nature‟. He said „every man strives to accommodate himself to the rest‟.
Thomas Hobbes borrowed principles of resolute composite from Galileo which are also known as Galileo‟s
techniques of investigation. Hobbes gave mechanical materialism. He borrowed Grotius „The law of war and
Peace‟. He translated Thucydides‟s „History of Peloponnesian war‟ in 1629 in English.
S. No. Work Year
1. De Cive 1642
2. Elements of law 1655
3. De Corpore 1655
4. Levithan 1651
5. Behemoth 1670
Out of his all works Leviathan was the most important. It was described by Parliament as „A most poisonous
piece of Atheism‟. He praised Plato‟s „Timaeus‟ & rejected Aristotle completely.
John Locke
He was born in family of Puritan lawyer in 1632 in England. After completing his MA, he become a tutor in
oxford, but was not interested in it. Then he established himself as medical practitioner. In that time, he came in
contact with Lord Ashley. Ashley provided him opportunity to meet with various great men. Lord Ashley was
charged because of his support for restoration of Charles II. He was obliged to leave England and refugee in
Holland. In Holland he came in contact with William of Orange. In the wake of Bloodless revolution of 1688,
when Orange was invited to occupy the thrown and filling his vacancy by King James – II, Locke also returned
with him to England & appointed him as commissioner of appeal. Locke died in 1704. Thus he was
contemporary of Hobbes and witness of restoration of Charles-II in 1660 & Bloodless revolution of 1688.
Influence on Locke: He was influenced by a number of theorists, some important of them are Lord Ashley,
Hobbes, Filmer, Hooker and Glorious revolution which resulted in replacement of absolute monarchy by
responsible govt. According to him men are „basically descent, orderly and social minded and quite capable of
ruling themselves‟. He was influenced by Filmer and Hobbes, as both were strongly justified absolute govt.
Accordingly he wrote „First treatise on civil Government‟ to refute Filmer and „2nd Treatise on Civil
Government‟ to refute Hobbes. According to Prof Vaughan „The Treatise of Locke is a gun with two barrel one
directed against Filmer and the other against Hobbes.
Locke was very greatly influenced by Sydney‟s „Discourage concerning government‟ published in 1683. In this
book it was forcefully pleaded that institution of government was created by men for their own security and
interest and it rests on the consent of people & thus emphasising principle of sovereignty of the people. He was
influenced by Hooker and borrowed theory of consent and theory of contract from him. Locke also borrowed the
idea of supremacy of people over Government from Hooker & twisted it.
Locke on Human Nature: His views on human nature are scattered in „Essay Concerning Human
Understanding‟ and second Treatise. According to him human beings are basically descent and have been
endured with a natural social instinct. They are peace loving and quarrel some. They are not selfish always.
Human beings are equal with rights i.e. right to life, liberty, property. These rights are not due to position or
strength of human being but because they are human being.
Locke on State of Nature: He does not consider the State of Nature as State of war against all. He considered it
as an era of peace loving, good will, mutual assistance and preservation. He considered state of nature as pre-
political rather than pre-social.
Locke on Law of Nature: Law governs the lives of man not only in state of nature, but also today in civil
society. He says that there are some natural laws such as right to life, liberty, property no government can violate
them.
Locke on Social Contract: Lack of three things gives rise to social contract. These three things are 1st is lack of
establishment settle & unknown law. 2nd is the lack of imperial judges who could interpret and execute law. 3rd is
the lack of an executive who could enforce a just decision. It was contract of all with all. He also permits to those
who wish to remain outside the civil society to remain in state of nature. In other words his contract was not
clearly mentioned by him. He further says minority should accept the decision of majority. He permits right to
the people to revolt against the sovereignty if some of their natural rights are violated.

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Lock on state: His views are quite different from Hobbes. Hobbes treated it necessary for protection of life of
individual and assigned it absolute power. Locke holds that it was created only to remove some inconvenience of
law of nature. He assumes that state is composed of three powers i.e. legislative, executive and federation. Out of
these three he considers legislative as important one and designated it as „supreme power of commonwealth‟.
But he does not grant supreme power to legislative or any other and left to people. Following the Aristotelian
tradition he divides govt. into three categories i.e. Monarchy, Aristocracy and Democracy depending upon the
number of persons exercising legislative power. He considered democracy as the best government. His state
operates on principle of religious tolerance and is opposite to all types of religious persecutions. He wants the
state to be neutral in religious matter.
Locke on Revolution: As a defender of Glorious Revolution, he discusses the problem of resistance to authority
of government and justified the right of people to revolt against the sovereignty. He under no circumstances is
permitted the right to revolt.
Locke on Property: he views property in two senses. 1st is broad sense i.e. right to life, right to liberty and
estate. In narrow sense he says in the state of nature, nobody has private property. There is a property which is
owned commonly by community called external property. In addition to it he says these every person has private
property which cannot be taken away by anybody. His private property is the property which a body produces by
his labour or sweat. He says „everyman has a property in his own person‟ his labour theory gave rise to modern
socialism. He does not limit that who much property a person can acquire. He warns that only the individual
should not destroy it. He said „property is sanctioned by God and earned by men‟.
Locke on Individual: Prof Vaughan says that „everything in Locke system revolves around the individual.
Everything is disposed so as to ensure the sovereignty of individual. Consider the government only as legitimate
govt. which is based on consent of individual. He believes in pleasure and pain theory. He advocates division of
power.
Contribution of Locke:
i) He was the first to distinction between society, state and government.
ii) He gave doctrine of natural rights.
iii) Doctrine of supremacy of community on which basis latter J J Rousseau gave theory of General Will.
iv) Locke said sovereignty power is exercised by community.
v) Rousseau said sovereignty permanently lies in community.
vi) His right to revolt influenced the people of America and France.
vii) He is the Father of Liberalism and was the first to say „People are the source of all authority‟.
viii) He laid the foundation of Labour theory which influenced classical economist and also Marx‟s Labour
Theory.
ix) He does not favour interference of God or religion in the affairs of the state.
x) He was regarded as the founder of modern empiricism with Hume, Berkeley, J S Mill, Rousseau and
Ayer as its exponents.
xi) He gave concept of „Tabula Rasa‟ which means mind itself is a result of process of evolution.
xii) He believed in „Government with the consent of governed‟.
Works of Locke
S. No. Work Year
1. Two Tracts on Government 1660
2. Essay on the Law of Nature in Latin 1664
3. An Essay Concerning Tolerance 1667
4. Some Considerations on the lowering of interest 1668
5. Raising the Value of Money 1668
6. Essays Concerning human Understanding (this book was forbidden in 1679
Oxford and its colleges)
7. The Letter on Toleration 1689
8. Second Letter on Toleration 1691
9. Third Letter on Toleration (written in response to criticism made by 1691
Jonas Proast)
10. Some Thought on Education 1693
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11. The Reasonableness of Christianity 1695
Filmer wrote Patriarcha or the Nature Power of King. Filmer‟s this theory was refuted by Locke, Tyrrel
(Patriarcha non Monarcha in 1681) & Sidney (who denounced Filmer from the Scaffold. He wrote „Two
Treatises‟ for the benefit of Bodleian Library. In 1903 he recommended the books along Aristotle‟s Politics and
Hooker‟s Ecclesiastical Polity.
Definitions
Locke was neither a spokesman of Whig orthodoxy nor a defender of the Glorious Lasslet
Revolution of 1688.
Locke was an apologist and a theorist of bourgeois society Macpherson
Locke was revolutionary and that has created problem for both left and rights Ashcraft
Locke reduced the state to a negative institution, a kind of gigantic limited liability Laski
company.
Rousseau‟s philosophy is nothing more than widening the channel dug by Locke. Laski
People are the source of all authority. Locke

J. J. Rousseau
He was born in Geneva in 1712 in a middle class French family. His mother died while giving birth and burden
fell on father. At the age of 10 years old his father left his country and he fell on care of his uncle. At the age of
16 years he left his home and led the life of a vagabond. He made a mark in Political Thought in 1740 when he
wrote an essay „Has the progress of Science & the Arts helped to purify corrupt morals‟ from Dijon Academy.
This work not only won prize but also become famous in literacy cycle of France. Five years later he wrote on
„The origin and foundation of inequality‟ in which he attacked the private property & held it responsible for
inequality in society.
Influence on Rousseau: He was influenced by his hard life, his environment and the philosopher preceding him
viz. Plato, Locke, Montesquieu and Hobbes. He was mostly influenced by Locke‟s concept of natural rights,
sovereignty of community, Theory of consent etc. Locke and Rousseau started some premises but reached
different results. Rousseau borrowed ides of constitutionalism from Montesquieu. It was his influence which
Rousseau becomes democratic rather than despotic.
Rousseau on Human Nature: According to him man was basically good and it is only the wrong social action
which makes him wicked. He holds that man is governed by two instincts i.e. self love and mutual aid or
sympathy. He gave concept of conscience (clash between two classes). He says when self interest goes astray it
gives rise to pride and his pride is the root cause of most of evils.
Rousseau on State of Nature: His views on State of Nature are quite different from Hobbes and Locke.
According to him in State of Nature all men were equal and lived in peaceful life. The social extinction of men
ultimately compelled him to give up solitary life and take to group life. Gradually the social institutions also
developed and self love began to take the shape of pride and the idea of private property emerged. This is mine
and found other people simple enough to believe him. The scramble for land & other property resulted in war,
murder etc.
Rousseau on Social Contract: Like Hobbes and Locke, he also assumes that people entered into a social
contract to get out of wretched condition. He improved Hobbes & Locke‟s method & gave him own. “Each of us
puts this person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of general will of which he is also a
member”. Some basic features of J. J. Rousseau‟s social contract are
a) The individual is made to surrender everything to society
b) The individual surrendered all his right not to any individual but to a body which he is himself a part.
c) The contract gives rise to an organic society.
Views on General Will:
Actual will - Which is selfish, irrational, thoughts of itself only without carrying for others
Real Will - Which is higher, noble & supreme & which things of all not of a single body
General will - Real will + Farsightedness of individual

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Actual Will General Will
Motivated by self-interest By collective interest
Lower-self Reflected higher-self
Gratification of desires Acts of reason
Unstable Stable
Attributes of General Will:
a) It is indivisible, just like personality of an individual cannot be divided.
b) Like human will, General Will cannot be represented by anybody else.
c) General will is supreme & nobody can refuse to obey it. „Whosoever refused to obey the general will
shall be compelled to do so by the whole body he will be forced to be free.
d) Rousseau divided the individual into 2 parts the essential and non essential. The essential part is rational
and non-rational is selfish.
e) General will is single and cannot be alienated.
f) General Will cannot be represented & therefore Rousseau believed in direct democracy through General
Will.
Rousseau on Sovereignty: It lies in the community as a whole i.e. Sovereignty of the people. There are no
limitations on authority of sovereignty General will. His sovereignty is same as that of Hobbes i.e. absolute
sovereignty. But the difference between them is that Hobbes confers all power in a single person and Rousseau
vests it collectively in community as general will.
Definitions:
Would it not have been better for the world if the Rousseau had not been born Lord Morley
Rousseau political philosophy was so vague that it can hardly be said to point Sabine
in any specific direction
J J Rousseau is the father of Jacobin despotism, of caesarean dictatorship and Dugit
the inspirer of the absolute doctrine of Kant and Hegel.
Rousseau was the insane Socrates of the National Assembly Burke
Many of Rousseau‟s ideas were put into practice during latter and more Vaughan
terrible phase of the revolution
Rousseau‟s teaching is only a broadening of channel dug by Locke. Locke
He was not merely the people‟s Advocate; he was bone of their bone and Maxey
flesh of flesh.
It was iron and corn which first civilized men and ruined humanity Rousseau
viewed him as a „a precursor of modern totalitarianism‟ Cobban, Talmon &
Taylor
described him as „Romantic collectivist‟ Karl Popper
„Insane Socrates of the national assembly Edmund Burke
Concept of general will left a great impression on idealist thinkers i.e. Kant and Hegel. Hegel‟s Sprit of Nation
was nothing but a reformed form of Rousseau concept of Common Good which subsequently developed by
utilitarian thinkers like Bentham & Mill into concept of greatest happiness of greatest numbers. Rousseau
believed in participatory democracy. He tackled problem of minority option.
S. No. Book Year
1. Has the progress of Arts and Science helped to purify corrupt morals 1740
2. The origin and foundation of inequality 1745
3. Institutions Politique 1744
4. Discourage on the Science and Arts 1750
5. Discourage on the origin of inequality 1755
6. La Nouvelle Heloise 1761
7. Social Contract or Principle of Political Rights 1762
8. Emile (Treatise on Education) 1762
9. The Confession (Back to nature)
10. Project of a constitution for Corsica 1764
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11. Consideration on the Government of Poland 1772
12. Letter from Mountain
Works for establishing peace in Europe
S. No. Work Author
1. La Nouveau Cynee or The New Cyneas 1632 Cruce
2. Essay towards the Present and Future Peace of Europe Penn
3. A Project for making Peace perpetual in Europe 1713 St. Pierre
4. A Lasting Peace through the Federation of Europe 1774 Rousseau
5. Perpetual Peace 1795 Kant
6. Plan for a Universal and Perpetual peace 1789 Bentham
After W. W. 1st, Karl Deutsch opened a school of Cybernetic School of Integration. Rousseau believed in
federation for establishing peace in Europe. He was also known as father of Jacobin despotism. He criticised
civil society and gave concept of social contract.
The Issue Hobbes Locke Rousseau
Human Nature Selfish and cruel Rational being Simple and innocent
(„Noble Savage‟)
State of Nature War of all against all State of peace, good will, State if idyllic
mutual assistance and blissfulness‟
preservation
Natural Rights Natural powers to oppress Right to life, liberty and Natural liberty to fulfil all
others & natural urge for property needs from the natural
self preservation world as long as there is
natural abundance
Purpose of Creation of all powerful To form govt to protect all To evade scarcity
social contract sovereign who can control natural rights situation and to protect
and protect everyone other‟s property
Terms
Terms of social Every man will surrender They surrender to the All individuals
contract his natural rights to sovereign, not all his rights, surrendered their natural
sovereign but only the right/power to liberty to the power of
preserve order and enforce community that provides
the law of nature them civil liberty
Nature of Absolute sovereignty Limited sovereignty Popular sovereignty
Sovereignty
Right to revolt No Yes Not required
Jeremy Bentham
He was born in 1748 in England. He was known as father of Utilitarianism. He was influenced by American War
of Independence, French Revolution, Hume and Priestley etc. He said all actions of man are motivated by
pleasure and pain. Every man tries to get pleasure and avoid pain. He regards the concept of natural rights as
nonsense because rights are created by State and could not exist outside it. He also called natural rights as
„invention of fantasy‟. He assignees only negative functions to State & permits the people to disobey the State it
it failed to promote general happiness.
Definitions
An enemy of the status quo and the greatest questioner of things established J. S. Mill
Warm which has been growing at the insides of modern civilization Keynes
responsible for its present moral decay
Reformer of the law and first significant English writer Oakeshott
Describes his philosophy as „striking‟ Emerson
Shallowest of all conceivable philosophers of lofe Schumpter
A boy having neither internal nor external experience J S Mill

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A Philosopher of social cookbook recipes Leon Trotsky
Bentham reduced the individual to a customer of utilities C. B. Macpherson
Important Books
S. No. Book Year
1. A Fragment on Government 1776
2. An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation 1789
3. Anarchical Fallacies 1791
4. Discourage on Civil and Penal Legislation 1802
5. Indirect Legislation 1802
6. A Theory of Punishment and Reward 1811
7. A Treatise on Judicial Evidences 1813
8. Paper upon codification and public instruction 1817
9. Plan for Parliamentary reforms 1817
10. Church of Englandism 1818
11. The Book of Fallacies 1824
12. Rationale of Evidence 1827
He recommended big brother supervision with 14 hours per day. He gave 14 simple pleasure and 12 simple
pains. Carlyle described his philosophy as „Pig Philosophy‟. He gave concept of Felicific Calculus/Hedonistic
Calculus as a method of measuring pleasure or pain by taking various factors such as intensity etc. into account.
He said pushpin was as good as poetry. Bentham borrowed the idea that man‟s behaviour should be governed by
advancement of pleasure and avoid pan from Epicurus. Bentham criticised the State.
J S Mill
He is considered as the last of utilitarianism and the foremost of the individualist. He was born in London in
1806. He was the eldest son of James mill. He was influenced by the dialogue and dialectic method of Plato. He
was also influenced by the history of Roman government. He had the maximum influence of the Utilitarian
philosophy of Bentham. At the age of 16 years he founded the Utilitarian Society. He also became the member
of speculative Debating society and Political economy club. He was also influenced by the Coleridge and
Wordsworth & his wife Taylor. He died in 1873 in England.
Mill and Utilitarianism: During his youth he was a great supporter of Bentham‟s doctrine and radical politics.
During the latter years he made modifications in the principle of utilitarianism. In the process Mill restated the
doctrine of Utilitarianism in his famous essay „Utilitarianism‟ and introduced many elements which could run
counter to the hedonist doctrine. As Ivor Brown has observed „He made Utilitarianism at once more human and
less consistent‟.
He said that pleasure differed not in quantity but also also in quality. He drew distinction between higher and
lower pleasure. He said „it is better to a human being dissatisfied then a pig satisfied. Better to be a Socrates
dissatisfied then a fool satisfied. He disagree with Bentham „push pin was good as poetry‟. Mill said he should
prefer small amount of superior pleasure than larger amount of low quality pleasure. Mill doesn‟t agrees with
Bentham that pleasure was the only cause and motive for individual‟s action. He held that individual pleasure
did not give him maximum pleasure on the other hand it was collective pleasure which gives maximum
happiness and joy to individual. Thus he held that pleasure comes from outside and not from inside. Whereas
Bentham says pleasure comes from within. Thirdly Bentham considers personal happiness as sole criteria for all
human actions. Mill introduced the concept of good life as more than a life devoted to pleasure i.e. he places the
moral ends above individual happiness.
Fourthly concept of Liberty also differs between Bentham and Mill. Bentham did not attach any importance to
the Liberty because it did not contribute to the greatest happiness of greatest numbers. He attached more
importance to security then liberty. But Mill considers Liberty essential for the attainment of the principle of
utility and asserted that majority rights could be protected only when all enjoyed liberty.
Mill supported public voting and Bentham supported secret voting. Mill supported special treatment for women
and sees some defects in existing legal system. Mill was more concerned with economic and social problems.
Both justified Democracy. Mill justified it for condition of man whereas Bentham justified it because of nature
of man. Bentham supported unicameral legislation whereas Bentham supported bicameral. Mill supported plural

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voting i.e. more than one vote for educated and skilled ones & people paying taxes etc. whereas Bentham
supported one one vote for all.
Mill on Liberty: He was a great champion of individual liberty. He stood for minimum interference of
government in individual affairs. He held that democracy, public opinion & collectivism were dangerous for
individual liberty. However he supported restriction of individual liberty if it results in injury of others.
„Over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign‟ J. S. Mill
Barker describes him as „prophet of empty liberty‟.
„Despotism is a legitimate mode of government in dealing with barbarians‟ J. S. Mill
Mill on State: Mill considered State as a product of will of people who compose it rather than an instrument for
the promotion of their interest. He therefore completely rejected the mechanistic theory of State because they
ignored the human will and neglected the personality of men. Mill doesn‟t emphasise the negative character of
the state like Bentham. He considered Representative Government as the best government because „it was a
means of bringing the general standard of intelligence and honesty existing in the community. He thus supported
proportional representation.
Though Mill wanted to give the right to vote to all without distinction, he was also equally convinced that all
were not competent to exercise this right properly and intelligently. He therefore pleaded for greater weight age
in voting for persons with better abilities and capabilities. He insisted on property and education qualification for
voters. In his words „it is important that the Assembly which votes the taxes, either general or local, should be
elected executively by those who something toward the taxes imposed. Mill advocated open voting in contrast to
secret voting. Mill stood for equal treatment of women and favoured similar position for them as was enjoyed by
men. He justified right of franchise for women. Mill was against payment to the members of parliament. He
asserted that membership of parliament was an honour and services for which members need no payment. He
was also a supporter of democracy and favoured true democracy. False democracy is one which counts for
oneself and True democracy is one in which men rule for common good. Mill made state a moral institution with
a moral end.
Works of J. S. Mill
S. No. Work Year
1. Elements of Political Economy 1820
2. System of Logic 1843
3. Principles of Political Economy 1848
4. On Liberty 1859
5. Consideration on representative govt. 1861
6. Utilitarianism 1863
7. Subjection of Women 1869
8. Enfranchisement of women (combine work with Harriet Taylor Mill) 1852
9. Three essays on Religion 1874
10. Dissertation and discussion 1859
11. Thought on Parliamentary reforms 1859
A Reluctant Democrate C. L. Wayper
If anyone is liberal it is surely J.S. Mill Gray
Hegal
A most outstanding advocate of organic theory of state, he was born in 1770 in Wurttemberg i.e. Germany. He
was influenced by French Revolution, Aristotle, Plato, Hume, Rousseau and Kant etc. He held that man is social
by nature and necessity. He attains best only with the assistance of others. He described „Sate is the march of
God on earth‟. He didn‟t give any right to individual against the state. He treats state as the creator of all
individual rights. Freedom can be possible within the state. He supported constitutional monarchy because under
it perfect rationality could be achieved as it combines itself the best elements of Monarchy, Aristocracy and
democracy.
Most outstanding feature of Hegel philosophy is his dialectic method. He saw three stages of developments.
According to him whole process of evolution started with abstract universal concept called thesis. This concept
gives rise to contradiction called antithesis. The above process continues till the contradictions are removed.
Concepts: Following are concepts are given by Hegal.
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 Time Spirit
 Cunning reason
 Civil society
 Philosophy of rights
 Phenomenology of spirit
Karl Marx
He is regarded as God by half of the world and devil by other half of the world. He was born in 1818 in
Rhineland Germany and wanted to become a professor but could not become. He became a journalist. In
October 1842 he took up a job as an editor of lebral paper known as Rheinsche Zeitung. However in 1843 the
government banned his newspaper and he was thrown on the road. Then he wants to France. There he met with
Friedrich Engels, with whom he developed lifelong friendship. He was also influenced by French Revolution.
Engels became his continuous Financer in 1845. Both went to England where they introduced to workers
Education Union of German students. He was greatly influenced by it and on his return to Brussels, he set up a
similar association named it German Working Men Association. In 1847 a congress of such association was held
at London which resulted in the formation of international communist league. At the second meeting of
International Communist League, Marx and Engels were assigned the formidable task of preparing its manifesto.
In 1848 the two drafted the famous communist Manifesto, which contains clearest and most compact statements
of Marx philosophy.
The Manifesto appeared at a time when Chaotic condition prevailed in France, Belgium as well as Germany. The
Authority was greatly alarmed by the Manifesto. Belgium government was so much alarmed that it arrested
Marx and deported him from its territory. Then Marx moved to Germany and brought out „demands for the
Communist Party in Germany‟ which provided the base of revolution in the country. In 1849 he was expelled
from Germany and moved to England where he stayed till his death. He wrote „contributions to the critique of
political economy‟. Then Marx and Engels became the regular contributor of New York and Tribune.
Sources of Marx Philosophy
Marx was inspired from three ideological currents i.e. The German Classical Philosopher, The Classical School
of British Economy & French Revolutionary tradition. He was also influenced by Hegel as a student and learned
from him as that nature was dynamic and moved in zigzag way. He was also influenced by Hegel‟s Dialect
which explained the process of thesis, antithesis and synthesis. He did not like his idealism and replaced it into
materialism. Marx said „my dialectic method is not different from the Hegelian but it is its direct opposite. He
borrowed the idea of Theory of value and Surplus value from classical school of British Political Economy. The
difference between them and he was that they used it to promote and protect the interest of capitalists but he did
it for wage owners. He was also influenced by Adam Smith, Ricardo and William Thompson. Marx was also
influenced by French Socialists Philosophers. Cabinet in France has preached complete state control over
individual and Marx was greatly influenced by him. He also borrowed idea of class war from the French
Socialist who talked much about the clashing interest of the rich and the poor.
Communist Manifesto: It was drafted by Marx and Engels at the behest of the Communist International League
in 1848. It is broadly divided into four parts. The first part deals with history of social revolution. It starts with
assertion that „the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggle‟ & proceeds to say that in
modern times society is divided into two hostile parts i.e. haves and haves not, the exploiters and exploited. The
second part deals with doctrine of the Communist Party and its justification. It contains the programme of party
and the means for its realisation. The third part of the manifesto severely criticises and ridicules the various
forms of socialism which preceded the Marxian discovery of scientific socialism. The fourth part gives the
summary of the position of the communist and their tactics.
Definitions
One of the most revolutionary tracts of all times Sabine
The Marxian Theory of Value is nothing but Ricardo Transcribed Prof Grey
Every class struggle is a political struggle Marx
Marx defines communism as „It is the complete return of man to himself as a social‟.
His work „Philosophy of poverty‟ is not a work on alienation.
Marx treated religion as „The opium of the people‟.
Lenin‟s philosophy is the Marxism of era of imperialism and the proletarian revolution Stalin
Lenin‟s dialects was dreadful, dull repetitive, dogmatic and superficial survey Wayper
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Marx wrote at once the epitaph of new capitalism and prophecy of its ultimate outcome. Laski
Those who owns the means of production, controls not only the economic life but also possesses Political power
Karl Marx
Off all the classes the proletariat alone is the reality revolutionary class Karl Marx
He who doesn‟t work, neither shall eat Karl Marx
The philosophers have interpreted the world, what matters whoever is to change Karl Marx
Communism is the complete return of man to himself as a social Karl Marx
The world at every stage is both a product and prophecy Karl Marx
Violence is the mid wife of revolution Karl Marx
Man is what he eats Feuerbach
We are monkey of an icy good Karl Marx
Sell a man fish, he will eat for a day Karl Marx
Karl Marx was influenced by Feuerbach‟s atheism and criticised his inconsistent espousal of materialism. Karl
Marx
Freedom is always the freedom of dissenters Rusa Luxemberg
I distinguish religion from theism Feuerbach
It is the man who have made the God rather than God who have made man Karl Marx
Historical materialism is the heart of Marxism J Plamenatz
Socialism is like a hat that has lost its shape because everyone wears it C E M Joad
Lenin did more to defect the course of world history then any political figure since Napoleon Chamberlain
Lenin theory may be defined as an adoption of Marxism to non-industrial economies
to societies with a prevailing present population. Its worldwide importance depends
upon the fact that world is full of such societies George Sabine
Never play at uprising, but once it is begun, remember firmly that you have to go to very end Lenin
It is necessary to gather a great preponderance of forces in a decisive place. Lenin
One must strive to take the enemy by upraise to take advantage of a movement when
his troops are scattered Lenin
Capitalists dig their own graves Karl Marx
Feuerbach (1806-1872) was the teacher of Marx.
Kantsky, Bernstein, Rose Luxemburg & Leo Trotsky criticised the Lenin.
Stalin established State Socialism in Russia.
He gave concept of revolution in one country.
Concepts given by Marx
 Dialectical materialism
 Historical materialism
 Theory of revolution
 Alienation Theory
 Class Struggle
 Revolutionary system
Works of Karl Marx
S. No. Work Year
1. The Player (Poem) 1840
2. Oulanem 1840
3. Rheinische Zeitung 1843
4. Criticism of Hegel‟s Philosophy of Rights 1843
5. The essence of Christinity 1843
6. Manicripits 1844
7. Thesis on Feurbach 1845
8. German Ideology 1847
9. On the Jewish question 1848
10. Communist Manifesto 1848
11. Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte 1852
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12. Critique of Political Economy 1859
13. Civil war in France 1871
14. Critique of Gotha Programme 1875
15. Holy Family 1845
Books by Engels
S. No. Work Year
1. Anti Duhrung 1884
2. Origin of the family, private property and the State 1884
3. Principle of Communism 1847
Other books related to Marxism
S. No. Work Arthur
1. The State in Capitalist Society Ralph Miliband
2. Why Socialism? Marxism & Democracy N Bobbio
3. Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy Schumpter
4. Prostent ethics and rise of capitalism Max Weber
5. Marxism before Marx David Mclellan
6. Karl Marx his life and Thought Do
7. Marxism after Marx Do
8. Social and Political Thoughts of Karl Marx S. Avineri
9. Autonomy of State, Politics and ideology Gramsci
The theory of Surplus Value is discussed in his „Das Capital‟. Marx gave four elements of product i.e. Land,
Labour, organization of these labour is the source of value.
Alienation: Chief cause of Alienation is private property. He identified four fold alienation i.e. Alienation from
product, Alienation from Labour, Alienation from other men, Alienation from himself
Marx believed that matter (not the idea or consciousness) was the essence of the universe, that all social
institutions were the manifestation of changing material conditions.
Engels in his Anti Duhring (1878) postulated three laws of material dialects (dialectical materialism) i.e.
 Transformation of quantity into quality
 Interpenetration of opposite
 Negation of negation
Marxism
Name derived from the name of Karl Marx. The term was unknown in Marx‟s own life. Marx said „All that i
know is that i am not a Marxist.
G. V. Plekhanov (1856 -1918) was known as father of socialism in Russia. He announced that „Marxism is
whole world view‟. Marxism in its proper sense appeared in middle of the nineteenth century in response to
oppressive conditions created by Capitalist System.
Liberalism ---- 17th Century
Laissez faire ----19 Century
Saint Simon (1760-1828) & Louis Blanc in France advocated a centralised economy under state control.
Robert Owen (1771 - 1828) in England and Charles Fourier (1772) in France produced plan for setting up
model communities of free cooperation and free competition.
P. J. Proudhon (1809-1865) in France hoped for setting up a nationwide system of decentralised workers. These
above ideas are known as utopian socialists. During beginning of 1830s and 1840s the idea of Utopian Socialism
was criticised mainly by Karl Marx and Engels. Karl Marx and Engels sought to replace utopian socialism by
scientific socialism for analysis of social problems and their solution.
Marxism is a set of political and economic principles founded by Karl Marx and Engels in order to lay scientific
foundations of socialism.

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Marxism

Classical Marxism Young Marxism Neo-Marxism

It includes original tents of
Marxism It includes early work of Marx It includes contemporary debate and
which remained unpublished and criticism made after death of Marx
published after his death
Neo-Marxism: The ongoing controversies in Marx thought owe their origin to the work of Frankfort School
originally established in 1923 as institute of social research in the University of Frankfurt, exiled from Germany
in 1933 & established in the USA & after downfall of Hitler re-established in Germany in 1950s. The ideas
evolved by Frankfurt School are compendiously described as „Critical Theory‟. The leading figures of Frankfurt
School are
 Theodor Adorno (1903 – 69)
 Max Horkheimer (1895 – 1973)
 Herbert Marcuse (1898 – 1979)
 Jurgen Habermas (1929)
Other Marxist leaders
V. I. Lenin (1870 – 1924) was Russian revolutionary.
Rosa Luxemburg (1871 – 1919) was a polish activist.
Mao Zedong (1893-1976) was a Chinese revolutionary
Young Marx: It is the early work of Karl Marx which remained unpublished during his life time. It was
discoursed by German Social Democrats as late as 1972 and latter published as „Economic and Social
Manuscripts‟ of 1844. His early works contain his humanistic thought on communism and focused on the concepts
of alienation and freedom. It expressed dehumanizing effort of capitalism.
Historical Materialism: Dialectical Materialism represents the philosophical basis of Marxism & historical
materialism represents its scientific basis. It implies in any given epoch the economic relation of the society. The
means whereby men and undertake production, distribution and exchange of material goods for the satisfaction of
their needs plays important role in shaping their social, political and intellectual and ethical relations. According to
him the structure of the society may be understood in terms of its base (foundation) & superstructure. Base
consists of mode of production, while super structure is represented by its legal and political structure, religion,
morals and culture etc. Mode of production has two components i.e. force of production and relation of
production. Force of production has two components means of production (tools and equipment) and labour power
(human knowledge and skill). Owner of means of production gives rise to two classes i.e. Haves and Haves not.
Doctrine of class conflict
He gives five stages of historical development
 Primitive Communism
 Feudal Society
 Capitalist Society
 Socialist Society
 Communism Society
Communist Manifesto was originally written originally in German Language in London. Then after that it was
converted into various other languages.
Labour Theory of Value was propounded by Hobbes, Locke, Smith and Ricardo
Four elements of production are
a) Land b) Labour c) Capital d) Organization
Criticism of Karl Marx
Marxism is the Monocasual Theory of social change Max Weber
For Marx civil society is a fraud Gellner
Marxism is itself is an ideology Lukacs
David Mcclelland seems to believe in Marxism before Marx.
Neo Marxism stresses on „domination and dependence‟
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The problem of Freedom in Marxist Thought Rowcke
Only the guns are turned in opposite direction. It will be governed by the principle from each according to his
ability to each according to his work Lenin
Marxism doesn‟t offer a theory of political liberty Milovan Dilas
The dictatorship of proletariat has no democratic institutional mechanism. It is a party rule and bureaucratic
centralism Luxemburg
The optimistic vision of Marx Socialism has failed and there is no escape from it Fukuyama
Capitalists dig their own graves Marx
Kroptkin in his book „Mutual Aid‟ gave an alternative version of history. Hence he explains history as product
of cooperation rather than conflict.
One divides into two: This controversy was an ideology debate that took place in China in 1964. This concept
originated in Lenin‟s work „The Philosophical Notebook‟. The philosopher „Yong Xianzhen‟ originated the idea
of „Two unites into one‟. Relative Autonomy of State and Democratic Centralism are the two concepts given by
Lenin. The work „Leninism‟ was written by Stalin.
Base Superstructure Model
Culture Religion Politics Ideology

Economic base

Mode of Production

Relation of production Force of Production Means of Production

(ROP) (FOP) (MOP)

Gramsci‟s model of Society

State Political

Superstructure Civil Society Rest of Institutions

Base
Economy

Anarchism: It stands for a mode of thought which advocates that society should be without coercive authority
of the state. William Godwin (1756-1836) was the first thinker who urged for a stateless society in his work.
Enquiry concerning Political Justice (1793) this work is regarded as the first systematic defence of Anarchism.
However P. J. Proudhon (1809-19565), a French philosopher was the first to call himself as an Anarchist. This
ideology had its great influence in Late 19th & early 20th century. Anarchist thinkers had one common aim i.e.
abolition of all state.

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Types of Anarchism: Anarchism is of following types

Anarchism

Philosophical Socialist Revolutionary Syndicalism Pacific Libertarians

Anarchism Anarchism Anarchism Anarchism Anarchism Anarchism

Philosophical Anarchism: He is also known as Individual Anarchism, originally founded by Godwin himself.
In Indian Gandhi Ji also belonged to philosophical Anarchist. Following books are some of the example of
philosophical Anarchism.
 Enquiry concerning political justice 1793 Godwin
 The Ego and his own 1845 Max Stirner
 In Defence of Anarchism 1970 R. P. Wolff
Socialist Anarchism: P. J. Proudhon (1809 - 65), a French philosopher is the chief exponent of socialist
anarchism. He postulated „Mutual Aid‟. It is also known as Mutualism. Peter Kropotkin wrote „Mutual Aid: A
Factor of Evolution‟. His vision of Anarchism is also known as „communist Anarchism‟.
Revolutionary Anarchism: Mikhail Bakunin (1814 - 76), a Russian revolutionary is regarded as chief
exponent of revolutionary Anarchism.
Anarchic Socialism: It is also known as syndicalism anarchism chief exponent was George Sorel (1847 - 1922).
Reflection on violence (1908) written by George Sorel is also linked to it. He gave method of „general strike‟.
Pacific Anarchism: Anarchism on moral grounds. Its chief exponent was Leo Tolstoy (1828 - 1910), a Russian
Novelist.
Libertarian Anarchism: It is contemporary version of individualism anarchism. Its beginning may be traced to
Herbert Spenser (1820 - 1903). F. A. Hayek (1899 - 1992, an Austrian) & Robert Nozick (1938 - 2002, an
American) are also related to it. Following are the some of the works related to it
 Law, Legislation and Liberty 1973 F. A. Hayek
 Anarchy, State and Liberty 1974 Nozick
 Community Anarchy and Liberty 1982 M. Taylor

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Unit - 3: Indian Political Thought

Dharamshastra, Kautilya, Aggannasutta, Barani, Kabir, Pandita Ramabai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Swami
Vivekanand, Rabindranath Tagore, M.K Gandhi, Sri Aurobindo, Periyar E. V. Ramasamy, Muhammad
Iqbal, [Link], V D Savarkar, Dr. [Link], J L Nehru, Ram Manohar Lohia, Jaya Prakash Narayan,
Deendayal Upadhyaya

Introduction
Charles Wilkins translated the Bhagwat Gita into English in 1785. He also translated the Hitopadesha
into English in 1787. William Jones translated the Shakuntalam, Gita Govinda and Manusmriti into
English in 1789 and 1794. H. H. Wilson translated the Vishnu Purana and Rig Veda in English.
Leonard Chezy, Christian Lassen, E. Burnouf, August Schlegel, Bohtlingk, R. Roth and Max Muller
were founder of Sanskrit studies in Europe.
The first printed edition of the four Vedas were brought out for the first time in the world by German
Scholars i.e. Samaveda by Theodor Benfey in 1848. Rigveda by Max Muller in 1849 Vajasaneyi
Samhita by Weber in 1852 and Atharvaveda by Roth in 1856. Vivekananda hailed Max Muller as sage.
Indian thinkers with their respective stream of thought
Stream of Name of thinkers
Thought
Liberal Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Dadabhai Naoroji, MahadevGovind Ranade, Gopal
Krishna Gokhle
Idealists Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Lala Lajpat Rai, Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin
Chandra Pal, Sri Aurbindo Gosh, Veer Savarkar
Humanistic Swami Vivekananda, Rabinder Nath Tagore, M. N. Roy
Islamic Syed Ahmed Khan, Muhammad Iqbal, Muhammad Ali Jinnah
Socialist Acharya Narendra Dev, Loknayak Jayaprakash Narayan, Ram Manohar Lohia
Feminist Pandit Ramabai
Caste System Mahatma Jyotiba Phule, Babasaheb Ambedkar, Periyar E. V. Ramaswami
Naicker
Indian Renaissance: Nature and character with special reference to Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
The Indian Renaissance and Social Reform movement challenged age old traditions and customs
which bound the Indian people in chains of servitude and bondage. The burning questions of caste-
oppression, child marriage, Sati and so on, became the focal point of several a reform movements.
Attacks on idolatry and superstition were also a significant characteristic of these reforms. This
movement started from the beginning of 19 th century. In the middle of the major religious reform
movements of 19th century India, like Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Arya Samaj and Ramakrishna
Mission. Brahmo Samaj and other streams of the reform movement in Bengal fought for widespread
reforms in Hindu Society. Syed Ahmed Khan, Ranade and 'other thinkers too stood for a rational critique
of Indian society. Jyotiba Phule challenged the legitimacy of the Hindu Social order based on caste-
hierarchy and pleaded for social transformation on egalitarian grounds.
Dharamshastra
In the ancient Indian tradition we came across three great personalities of Manu i.e. Manu of Deluge,
Manu Vaivasvata and Manu, the law giver. The legend of Manu of the Deluge is described in Shatapatha
Brahmana. He was the person who survived the Great Deluge and then become the founder of the
present race of human being. Manu Vaivasvata is known to be the first king of human beings who
founded the institution of kingship.
“People suffering from anarchy, as illustrated by the proverbial tendency of a large fish swallowing a
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small one (maatsyanyaybhibhutah prajah) first elected Manu, the Vivasvata, to be the King”.
(Kautilya in Arthashastra)
Manu, the law giver, the author of famous Manusmriti or the Code of Manu is known as one of the seven
great sages created by Bramha (the creator of the Universe). There no exact time when the Manu wrote
the Manusmriti. Hopking in his work Cambridge history of India says that Manu produced his work
around the beginning or even before the Christ. While the other author of Smriti namely Vishnu lived in
the third, Yajnavalkya in the fourth and Narada in the fifth century.
Manu was the son of Bramha. He was an incarnation of God. Manusmriti was written between 200 BC
200 AD. Some believe that it was written during Shung Dynasty. In 1794 Manusmriti was translated into
English by William James under the name “the code of gentoo laws”. Manu says that women were
always to be under some control i.e. in childhood under father, after marriage under husband and during
old age under son. It also says that deity were present where women were worshiped.
It is a matter of investigation that this concept of Ashrma was applied to all four Varnas & both sexes or
not.
Sources of Law: He identifies 4 sources of law i.e.
a) Shruties, which largely comprised of 4 Vedas and they deal with the immanent and eternal laws of
the universe and provide the universal elements of all.
b) Smritis: They were the principal source of lawyers‟ law. They are coterminous with
Dharmashastras i.e. treatise on Dharma
c) Customs and approved usage which represent the conventional wisdom and the social experience of
the community (it mainly consists of Sadachar i.e. the rules of good conduct and Shishtachar i.e.
the rules of decency)
d) Dictates of good conscience which comprise an ever – evolving source of law corresponding to the
development of social consciousness.
Manu carefully distinguishes between civil and criminal laws.

Sources of law

Shruti (Vedas) Smritis Customs & Dictates of Good

(Dharmashastras) Social Practices Conscience

Universal Lawyers Law Sadachar & Shishtachar Sense of Justice as derived

Law (Rules of good conduct & from the prevailing social
Decency) consciousness)

Science of Polity: Manu is known as early exponent of Divine Origin of Kingship theory. Kings‟s
person was composed of the unique qualities of all major divinities; the might of Indera (Lord of
Heaven), the radiance of sun, the wrath of Yama (the Lord of Death), the treasure of Kuber (the Lord of
Riches) and the pleasantness of Moon. In any case, King was at best only a representative of God who
was subject to the supremacy of Dharma, like any other human being. King has Sattva guna.
“When God saw this world in state of anarchy where people were running in different directions out of
fear, he created the King for everybody‟s protection”
Manusmrit He gives no right to citizens to revolt against the king. King was the holder of Dandniti. A
king was entitled to receive 1/6th wealth of his subjects towards taxes. He is also entitled to earn 1/6th of
the divine reward of his subject‟s good deeds. He is also entitled to receive 1/6th of the divine warmth
that resulted from the bad deed of his subjects.
Political Thoughts of Manu:
a) Origin of Religion:
 Universe is moving by a system
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 System is controlled by Bramha
 Bramha called this system as Riti.
 Religion originated by Bramha Himself.
 So everything must be by religion.
b) Divine principle of monarchy: King is the representation of God himself. King was needed
because of primitive society was barbaric, anarchy (Matysayanya) prevailed everywhere people
requested god to bring peace and security and King came. It is same as Hobbes, Locke and
Chanakya.
c) Quasi-Contractual theory: It is a contract between King and people. They people surrendered
all their rights and took responsibilities. They cannot oppose the king. They requested for peace
and security from the king. The king insured peace and security. Here king is not tyrant, he must
rule according to religion.
d) Duties of King: The duties of the king are to apply Saptanga Principle. He has to improve
Taxation, Treasury, Military, Have Ministers (good), Protect Himself, Setadal (fort), Dand
(Punishment) and Friend (Mitra)
e) Dandniti: If there is mistake in awarding the punishment, then the punishment should be
reversed. The minister should be appointed on the basis of talent and devotion towards
monarchy, background should be checked, king should decentralize the governance between
ministers.
f) Varna System: Its system of Varna was based on birth with no movement from one Varna to
other, neither up gradation nor degradation. Manu in his work divided Varnas into 4 types
Varnas

Brahmins Kshatriya Vaishy Shudra

s as s
He also identifies three Gunas i.e.
i Sattva Guna: The guna refers to the highest level virtue which is based in goodness; it
makes a person kind, calm, alert and thoughtful.
ii Rajas Guna: This guna represent the middle level virtue; it is based in passion and leads
a person to the path of greed, ambition, restlessness and anger.
iii Tamas Guna: This guna corresponds to lowest level virtue; it is based in darkness or
dullness; it leads a person towards idleness, ignorance and delusion.
g) The concept of Varna in Manusmriti is closely followed by concept of Ashrama. He recognizes
four Ashramas.
i Brahmacharya: It refers to first part of 20 years of a person‟s life. It is devoted to
education, training and building up character which necessitate a good deal of self-
restraint and control of senses.
ii Grihastha: It refers to next 25 years of a person‟s life which involves the acceptance of
marriage and family obligations.
iii Vanaprastha: It refers to the third spell of twenty five years of a person‟s life. This
period is the detachment from worldly pursuits; and finally
iv Samnyasa: It refers to the period of last 25 years of a person‟s life. This period is the
renunciation and pursuit of spiritual emancipation.
Mahabharata: Link between Dharmashastra and Arthashastra
Introduction: Mahabharata is a famous epic composed by Vedavyasa, one of the illustrious sages of
ancient culture. It narrates a long drawn conflict between Kauravas and Pandavas over the dynastic
succession in which Pandavas come out to be victorious in this war. It is a glowing example of victory
of virtue over vice. It is important to note that the term Rajadharma occurs most frequently in
Mahabharata to refer to the science of politics. There is a large section on Rajadharma within the
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Shantiparvam (an important section of this great epic). Rajadharma literally means code of royal duties.
It largely prescribes what a king should do under normal conditions. It is supplemented by
Aapaddharma which prescribes what a ruler should do under abnormal conditions. Another important
term which frequently occurs in Mahabharata to refer to the science of politics is Dandaniti.
Origin of Kingship: Mahabharata narrates that in the Krita (Sat yug) age when body everybody was
righteous and free from vices, no king was necessary. But later on when various vices (like lust, anger,
greed, delusion and arrogance) crept into human mind and human society was degenerated; it found itself
in the grip of complete anarchy and chaos. Under the circumstances, several sages and minor gods
approached the creator to create some device for the protection of the universe. The creator acceded to
their requested and appointed Manu Vaivasvata as the King for the protection of people, and to enable
them to pursue the path of righteousness and progress. The king was equipped with divine power to
enable him control all the creatures on earth.
Significance of Kingship: in ancient Indian thought king is regarded as the sovereign. In western
sovereign means the supreme legal authority but in Indian sense it means supreme power of the king in
moral as well as material sense. In Mahabharata here king assumes the functions of different gods on
different occasions. When the king, enraged by the evil deeds of miscreants, applied his fierce energy to
burn the sinful offender he assumes the function of Agni (the god of fire).
When he observes the acts of all persons, through his spies so as to reward or punish them as they
deserved, the King assumes the function of Aditya (Sun of god). When he destroys hundreds of wicked
men by his wrath, he assumes the function of Mrityu (the God of Death). When he restrains the wicked
by inflicting severe punishments upon them and promotes the righteous by bestowing unique rewards
upon them, he performs the function of Yama (the god of Righteousness). Finally, when the king
bestowed immense wealth to people who have rendered valuable service to the society and deprived the
sinners and offenders of their wealth, he assumes the function of Kubera (the god of treasury).
Four objectives of human life: Mahabharata gives following 4 objectives of human life and are known
as Purusharthas.
a) Dharma: the virtue promoted by the performance of one‟s duty as prescribed by the sacred law
b) Artha: the virtue promoted by the acquisition of wealth and material prosperity
c) Kama: The virtue promoted by the gratification of desires and sensual enjoyments
d) Moksha: Emancipation of the soul itself
According to Mahabharata emancipation of the first three depends upon the rod of chastisement i.e.
Danda.
Protection of the subjects and securing their happiness is the first and foremost duty of the king. It is
important to note here that apart from Rajadharma Mahabharata also mentions the Aapaddharma i.e.
duties of the king in abnormal conditions. It allows dubious means under abnormal conditions in order to
achieve the noble ends.
Mahabharata gives 4 criteria to determine the means to achieve ends of kingship or the state that is the
good of the people
a) Satya (truth)
b) Upapatti (reasoning)
c) Sadachara (good conduct)
d) Upaya (expediency)
One may have recourse to untruth for saving one‟s treasuries from thieves and robbers, or for keeping the
people within the bounds of the sacred law. This argument is similar to the „noble lie‟ given by Plato for
persuading the people to accept the rule of the philosopher kings. Under the abnormal conditions,
Mahabharata permits the king to seize the property of the rich, and if need be all property other than that
of ascetics and Brahmins. It is conceded that Kosha (treasury) and Bala (army) are the foundations of
kingship. Of these two Kosha is very important than Bala.
Mahabharata does not allow royal absolutism. It goes to the extent of advising that if King fails to
perform his duty of protecting the people, or he himself becomes a tyrant, he should be dethroned and
killed like a mad dog.

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Kautilya

He was an Indian Philosopher and the author of Arthsshastra (the science of

polity). Kautilya was the name of Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya in
the 4th century B.C. He wrote many writings and proceeded to declare the
independence of polity from religion to highlight its importance in the society. He
was the author of Arthashastra. Before him Indian philosophy was dominated by
four Purusharthas (the principle objectives of life).

Purusharthas
Inherent Dharma Artha Kama Moksha
value
Derived Performance of Acquisition of Gratification of Final liberation of
from one‟s duty as wealth and desired and emancipation of the
prescribed by the material sensual soul
sacred law prosperity enjoyments
Promoted Religion Polity Art & culture Penance
by
The age preceding Kautilya was characterized by the primacy of Dharma which was regulated by
Dharmashastra of Manu. In this age Artha, Kama & Moksha was regarded as incidental to pursuit
Dharma. Advent of Arthashastra implied that the pursuit of Artha could be treated as an end in itself
rather than as instrument of the pursuit of Dharma or any other type of Purushastra.
Arthashastra is basically a work for the guidance to princes and statesman. The Arthashastra in the
beginning claims that “This Arthshashtra is made as a compendium of almost all the Arthashashtra
which in view of acquisition and maintenance of the earth have been composed by ancient teacher.
Nature of Dandniti: He identified four type of Dandniti
a) Acquisition of the un-acquired
b) Preservation of the acquired
c) Augmentation of the preserved
d) Fair distribution of the augmented
Only a strong and disciplined prince could fully achieve these purposes. He was the supporter of a strong
monarchy and stable imperial state. The main function of the state was to foster the material and spiritual
progress. He regards the monarchy as the human institution and also as the custodian of the national
resources and public rights. He claimed that out of four Purushastras, Artha was the most important. He
assigned the duty of maintenance of Dharma (religious order) to king himself. Kama could be attained
only under a congenial atmosphere to be maintained by the state. Finally Moksha could be achieved if
the when the first three objects have been accomplished.
Origin and the function of the state: Before the emergence of the authority of the King, the world was
affiliated by anarchy. It is characterized by the term Maastya Nyaya i.e. the law of the fishes where big
fishes eat small fish & hence each fish is in danger of being swallowed by the large fish. The people
oppressed by these conditions nominated Vaivasvat Manu, the son of the Sun God, as their king. They
decided and pledged that they would pay 1/6th of their food grain and 1/10th of their goods, including
Gold as tax to the king because king alone could provide safety & prosperity of the people. Hence king
enjoys the status of superior gods. It is a sin to oppose the king because king is visited by divine wrath &
on the other hand the king is duty-bond to make full efforts to provide for the safety of his subjects. His
political thoughts are surrounded around kingship & his prescriptions are particularly suitable for
monarchy & not for other like aristocracy and democracy. Broadly the king should protect his subjects
from eight types of nature calamities; fire, flood, epidemic, famine, rats, snakes, tigers and evil spirits.
King‟s function of defence can be divided into three types
a) Defence from external enemies and assailants
b) Maintenance of law and order within the state &
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c) Protection of the subjects from natural calamities
He advises the king to abstain from arrogance. He should not give up from righteousness while enjoying
worldly pleasures. Proper education as well as self control is the keynote of good administration. The
state should also deals with maintenance of sanctity of relations between husband and wife, father and
son, brother and sister, teacher and taught etc. Kautilya holds the state responsible for giving due
assistance to the destitute, pregnant women, newly born children, orphans, and the aged people. He has
made regulations of dissolution of marriages, desertion, remarriage, protection and rules governing the
profession of prostitutes. Granting licenses to merchants, goldsmith, weavers, washer men and shops
particularly the liquor shops.
Seven Organs theory of State/Saptanga theory:
It is not an original theory of Kautilya. Manu and various others Indian thinkers had also given this
theory. Kautilya has seven organs with the organs of the body
a) Swami (it is King himself & is equivalent to head of the body)
b) Amatya (It is the minister & represents the eye of the states)
c) Suhrid (The friend & Allay & it represents the ear of the state)
d) Kosha (the treasure and it is the mouth of the state)
e) Sena (the Army & it represents the brain of the states)
f) Durga (the Fort & it represents the arms of the states)
g) Pura or Janapada (the territory and the population & it represents the legs of the states.
Diplomacy & the Statecraft:
In Kautilya‟s political thought, diplomacy and statecraft have been built on the geographical and
economic foundation of the state. He has enumerated four Upayas, i.e. devices or expenditure, deemed to
be most reliable device of diplomacy and statecraft
a) Sama or Conciliation: This policy should be adopted in dealing with a stronger king because it
would be impossible to defeat him in the battlefield.
b) Dana or Conciliation: This policy would also be suitable for dealing with a stronger king in
order to appease him
c) Danda or the use of force: This policy should be adopted for dealing with a weaker king to
extract concession from him by terrorizing him or defeating him in battlefield
d) Bheda or sowing the seeds of Dissension in one‟s enemy‟s camp (also called policy of divide
and rule): This policy should be adopted for dealing with several equally strong kings with a
view to include them to destroy each other‟s strength.
It is however important to mention here that Kautilya and other ancient thinkers recommended the use of
unethical methods only under abnormal conditions.
Machiavelli suggests bravery of lion and cunning of fox but Kautilya suggests that king should learn
twenty qualities of different animals as given below
a) The prince should learn from lion to undertake a task well prepared weather it a big or small.
b) From the Crane he should learn to control his senses and aptness of time & place to accomplish
all tasks.
c) From the Cock he should learn four things; getting up in time, fighting division of responsibility
among allies & enjoy one‟s prey after attacking it oneself.
d) From the Crow he should learn five things; sex in secrecy, secret action, catch in time, unruffled
behavior & distrust of everyone.
e) From the Dog he should learn six qualities; desire for much, satisfaction with a little, deep
slumber, quick awakening, devotion to master & bravery.
f) Finally he should learn from Donkey; to carry the burden even through tired, not to mind heat &
cold & to trudge over satisfied. The prince who practices these twenty virtues conquers all
enemies and he himself remains unconquerable.
S. No Animals No. of qualities
1. Lion 1
2. Crane 1
3. Cock 4
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4. Crow 5
5. Dog 6
6. Donkey 3

Aggannasutta
Introduction:
 Aggannasutta is 27th Sutta of 34 Sutta of Digha Nikaya.
 There are mainly three scriptures of Buddhism known as Tripitak (three
baskets).
 The three pitakas are Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka & Abhidhamma Pitaka.
 Digha Nikaya is part of Sutta Pitaka of Buddhist Scripture.
 It is known as Digha (long) because these Sutta have long dialogues, thus
it is known as Digha Nikaya.
 There are other Buddhist text
Tripitaka, Suttavibhanga, Khandhaka, Parivara, Jatakas, Milinda Panha, Dipavamsa,
Mahavamsa, Mahavastu, Buddha Charita, Mahavibhasa Sastra, Lalitavistara, Divyavadana,
Udanavarga, Udana and Bodhi Vamsa.

 Aggan is used to describe origin and Sutta is discouraged. Thus Agganna Sutta means
„discourage of origin‟.
 It explains the origin of life on Earth, social order & its structure & caste system.
 The Sutta described a discourse imparted by the Buddha to two Brahmins, Bharadvaja &
Vasettha, who left their family and caste to become monks.
 They were insulted by their own caste member for leaving superior caste and joining the Sangha
of monks.
 Buddha explains that caste & race cannot be compared with morality or dhamma, as anyone
from the four castes can become a monk and reach the state of Arahant (Nirvana).
 Aggana Sutta has three points
Part 1 of Aggana Sutta
 As we know Vasettha and Bharadvaja, were insulted for leaving Brahmin Caste
 Buddha tells them the fact that women in the Brahmin caste can get pregnant and give birth.
 But the Brahmins still say that they are born from the mouth of the God Brahma & other castes
i.e. Kshatriya from the arms, Vaishya from the thigs and Sudra from the feet of Brahma.
 Buddha further elaborates that if any of the caste does the following deeds; killings, taking
anything that is not given, take part in sexual misconduct, lying, slandering, speaking rough
words or nonsense, greedy, cruel and practice wrong beliefs.
 Then people would still see that they do negative deeds and therefore are not worthy of respect.
 Thus, no matter what their caste might be, they can do bad or good deeds.
 Hence, person should be judge on the basis of its deeds and not caste.
 Buddha ends this discussion by saying that “Dhamma is the best thing for people in this life &
the next as well”.
Part 2 of the Sutta/Origin of life on Earth
 In this part, Buddha tells about the origin of life on earth.
 He tells that in the beginning, there was no light, no nature, no moon and sun, no day & night,
there was darkness in all four sides.
 On earth, there was only water like liquid (dhravya). With time there were chemical reactions on
it & consequently there formed a layer on water similar to a layer on boiling milk. This layer has
colour, smell and taste (like honey).
 On this very layer, some creatures were born who survived by eating this layer. As they ate and
ate, their luminous body began to be created by the mud substance.
 Then suddenly, the sun and moon were seen, so were the stars, also night and day began on
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earth.
 Their body was not fully shaped. Thus, after a very long time, the mud-like substance began to
be exhausted. Then, mushroom like plants began to grow so fast that they replaced the mud like
oceans.
 The creatures started eating it too, then mushrooms replaced by plants. They ate that too and then
different in their bodies began to notice. The concept of the beautiful and the ugly were born.
 Then plants replaced by rice. They atr rice too. The body of creatures had become finally
evolved. There was already the distinction between male and female.
With this theory we can say that Buddha rejects divine theory of state and believes in scientific or
evolutionary theory of state.
Part 3 of Aggana Sutta/The birth of social order and castes
a) The Khattiya caste (rulers)/origin of state (Social contract theory of Buddha)
 The rice plants, as mentioned earlier, began to grow in separate plots and people began to divide
lands.
 They became busy in looking after their own fields.
 Then, as the evil and greed were aroused, there were people who begin stealing other‟s crops.
 As first, the others only warned the culprit and the culprit promised that he would never repeat it
again.
 But when it was repeated several times, the people began punishing him with fist, stones and
then sticks.
 This is the origin of punishment forms. (this is Buddha‟s Dandniti).
 Then, people began to think that they were too busy to stop every crime and abuse that happened
in their society.
 So, they appointed someone to rectify what is right and what is wrong, give warnings to those
who need it, gave punishment to those who deserve it, and in return, they will give him a share
of their rice.
 So, they went to the fairest, ablest, most likeable and most intelligent person and appointed him
to do the judging and passing out sentences on the reward of a share of rice.
 The appointed person thus agreed and the people bestowed upon him the title; „Maha Sammata‟
meaning the people‟s choice. Then, they bestowed also the second title; Khattiya meaning the
„Lord of the Rice Fields‟ and finally the third title „Raja‟ which means „Who gladdens people
with Dhamma (or truth).
b) The Brahmin Caste
 Then amongst the people, some begin to think like this “Evil deeds have risen amongst us, such
as; theft, lies, murders, sexual abuse, punishment and banishment. Now let us set aside evil, un-
useful and impolite things”.
 The word Brahmins came, as it meant: “They who put aside evil and unwholesome things”
 They set up retreats and hut in the forests and meditated there.
 They came to the city at morning and evening only to gather food and after finishing gathering
food, they returned to their huts and meditations.
 People noticed this and „those who meditated‟ were called Jhayanti or Jhayaka.
 There are other people who cannot meditate dwell in huts in the forest. So, they settled in the
cities, did not meditate, but compiled books.
 The people called „Ajjhayaka‟ which means „they who don‟t meditate.
 At first Ajjhayaka were viewed lower than Jhayaka but in the Buddha‟s time, the Ajjhayaka had
been higher in status than the Jhayakas.
c) The Vessa (Traders) & Sudda (hunters)
 Among the people who settled and had family, some began to adopt various trades.
 The remainder of these people preferred the work of hunting. The Sudda caste came from the
word Sudda which means „they are base who live by the chase‟.
 All of the castes, from Brahmin, Khattiya, Vessa and Sudda originated from these people and not
from others, in according to the Dhamma and not by others.
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d) The Ascetics
 But from the four castes, there were people who were not satisfied with their living, left their
home and become celibate ascetics.
 These are the origin of the fifth caste formed from all the four castes, people whom left their lay
life and become an ascetic.
 They are different from Brahmins as the Brahmins have contact with family members but
Ascetics have no contact with their family.
Ziauddin Baran
Introduction:
 He was the most important political thinker of Delhi Sultanate.
 He lived during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq & Firoz Tughlaq.
Main Works
 Fatawa-i-Jahandari (political thought)
 Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi (History)
Other works
a) Salvat-i-Kabir (The great prayer)
b) Sana-i-Muhammadi (Praise
c) s of Prophet Mohammad)
d) Hasratnama (Book of Regrets)
e) Tarikh-i-Barmaki
f) Inayat Nama-i-Ilahi (Book of God Gifts)
g) Maasir Saadat (Good Deeds of the Sayyids)
h) Lubbatul Tarikh
i) Fatawa-i-Dindari
 He used „nasihat‟ style of writing (just as articles 1, 2, 3….. in constitution of India)
 His Fatwa-i-Jahandri is a classic work on statecraft which can be compared with Kautilya‟s
Arthashastra and Machiavelli‟s Prince.
 His Tarikh-i-Shai is a historical account from Balban to Firoz Shah Tughlaq (first 6 years
only).
His thoughts can be categories as
Theory of King/Ideal Sultan:
 Sultan should be noble born –preferably belonging to the monarch.
 Sultan is an agent of god on earth to the welfare of the people (Divine Right Theory).
 Sultan should follow Shariat. In personal life he may or may not follow it but in public life he
has to strictly follow it.
 An ideal Sultan is one
a) Who has sense of justice
b) Wise enough to understand deception and conspiracies
c) Understand the importance of time and divide it wisely between his personal and
political life‟s needs.
d) Sultan must desist from five mean qualities – falsehood, changeability, deception,
wrathfulness and injustice.
Nobility:
 The nobility was the 2nd component of the monarchy.
 The nobles were the Sultan‟s chosen individuals who were assigned the right to collect taxes in
particular territories/land.
 Land was known as Iqta and the one who was in-charge of land was known as Iqtadar.
 The surplus produced by the peasant was distributed among the Iqtadars.
 Iqtadar were also required to maintain their army and send the same to Sultan whenever were
asked for it.
 The Iqtas were frequently transferred from one person to another person, which made them non-
hereditary.
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 The Iqtadar were also part of Sultan‟s royal council which advised the king on policy matter.
 That is why Barani advised Sultan to be careful in their selections.
 For this purpose Barani assigned main two qualifications;
a) The Iqtadar should be noble-born with loyalty (personal and political).
b) To know second quality he prescribed nine conditions.
c) Such as fear of god, knowledge of history, lack of greed, practical knowledge of state affairs.
Ideal Polity/Laws
 Barani categorized law into two kinds, the Shariat & the Zawabit.
 Shariat meant the teachings & practices of the Prophet and of the pious Caliphs.
 Zawabit were the state laws created by Sultan according to circumstances where Shariat was
unable to implement.
 The Zawabit must be in spirit of the Shariat and should follow four conditions;
a) Zawabit should not negate the Shariat.
b) It must increase the loyalty and hopes among the nobles and people towards Sultan.
c) Its sources and inspiration should be the Shariat
d) If it has to negate the Shariat in certain conditions, it must follow charities and
compensation
 Thus, for him Zawabit law was an ideal law which could cater the needs of state & its people
without offending any section of the nobility.
Army
 After the Mauryas, the Sultanate was the largest and most powerful state in India.
 Army was based on Turkish – Mongol model
 It was divided into 4 parts
a) Infantry (foot soldiers)
b) Cavalry (horsemen)
c) War Elephants
d) Auxiliary (engineers, transporters, spies etc.)
 The cavalry was further divided into three wings
a) Mumattab (a soldier without horse)
b) Sawar (a soldier with a single horse)
c) Do-aspab (a soldier with two houses)
 The rank of army was Khan, Malik, amir, sipashsalar etc. they were either paid in cash or
assigned revenues of different villages.
 The main function of the army was security and expansion of state. Barani advised king to take
greater care of army.
 The Sultan also maintained personal troops called Qalb for his safety.
Bureaucracy
 The basic function of bureaucracy was to measure the land and fix and collect taxes.
 It operated at 3 levels i.e. centre, province & village.
 The Diwani-i-Wazarat headed by a Wazir (the head of revenue and finance, also known as PM).
 He was assisted by a Naib, Musharif-i-Mamalik, Mustawfi-i-malik and dabirs.
 At the provincial level, the administration was headed by muqtis or walis.
 Below muqtis or walis was the Diwan (minister of revenue) i.e. provincial wazir.
 At the village level, the head was known as Muqaddam, chaudhari etc.
Justice
 Justice, for Barani, was most important in the administration
 Because justice was required everywhere i.e. from remission of land tax to supply of
commodities to buyers at production cost from dispensing civil and criminal cases to granting
monetary help to the needy.
 To ensure justice at market, he advised the king to set the price of commodities according to the
principles of product cost.
 He suggested that Diwani-i-Riyasat (the controller general of market) and the Shahana-i-Mandi
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(the superintendent of the grain market) and other officials should control irregularities in the
market.
 To dispense justice the courts were divided into civil and criminal categories and they operated
at central and provincial levels.
 The judges were to be appointed by the king, with himself as highest court of appeal.
 Below him were Quazi-ul-Quzat (chief judge) Sadr-us-Sadur or Sadr-ul-Malik (provincial
judge)
 Amir-i-Dad-bek-i-Hazrat (central judicial officers), Qazi, Amir-i-Dad (judicial officers at
provincial level), Muhtasibs (Muncipal officers and moral censors).
 The king in dealing with religious cases was assisted by the mufti and the Sadr-us-Sadur while
in secular cases he was assisted by Qazi-ul-Quzat.

Kabir
Introduction
 There is no consensus on the birth date of Kabir.
 However, there are three dates of Kabir‟s life in the public domain.
 1440 – 1518 (78 years)
 1398 – 1518 (119 years)
 1398 – 1448 (50 years)
 But what we can assure of is that
 Kabir was a 15th century thinker
 He was a contemporary of Sikander Lodhi (1489-1517)
His works are compiled in
 Adi Granth
 Panchvani
 Sarvangi
 Bijak (1660-1670, during the time of Aurangzeb. It consist of three parts; Ramaini, Sabda
and Sakhi)
 Granthavali (1900-1915)
His major thoughts are in Bijak and Granthavali.
 To understand Kabir political ideas we have to understand first 15th century Banaras (where Kabir
spend most of his life)
 During this time trade was flourishing.
 Trade linked town and villages
 Trade has the tendency to create a monetized economy, to break the old caste, hierarchical and
feudal order
 Trade has the potential to create new culture of universal humanism.
 Trade facilitated opportunities for vertical-horizontal mobility of social groups and individuals
 However, elite reacted against this upward mobility of subaltern.
 Kabir belonged to low caste and class; he was a weaver and used to visit the textile market of
Banaras.
 He was very critical of discrimination by elite.
 Thus Kabir more focused on class of his time than caste.
Criticism of King and his Administration
 He was very critical of King‟s faulty policies and due to which people had to suffer (taxation,
Zamindari system etc.)
 People also suffered due to shifting of capital from Delhi to Daulatabad.
 Kabir witnessed the consequences of this blundered decision.
 He was standing against the suffering of the people.
 He also raised his voice against Kazis, Ulema or Priests.
 Due to which he was charged with „sedition‟.

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Ideal State of Kabir/Begumpura
 Begumpura means „a land without sorrows‟.
 Begumpura, kingdom of God, was an ideal village without
Sorrow, Private property, Taxes, Monarchy and Social hierarchy
 It was a land of Saintly people without any; fear, greed, caprice, crime and scarcity.
 There was no discrimination on basis of caste, religion and gender.
 It was a rationale and human society.
 It means the sovereignty of the citizens and equality among them which translates into freedom for
all
 Begumpura is also popularly called „India‟s Utopia‟ on lines of Thomas More‟s work Utopia
(1516).
 This Utopia was to be constructed through bhakti i.e. through collective participation of people in
decision making.
 Bhakts were considered as vanguard of Begumpura.
 Gail Omvedt‟s book „Seeking Begumpura the social Visions of Anti Caste Intellectuals‟ (2008).
Comments on Kabir
 Ram Vilas Sharma: Compares Kabir with Tulsi.
 Hazari Parsad Dwivedi: reclaims Kabir as people‟s philosopher.
 Purushottam Aggarwal: Kabir as a philosopher who challenged the power.
 Raja Ram Mohan Roy: Agra Darshak
 Ambedkar identified 3 gems of Indian Intellectuals tradition – Buddha, Kabir and Phule.

Pandit Ramabai
Introduction/Life events:
 Ramabai was born to a liberal Brahmin Pandit, in 1858.
 This means she was saved from twin curse i.e. lack of education and
child marriage.
 His father used to teach his wife Sanskrit which was unlikely in those
times.
 However, the adverse material conditions of family leads to death of her
parents and sisters
 Eventually Ramabai along with her brother moved to Calcutta in 1878,
it was turning point of her life.
 Many scholars were impressed in Calcutta from her knowledge in Scripture and Sanskrit.
 Here, she was not only conferred with the titles of Pandita and Saraswati.
 In Calcutta, Keshab Chandra Sen, the supporter of Brahmo Samaj, suggested to Ramabai that
she read the Vedas and Upanishads.
 Soon, her brother died in 1880.
 Ramabai ignored caste restrictions and married a man of Shudra Varna (lower caste) Bepin
Bihari Medhavi, an active member of Brahmo Samaj.
 She lost her husband in less than 2 years.
 Subsequently, she moved to Pune in 1882 to set up the Arya Mahila Samaj to work for the
cause of women.
 Here, she wrote her first Marathi book, Stri Dharma (Morals for women), which was published
in 1882.
 With no support coming towards a widow institution, Ramabai decided to go to England to seek
British support for her widow home.
 Where under circumstantial difficulties, she converted to Christianity and changed her name to
Marry Rama.
 Here she wrote a new text, written originally in Marathi, titled The Cry of Indian Women.
 After staying for about 3 years in England, she went to the United States of America (USA) in
1886.
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 Here she raised funds for Hindu widow under the aegis of the The Ramabai Association of
Boston.
 Also here, in 1887. She published The High Caste Hindu Women, known as India‟s first
Feminist manifesto.
 During these years, Ramabai also worked on a Marathi book United Stateschi Lokesthiti ani
Pravasvritta (The People of United States) which was published in Bombay in December 1889.
 In the end, she returned to India in 1889 and worked for the cause of women.
 Then she opened a secular residential school for high caste widows, the Sharada Sadan, in
Bombay.
 For her social reform activities, she was conferred with the Kaiser-e-Hind gold medal in 1919 by
the British government
Political Ideas of Ramaba
Critique of Patriarchy
 The reform movement of those times focused on caste and gender issues.
 Gender issue has become the preoccupation of the upper caste, whose women were the most
oppressed.
 In Poona, Ramabai, working towards the aim of gender reform, formed Arya Mahila Sabha in
1882.
 She connected the teachings of the ancient literature with the inferior status of women in society.
 Ramabai understood that the patriarchal ideology of the society placed women within the
domestic sphere as a wife/mother/ housewife according to her sexual, reproductive and home-
making roles.
 In this caste-ridden, patriarchal society, the highest status for a women was that of a
Suubhagyavati (or blessed women whose husband was alive) and a mother of sons, rather than
daughters.
 A woman only with daughters or one without children has a lower status and lived under the fear
of being deserted by her husband.
 A widow has the lowest status, especially a child widow.
 A widow had to wear a plain borderless sari, no ornaments and had to shave her head which had
to be carefully covered.
 A widow was expected to sleep on floor, spend time in rituals acts and eat little food.
 Ramabai‟s study of Upanishads, Manusmriti and the Vedas made her realize how the caste
system, the Hindu Shastras, society and social customs helped patriarchy to not only thrive but
to grow later.
Gender Justice and Civil Rights
 Imparting education to women was through to be the best remedy of the problems.
 Pandita‟s hope was that women‟s education would lead to the rejection of Brahminism and
realized the deception of sacred literature.
 But Ramabai was aware of the mindset of the Indian society which was skeptical of educating
women.
 The few schools that were available as options were often run by missionaries.
 As a rule, a high-caste Hindu woman would prefer death than go to such school where there was
fear of losing their caste.
 Ramabai demanded education for Indian women before the Education Commission, set up in
1882, known as Hunter Commission.
 She also asked for training women as medical doctors to save women who could not consult
male physicians.
 In the first meeting of National Congress at Bombay in 1889, she brought to notice the injustice
meted to the widows by depriving her of property if she married again.
A Controversy
 After collecting funds for her a salvation house from America Ramabai built her „Sharda
Sadan‟ in Poona and got into dispute with the reformist elites in India.
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 In the meanwhile, the Indian Christian Community began objecting to the Sharada Sudan‟s
policy of religious neutrality.
 Ultimately, conversion began taking place in good numbers. Hindu widow began reading Bible.
 This led to great criticism of Ramabai‟s women home.
 Press began calling Sadan a „Widows mission house‟.
 In the midst of all this, Ramabai shifted her Sharada Sadan from Pune to Kedgaon.
 Today it is still exists there and known as Pandita Ramabai Mukti Mission.
Works of Pandit Ramabai
 Stri Dharma Niti (Moral for Womens) 1882
 The Cry of Indian Women
 The High Caste Hindu Women - 1887.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak

He is known as the greatest champion of Indian Nationalism. He was a journalist, educator, popular leader
and freedom fighter. He started two newspapers Kesari in Marathi and Maratha
in English. He also wrote Gita Rahasya. He particularly dwelled on the
philosophy of Karmayoga.
He challenged the prevalent taboos on crossing the sea, motivated the Indians to
travel abroad to increase their knowledge. He called for ban on child marriages
and abolish ban on widow re-marriage. He also opposed Untouchability. He
opposed the plans of social reformers such as Mahadev Govind Ranade & Gopal
Krishna Gokhale because they were simply trying to emulate the western ideals
even at the expense of Indian social values. He was of the view that Indians has
its own spiritual culture which has been forgotten by us. He criticized the Western education system
established by Lord Macaulay. He was not opposite to the institutions like that of the western countries but
he wanted to impart the Indian education in these western like institutions.
He was not opposite to the western way of working. He opposed the education founded on western
values, but he was not opposite to open western type schools and colleges for imparting national
education to the Indians. It is believed that his style of celebrating Ganpati festival was inspired by
Greek history where Olympic sports were organized in the name of their God and Goddess in order to
mobilize people for action. Similarly his style of Shivaji festival was inspired by the method of hero-
worship as depicted in the writings of Carlyle and Ruskin. He cited the J. S. Mill‟s definition of
nationality in his speeches and writings to explicate the character of Indian nationalism. Further, he also
demanded application of Woodrow Wilson‟s principles of National Self Determinations to determine the
status of India.
The concept of Swaraj is the keynote of Tilik‟s philosophy. He said “Swaraj is my birth I shall have it”.
He said it in a court to defend himself. He has published newspaper that „No blame could be attached to
anyone who killed an oppressor without any thought of reward. Swaraj means self rule. This concept of
Swaraj was further developed by Gandhi ji to include self discipline at the individual level and self rule
at the national level. As regards Tilik he called out the twin objectives of Swadeshi and Swaraj as the
guiding principles of national movements.
Swadeshi movement launched by Tilak was also supported by Lala Lajpat Rai and Bipin Chandra Pal.
Bipin Chandra Pal was responsible for creation of the image of Bharat Mata (mother India). At the
annual meeting of INC at Surat in 1907 INC split into two parts one supported by modernist under Gopal
Krishna Ghokle and extremist group headed by Tilak. Extremist group is also known by the name of Lal,
Bal, Pal. It was Mahatma Gandhi who combined the extremist concept of Swaraj with constitutional
agitation of moderate to make India free in 1947. Tilak favoured voluntary boycott, peaceful passive
resistance in his fight against injustice. He also supported Muslims in 1920 during Khilafat Movement.
Introduction:
 Also known as Lokmanya Tilak (accepted by people as their leaders)
 Father of Modern India-Gandhi
 Father of Indian Revolution – Nehru
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 Father of Indian Unrest (Britisher – Valentine Chirol)
 He was born in 23 July 1856 – Ratnagiri (Maharashtra)
 His father, Gangadhar Panth, worked in Education Department.
 His mother, Parvati Bhai, was a religious lady.
 1866 – Admission in Poona Nagar School.
 He was 10 years old – mother died & 16 years father died.
 He was 15 years old when he got married.
 He completed his BA when he was 20 years and LLB in 23 yrs age.
 He was critique of western education. Thus, in 1880 he opened a New English School with his
colleagues.
 In 1881 he started 2 newspapers – Maratha Darpan (English) & Kesari (Marathi).
 He adopted a new slogan coined by his associate Kaka Batista: Swaraj (self rule) is my birth & I
shall have it.
 In 1884 he established Deccan Education Society to reform Indian Society.
 In 1885, this society established Fergusson College.
 In 1891, Tilak raised his voice against the Age Consent Act 1891 which attempted to rise the
marriage age from 10 to 12. Tilak wrote in Kesari that such law was interference in Hindu
Religious Practices.
 In 1893 he started with the aim of uniting people under one nationalist agenda and making
realization of „common history and culture possible.
 In 1916, with the help of Ali Jinnah and Annie Besant he established Akhil Bhartiya Home
Rule League.
 He was tried for Sedition Charges in three times by British Government in 1897, 1909 & 1916.
 He died on 1 August 1920.
Works of Tilak
 The Orion (1893)
 The Arctic Home in Vedas (1903)
 Geeta Rahisya or Karmayoga (1915)
 Vedic Chronology and Vedang Jyotish (1925)
Religious Ideas
 He accepted the notion of a personal God.
 He believed that religion includes the knowledge of nature of God and soul and means by which
the human soul can attain salvation.
 He accepted the importance of religious symbols for people of less developed consciousness.
 He also believed in the incarnation of God and accepted that Krishna was an incarnation of
God.
 He was a Sanatanist Hindu and had pride in his religion.
 He did accept that the specific religious ceremonies could be changed
 But as long as they were not formally changed he wanted that they should be observed.
 He accepted that Hinduism has many diverse practices.
 But he believed that Ramayana, Mahabharta & Vedas were our „common heritage‟.
 He has given a very inclusive definition of Hindu.
 According to him a Hindu is one who accepts the Vedas and lives life according to Vedas,
Smritis and the Puranas.
Educational Ideas
 The enlightenment of the people is one of the most important techniques of the rise of nation.
 In modern India, the growth and rise of nationalism is associated with the spread of education.
 Chiploonkar, Tilak & Agarkar were the pioneers of a new educational movement in
Maharashtra.
 Similarly, Lala Lajpat Rai and Hansraj were the pioneers in the foundation of D.A.V College in
Lahore and Swami Shraddhananda established Gurukul at Kangri.
 The New English School established by Tilak had two fold aims
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 Affordable education and ideal teachers (like in ancient history) for regeneration of
motherland.
 To spread education in general.
 Education was pre-condition for political enlightenment and progress.
 Hence the spread of education was topmost priority for Tilak.
 In 1884 he founded Deccan Education Society.
 In same year Gopal Krishna Gokhale, political guru of Mahatma Gandhi joined Poona New
English School and also become a member of society.
Tilak‟s Philosophy of Social Reforms
 Tilak was in favour of social reforms.
 He gave priority to political agitation over social reforms.
 He was not against the social reforms but was hostile to the immediate social revolution.
 He wanted a gradual change in society.
 Because his main aim was to bring nationalist uprising and hence he opposed any radical social
reforms which could confuse people at that time.
 He made it very clear that one who aspires to change the society should also have Hindu ideals.
 He gave example of Ireland, Ceylon, Burma countries that had greater social freedom but were
politically backward.
 He did not allow social reformers to use the congress stage for their agendas.
 Because he wanted that Congress stage should be used only for political agitation.
 In 1907, during Surat Session of Congress, because of Tilak stand of congress was divided into
2 groups i.e. moderates and extremists (Lal-Bal-Pal)
Swami Vivekanan
Introduction:
He was a great spiritualist of modern India who showed the way to human
emancipation for the contemporary world. His real name was Narendranath
Datta. He assumed the name of Vivekanand (the one inspired by reason) in 1893
while proceeding to participate in the Chicago Parliament of religion as a monk.
He was the most illustrious disciple of Ramakrishna Param Hans. He also
attended the congress of religion at Paris in 1900. He became more popular in
western world after the Chicago Parliament of Religion.
Important work of Vivekanand:
 Raja Yoga 1896
 Karma Yoga 1896
 Lectures from Colombo to Almora 1897
 Jnana Yoga 1899
 My Master 1901
 Indian and her problems
 Modern India
 Our duties to the masses
 The Evil of Adhikarvad
 The Cycle of Caste
Quotations
 Man is divine
 Man is the highest being in creation, because be attains to freedom
 Man is at the apex of the only world we can ever know
 Man is the epitome of all things and all knowledge is in him
 Man is the best mirror and the purer the man, the more clearly he can reflect God.
Introduction
 In 1871, he took admission in Ishwar Chander Vidya Sagar School.
 In 1879, he cleared the presidency college Calcutta entrance exam for BA.
 He was a good reader and finished 11 volumes of Britannica Encyclopedia (total volume 20).
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 He read wide range of subjects i.e. philosophy, Religion, History etc.
 He was also interested in Vedas, Upanishads, Ramanayana, Gita etc.
 He studied the work of David Hume, Immanuel Kant, Hegal, August Commte, J. S. Mill,
Charles Darvin etc.
 He was so impressed with evolutionary theory Herbert Spencer that he translated Spencers‟s
book „Education (1861) into Bengali (named it as Shiksha).
 He was also know by name of Shruti Dhara i.e. person with excellent memory.
 In 1880 he joined Keshav Chandra Sen Nava Vidhan.
 In 1884, he became member of Sadharan Bramho Samaj.
 He was Sen who introduced him to Rama Krishna. Inspired from his teachings, he accepted him
as his guru.
 After the death of his guru in 1886, He established a Math in Baranagar West Bengal.
 Here he decided to live the life of monk and took the name Swamiviveka Nand.
 In 1888, for next 5 years he travelled vastly in India.
 During this period he observed diverse religious traditions and socials patterns. Here he
developed sympathy for the suffering & poverty of the people. He resolved to uplift the nation.
 He reached Chicago in 1893 wherein Parliament of Religion he gave his famous speech. He
began his speech with „Sisters and brothers of America‟ for which he received two minutes
standing ovation from the audience.
 In 1897 he returned to India where he received warm welcome.
 In 1897 in Calcutta he founded the Rama Krishna Mission for social services.
 Both Ramakrisha Math & Ramakrishna mission have their headquarters at Belur Math, West
Bengal.
 Two journals were founded i.e. Prabudha Bharata in English & Udhbodhan in Bengali.
 On July 1902 he died while meditating.
Philosophy of Neo Vedanta
 Vedanta Philosophy believed that God above was real & the visible world was unreal.
Absorption of individual sole in the one supreme sole was the goal of every human being.
 This is called liberation which could be achieved with the help of true knowledge
 There were three important principles of Neo-Vedanta Philosophy of Vicekananda.
a) Vedanta philosophy believed in the oneness between God and man and the solidarity of the
universe.
b) It did not stand for a life of renunciation but stood for self less action in the services of
humanity. Hence service for man should be treated as service of God.
c) It propagated the principle of universe tolerance and believed that the different religious
faiths were different paths to reach the goal of liberation.
Idea of Nationalism:
 He strongly believed that the Indian should be proud of their history, culture & religion
 He believed that religion is the dominant force of nationalism in India.
 Social reforms are secondary and religion is main theme of India.
 He worked to build the foundation of a religious theory of nationalism which was later advocated
by Bipan Chandra Pal & Arbindo Ghosh.
 He was highly critical of British rule in India because he held that due to their rule Indians lost
confidence famine engulfed the land; famers and artisans were reduced to poverty and deprived.

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Rabindranath Tagore
Introduction:
 He was born on 1861 in Calcutta.
 His father Dabendranath Tagore was active member of Brahmo Samaj.
 His mother Sarada Devi died in his early childhood and he was raised by
Servants
 Tagore‟s childhood was spent in an atmosphere of various Arts.
 His brother and sister were themselves poet, philosopher, musician or
novelist.
 He started writing poems at the age of 8.
 His father sent him to England in 1878 to become a barrister.
 He was less interested in reading law and instead studied English literature works himself.
 In 1880 he returned to Bengal degree less.
 After returning to Bengal he started publishing poems, stories and novels.
 In 1883 he married 10 years old Mrinalini Devi.
 He wrote extensively many works which attracted national and international audience.
 In 1901, he established a school at Santiniketan which later known as Visva Bharti University.
 In November 1913, he was awarded Noble Prize in Literature for his work Gitanjli 1912.
 In 1915 he was awarded a Knighthood by King George V.
 After the 1919 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre he renounced the Knighthood.
Main Works
 Chokher Bali 1903
 Gitanjali 1910
 Gora 1910
 The Post Office 1912
 Sadhana 1913
 Ghar Aur Bahar 1916
 Stray Birds 1916
 Nationalism 1917
Idea of True Freedom
 True freedom goes beyond the idea of political independent for a country.
 He said „those people who have got their political freedom are not necessarily free, they are
merely powerful‟.
 True freedom is a condition through which an individual takes himself near to Supreme Person.
 Political independence does not elevate the personality of individuals to the level of perfection.
 He visualized 4 stages of true freedom;
a) Realization of freedom at individual level
b) Realization of freedom at community level
c) Realization of freedom from community to universe
d) Realization of freedom from universe to infinity (getting near to supreme man)
 This is possible when individual start to isolate him from the material things of life and worldly
perception of self-itself.
 He is basically against the notion of „possessive individualism‟.
 Individual should get free himself from bond of self, community and must widen his view.
Nationalism
 Idea of nationalism is deceptive and against the notion of true freedom.
 The idea of nationalism is a product of modern science and technological advancement in
Europe.
 Due to industrial revolution many people join hand together to maximize the benefits of his
revolution.
 Such mechanical coming together lacks moral and social values which makes their nationalism
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aggressive in nature.
 The European idea of nationalism evolved for political and economic purpose.
 Such idea goes against the large interest of humanity.
 Thus, nationalism breeds an intense and unending lust for power and money in the people.
 Due to which one‟s political and economic power determines his social position.
 It creates an urge in a group of people to explore and exploit the material resources of that
region.
 Such nationalism takes the form of colonialism and imperialism.
 Ultimately this means nationalism gives birth to war, weapons and violence and does nothing
greater for humanity at the end.
 Tagore was against the Europe idea of nationalism but he was not against the nationalist freedom
movement of his times which was mainly focused on freeing the soul of India from British
colonialism.
Critique of Gandhi
 Tagore called Gandhi „Mahatma & Gandhi called Tagore as „Gurudev‟.
 Tagore was pained at the direction of the Indian nationalism movement taking under the
leadership of Gandhi
 He criticized Gandhi for his parochial nationalism, traditional egoism and instrumentalist
anarchism.
 Tagore said instead of inculcating the spiritual and moral values in freedom movement Gandhi
has confined the movement to Swaraj (political independence) only.
 He described Gandhi nationalism as an aggressive nationalism.
 Gandhi also added that idea of Swaraj also includes moral and spiritual awakening along with
political freedom. “a drowning man cannot save others. We must try to save ourselves. Indian
nationalism is not exclusive, nor aggressive, nor destructive. It is health giving, religious and
therefore humanitarian. India must learn to live before such can aspire to die for humanity”
Gandhi Cooperative
Charkha Cooperative Farming
Varnasharma No caste based division
 In 2004 his Noble Prize was stolen from Vishva Bharti University. It was recovered from a theft
in 2016.
M.K Gandhi
 Formed Phoenix Farm near Durban in 1904
 Formed Hind Swaraj in 1908 (based on Diserali‟s England)
 Founded Sabramati Ashram in 1916
 Champaran Satyagraha in 1917
 Kheda Satyagraha (Gujarat) in 1918
 Ahmedabad Mill Strike (Finger time hunger strike by Gandhi ji) 1918
 Formed Ahmedabad textile labour association 1920
 Rabindra Nath Tagore accorded him title as „Mahatma‟ in 1920.
 Civil disobedience movement (1st movement under Gandhi ji) 1920
 Became president of congress in 1924 at Belgium
 All India Untouchability League 1932
 On March 1933, 21 days fast for self purification/hijran
 Formed Nav Jeevan group
 Formed Young India
 Harijan
 Quit India Movement 1942 (Karo ya maro slogan by him)
 Started the newspaper Indian Opinion
 Formed Natal Indian Congress
Works of Gandhi Ji
 Hind Swaraj (1909)
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 The Story of My Experiment with Truth (1929)
 Key to Health (1948)
Books on Gandhi Ji
S. Book Name Author
No.
1. The Gandhian way J. B. Kripalni (president of
INC in 1947)
2. Marx, Gandhi and Socialism Rammanhor Lohia
3. Mahatma Gandhi‟s idea C. F. Andrew
4. Mohandas: A true story of a man Raj Mohan Gandhi
5. Gandhi the Man: How one man changed himself to the Eknath Easwaran
change of World
6. Gandhi prisoner of hope Judith M. Brown
7. India after Gandhi: The history of largest Democracy Rama Chandra Guha 2008
8. Gandhi: His life and message for world Louiss Fisher
9. The Good Boatman Raj Mohan Gandhi
10. In search of Gandhi
11. The life of Mahatma Gandhi Louis Fisher
12. Gandhi‟s truth E. H. Erikson
13. Gandhi: Fighter without a Sword
14. Bahurope Gandhi Anu Bandyopadhyaya
15. Indian Hume Rule Leo Tolstory
16. Reading Gandhi Manoi Sinha
17. In search of Gandhi: Essay and reflection B. R. Nanda

Movies on Gandhi along with their actors and directors

S. No. Name of Film Actors & Directors & awards
1. Nine Hours to Rama 1963 J. S. Casshyap
2. Gandhi 1982 Ben Kingsley (Directed by Richard
Attenbourg & won 8 awards)
3. Hey Ram 2000 Naseerudin Shah
4. Water 2005 Mohan Jhangiani
5. Lage Raho Muna Bhai 2006 Dallip Prabhavalkar
6. Gandhi: My Father 2007 Darshan Jariwala
7. Shankar Dada Zindabad 2007 (Bengali & Dallip Prabhavalkar
remix of Muna bhai)
8. Dear Hitler 2011 Avijit Dutt
9. Welback Gandhi 2014 S. Kanagaraji

Sri Aurobindo

Introduction:
Sri Aurbindo was known as Aurbindo Ghosh & is regarded as the prophet of
Indian Nationalism. He is famous for his contribution to spiritual thought. He spent
his childhood in England. He returned to India in 1893 at the age of 21 years. He
retired from politics in 1910 at the age of 39 years. He then settled in Puducherry.
He wrote many articles in English newspaper Bande Matram. Haridas Mukherjee
and Uma Mukherjee wrote a book „Aurobindo and the New Thought in Indian
Politics‟ 1964.

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„All great movement of life in India have begun with a new spiritual thought and usually a new religious
activity‟ Sri Aurobindo
„With him Nationalism was not a mere political slogan nor a mere intellectual idea but his first passion
and religion‟ Haridas & Uma Mukherjee
Profit of Indian Nationalism: A Study of Political Thought of Sri Aurbindo Gosh (1893-1910) - 1967
Karan Singh (Book)
„I say no longer that nationalism is a creed. A religion, a faith; I say that it is the Sanatan Dharma which
for us is nationalism‟ Aurbindo
The Hindu nation was born with the Sanatan Dharma, with it it moves and with it it grows. When the
Sanatam Dharma declines, then the nation declines and if the Sanatam Dharma were capable perishing
with the Sanatam Dharma it would perish. We should devote ourselves not only to politics alone, nor to
theology or philosophy or literature or science by themselves but to all these to our Dharma. The
realization of spirituality of India could alone make India free and great. The European ideal of
mechanical freedom on the other hand concentrate on outer political and social perfection that too the
lower half. He identified 2 different tasks for realization of
nationalism in India Works of Aurbindo Ghosh
 Winning Swaraj for India
 Returning to our old national individuality.  Life Divine
Techniques of Political Struggle:  Essay on Gita
Moderate congress leaders were demanding the colonial self  The ideals of Karmayogi
govt. or domain status within the British Empire but  Ideals and progress
Aurbindo along the Bipan Chandra Pal demanded the Purna  Synthesis of Yoga
Swaraj or complete sovereignty. He along with Bipan  Renaissance of India
Chandra Pal gave a comprehensive political plan known as  The foundation of Indian Culture
Passive or Defensive Resistance. The Doctrine of passive  The Doctrine of passive
resistance was first of all given by Bipan Chandra Pal then Resistance
by Aurbindo and finally modified by Gandhi ji in shape of  A System of National Education
doctrine of Satyagraha.  Basis of Yoga
The doctrine of passive resistance was based on some  Ideals of Human Unity
principles. The first principle was to immobilize the colonial  Defence of Indian Culture
administration by an organized refusal to do anything which  Riddles of the World
would help the British commerce in India‟s exploitation.  The Superman
This is also related to Swadeshi Movement – the term  Integration Theory of Evolution
coined by the main leaders of Bengal politics i.e. Surinder  Doctrine of Passive Resistance
Nath Banerjee, Bipan Chandra Pal, Rabindra Nath Tagore  Involution
and Aurbindo. The concept of boycott was extended in four  Savitri
ways  The Human Cycle
 The economic boycott
 The educational boycott
 The Judicial boycott
 The boycott of executive administration
He believed that varying doses of violence were not only stimulating but indispensable for bringing the
legal or constitutional agitation well within the range of realization. He criticized the western concept of
state i.e. welfare state and also the idea of compromise for the sake of majority. They state in modern
time represent the egoistic character of the elite. „When the state attempts to take up control of the
cooperative action of the community, it condemns itself to create monstrous machinery which will end
by crushing out the freedom, initiative and serious growth of human being‟.
Nationhood is the primary condition for exercise of individual‟s freedom. But a nation can bestow
freedom upon its members only when the nation itself is free. The principle of freedom, therefore, also
postulates that no nation should deny freedom to any other nation. Denial of freedom to the individual is
a loss to the nation and denial freedom to the nation is a loss to the humanity. Without the political
freedom the soul of man is crippled. He treats Swaraj as the noblest goal for the colonial people. He
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envisaged an independent India not only to secure progress of the Indian people, but to work for the
promotion of human unity which was the goal of all progress. He viewed entire universe as a
manifestation of the spirit or the idea. He gives three stages in the process of spirit evolution.
A part of the supreme, Unconditioned and absolute reality plunged into the grossest and densest matter
and the material world was created; this was followed by the appearance of life in primitive forms and
subsequently mind first appeared among living creatures.
The intermediate stage was marked by the advent of human race when intellect began to assume the
dominant role
The final step in this direction would consists of the evolution of mind to Super mind
Yoga is the essential way of development of spirituality. Western civilization was based on materialism
and Indian civilization was spirituality hence Indian civilization was superior. While the liberal reformist
thinkers such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Dadabhai Naroji, Mahadev Govind Ranade and Gopal Krishna
Gokhale appreciated the western rule for development of India as they were influenced by westernization
but the Arbindo criticized it and appreciated only Sanatam Dharma as they best way of developing
India. Annie Besant called Aurbindo Ghosh as Indian Mazzini.
Tilak Aurobindo
Ethical Stress Spiritual & esoteric stress
Disinterested action (karmayoga) Divine – oriented action (Divya Karma)
Karma founded on gnosis and devotion Karma - first stage
(janana-bhakti-samuchayatmaka karma Jana - Second stage
Bhakti - Third stage

Periyar E. V. Ramasamy
Introduction
 Erode Venkatanaicker Ramasamy (1879-1973), better known as Periyar
i.e. respected one or elder.
 He was born on 17th of Sept 1879 in a rich business family of the
backward caste of Naickars in Erode, a town in the former Madras
Presidency (now Tamil Nadu).
 He studied only up to the 4th standard
 As a young man left home to tour the nation. He even lived the life of an
ascetic in Banaras.
 It was here that he learnt the deceptions spread in the name of religion.
 Back home, he reflected his proficiency in business and become active in public activities.
 He was the chairman of the Erode Municipality and an honorary Magistrate.
 He married at an age of 19 yrs and his wife‟s name was Nagammai, died in 1933.
As a congress Leader
 He joined INC in 1919.
 He held the position of the Secretary and President of Tamil Nadu Congress committee.
 In Congress he faced caste prejudices within the organization.
 First case, he was elected the first non-Brahmin President of Tamil Nadu Congress party.
 Very soon no-confidence motion was brought in own absurd grounds. It was however defeated.
 Second case, in 1925 when his resolution for the „communal representation‟ at the
Kancheepuram Congress, was disallowed in the open session.
 He left the congress once and for all declaring it as the „fortress of Brahmin imperialism‟.
As hero of Vaikkom
 In 1924 he led the famous Vaikkom Satyagraha in Kerela.
 The ezhavas were not allowed to enter the streets around the Vaikkom temple because of their
„low birth‟.
 On 14 April, Periyar and his wife arrived in Vaikkom. They were immediately arrested and
imprisoned for participation.

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 In spite of Gandhi‟s objection to non-Keralites and non-Hindus taking parts
 Periyar and his followers continued to give support to the movement until it was withdrawn.
 Ultimately he succeeded in his Satyagraha and was declared the hero of Vaikkom (Vaikkom
Veeran)
Self Respect Movement
 Meanwhile he launched the self respect movement.
 Dedicated to the goal of the giving non-Brahmins a sense of pride based on their Dravidian past.
 The first self respect movement was held at Chengalpattu in February 1929.
 A Tamil Weekly Kudi Arasu started in 1925.
 While the English journal „Revolt‟ started in 1928 carried on the propaganda among the English
educated peoples.
 The self respect movement began to grow fast and received the sympathy of the heads of the
Justice Party from the beginning.
Justice Party
 There after he associated himself with the Justice Party which he headed in 1938.
 Six years later in 1944 he converted it into the non-political social outfit Dravidarkazahagam.
 In 1949 Periyar‟s close associate C. N. Annadurai established a separate association called the
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK).
 The original formation has now been sidelined and its offshoots – The DMK, AIADMK &
MDMK – dominate the politics of Tamil Nadu today.
 The Dravidar Kazhagam continued to counter Brahminism, Indo-Aryan propaganda and uphold
the Dravidians the right of self determination.
Three major controversies
First Controversy:
 In 1956, Periyar organized a procession to the Marina to burn pictures of the Hindu God Rama.
 Periyar was subsequently arrested and confined to prison.
 He used to support that version of Ramayana where Ravan was not shown evil person.
 In India there are few places where Ravana is still worshiped.
Second Controversy
 On 9 July 1948, he married Maniammai.
 Controversy is the he married Maniammai when he was 70 yrs and she 32 yrs.
 Those who defend this bond says that he did not has any legal heir &
 Thus the marriage was purely an arrangement to secure his property while satisfying the law.
Third Controversy
 UNESCO didn‟t award Periyar any title of „The Socrates of South East Asia‟.
 This award was presented to him by the than Union Education Minister Triguna Sen and former
Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu M. Karunanidhi in Madras (Chennai).
 The organization that provided such an award was actually called UNESCO MANDRAM and
not actual UNESCO of UN
View on Caste
 He confronted denial of basic dignity to large number of people.
 He was on the view that all men and women should live with dignity.
 Everyone should have equal opportunities to develop their physical, mental and moral faculties.
 In order to achieve this he wanted to put an end to all kind of unjust discrimination
 This unjust discrimination was associated with caste system through hierarchy of social
economic and political conditions.
 This hierarchal order is maintained by what he said as „Brahminism‟.
 In this order Brahmins occupied the highest position not ritually but in every respect.
 All other castes were graded superior or inferior in relation to each other except the Brahmins
sitting at the top. All other castes are low/untouchables.
 This order was propagated as divine creation.
 The worst aspect of this order was the practice of pollution and purity.
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 This was so extreme that even the sight and shadows of the outcastes, the lowest in the social
order were considered polluting.
 He theorized that reason of all social suffering is because of casteism.
 Such system has been imposed by Aryans on peoples of South.
 This system is sanctified by the basic Aryan Scripture i.e. the Vedas.
 It must be noted here that he was against Brahminism and not the Brahmins.
 To him Brahminism was the basis of caste system which justified social inequality,
untouchability and many other problems.
Women Emancipation:
 Apart from the Caste, Gender discrimination was major issue for Periyar
 He said women were themselves responsible as they didn‟t feel that they deserve total freedom.
 The way man treats women is much worse than the way landlords‟ treats servants and the high
caste treat low caste.
 Women in India experience worse suffering, humiliation and slavery in all spheres than even the
untouchables.
 Women were denied education so that they didn‟t have the ability and intelligence to question
their slavery.
 However the most important factors for women subjugation, Periyar held, was that they lacked
the right to property.
 Women must get rid of their slavish mentality and they should realize that being civilized was
not about dressing fashionably or looking good but living on equal terms with men.
Suggestions for women emancipation
 He suggested education for inducing rational thinking for women.
 Changes in the custom of marriages and
 Birth control for the sake of women‟s liberation.
 He considered the term husband and wife inappropriate and called them companion and partners
 He also rejected the words wedding or marriages and termed it as a contract for companionship
in life.
Rationalism:
 Human‟s suffering and bondage due to lack of rationality among people
 He differentiated scientific approach from traditional belief system
 Example of poverty
 God, religions, preachers and scriptures all for instance told people that an act of
kindness to the poor guaranteed a place in heaven.
 Whereas modern science would work for finding the cause of poverty and try to
eliminate it.
 Periyar asked people to not accept every tradition, custom, religious practice uncritically.
 People can become rational only through scientific education on western lines.
 People need to develop their faculty of reason.
 He also said that God is not a reality; the concept of God was draining energy of people.
 As God has never revealed himself to anyone.
 He conjectured that worship in old human societies as well as the modern one has its origin from
fair and dread of the unknown natural phenomena.

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Muhammad Iqbal
Introduction:
 Muhammad Iqbal was born on 9 November 1877 in Kashmiri Family in
Sialkot (Punjab, Pakistan).
 Iqbal often mentioned about Kashmiri lineage in his writings & he was
proud of it.
 Kanhaya Lal was Iqbal‟s grandfather. His son Rattan Lal converted into
Islam and was given the name of Nur Mohamad. He married a Muslim
woman Immam Bibi.
 Iqbal‟s mother Immam Bibi, from a Kashmiri family died in 1914 in
Sialcot.
EarlyEducatio:
 At the age of 4, he was admitted to a Mosque to learn about the Kuran.
 He learned the Arabic Language from his teacher Sayed Mir Hassan.
 In 1893 he finished his metric at Scotch Mission College in Sialcot.
 In 1897, he completed his BA in philosophy, English Literature & Arabic at Government
College University.
 In 1899 he received MA degree in the same college. Shortly afterwards he joined as Junior
Professor at Government College Lahore.
Higher Education:
 In 1905, he went to England for Higher studies.
 He was already influenced by Friedrich Nietzsche, Henry Bergson and Rummi.
 In 1906 he obtained the degree of Bachelor of Arts from Trinity College University of
Cambridge.
 In 1907, Iqbal moved to Germany to pursue his Ph.D.
 In 1908, he earned a Ph. D degree from Ludwig Maximilliam University of Munich.
 Iqbal‟s Doctoral thesis was entitled „The development of Metaphysics in Persia.
Political Career of Iqbal:
 After coming back to India, in 1908, he associated himself with All India Muslim League
(formed in 1906).
 He remained active in League & was close to Mohd Shaffi & Mohd. Ali Jinnah.
 He was a critics of main stream of INC, which he regarded as dominated by Hindus.
 He was also disappointed with the League, during 1920s when League was divided into two
factional groups i.e. pro British group led by Shafi & the centrist group led by Jinnah.
 He believed in Jinnah‟s political leadership.
Political Career:
 In November 1926, with encouragement of friends and supporters Iqbal contested elections for a
seat in Punjab Legislative Assembly from Lahore.
 He successful won this seat
 Iqbal was elected President of the Muslim League in 1930 at its session in Allahabad in the
United Provinces, as well as for the session in Lahore in 1932.
 In 1930 Allahabad session he gave his famous speech. Some people believe that in this speech
the idea of two nation theory was given by Iqbal.
Works of Iqbal:
 Iqbal become prominence since 1899, when he recited Nalay-e-Yateem at the annual meeting of
Anjuman-e-Himayat-e-Islam¸Lahore.
 In 1904, he published Tarana-e-Hind (popularly known as Sare Jahan Sa Acha) in the weekly
journal Ittehad.
 1915 he published his first collection of poetry The Asrar-i-Khudi (Secrets of the Self) in
Persian.

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Work of Iqbal:

Poetic book in Persian Prose in Urdu

 Ilm-ul-Iqtisad 1903
 Asrar-i-Khudi 1915
Poetic Books in Urdu
 Rumuz-i-Bekhudi 1917  Bang-i-Dara 1924
 Payam-i-Mashriq 1923  Bal-i-Jibril 1935
 Zabur-i-Azam 1927  Zarb-i-Kalim 1936
 Javid Nama 1932 Prose book in English
 Pas Cheh Bayed Kard Ai Aqwan-e-  The Development of Mrtaphysics
Sharq 1936 in Parsia 1908.
 The reconstruction of Religious
 Armughan-e-Hijaz 1938
Thought in Islam 1930

Death:
 In 1933, after returning from a trip to Spain and Afganistan, Iqbal suffered from a throat illness.
 After suffering for months from his illness he died in Lahore on 21st April 1938.
 He is known as spiritual father of Pakistan.
Idea of Khudi
 Khudi is not an idea of Individuality.
 Liberalism Idea of Individualism believes that Individual is the centre of universe.
 Individual is the owner of his mind, body and self (J S Mill).
 State was created to protect this Individuality & Individuals rights (social contract theory).
 Iqbal rejected the Idea of Possessive Individualism (term coined by Macperson)
 Even Gandhi had a problem with idea of Liberal individualism. Like Iqbal he also believes that
Individual for his/her survival and self development takes lone from parents and teachers or
society.
 So he/she has to repay those loans.
 Marx also holds the same idea when he says that your freedom should be guaranteed with my
freedom.
 I exist because you exists. My purpose of life is engaging with other human beings. Thus
similarly Iqbal says self can‟t survive without others. Others is very important dimension.
 Iqbal thought that notion of self is needed to redefine.
 On one hand we have to retain the autonomy of individual and on other hand we also have
commitment to community.
 These two ends Iqbal wanted to meet
Self God Dimension
 Human mind is capable of going beyond physical dimensions
[Link]
Introduction
M. N. Roy (1887-1954) was a great Indian philosopher and revolutionary of early twentieth century. His
original name was Narendra Nath Bhattacharya. He assumed the name of
Manabendra Nath Roy (M. N. Roy) in 1916 during his sojourn in San Francisco,
California where he developed friendship with several American radicals. He met
Lenin in Moscow in 1920 and eventually became a communist leader of
international ranking in 1929. He returned to India in 1930 where he was
sentenced to six years imprisonment in Kanpur Communist Conspiracy case.
During his imprisonment he re-examined the Marxism. Roy came to identify a
close relationship between philosophy and science. His most important
contribution is the theory of scientific humanism.

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Works of M. N. Roy Works of M N Roy
 India in Transition 1922
 India in Transition 1922
 Materialism: An Outline of the History of
 Indian Problem & its solution 1922
Scientific Thought 1940
 One year of non-cooperation 1923
 The Problem of Freedom 1945
 The future of Indian politics 1929
 New Humanism: A Manifesto 1947
 Revolution and counter revolution
 Science and Philosophy 1947
in China 1930
 Beyond Communism 1947
 Materialism 1934
 Reason, Romanticism and Revolution 1948
 New orientation 1946
“The function of science is to describe and that of
 Beyond communism to humanism
philosophy is to be explain. Therefore, philosophy is
 New humanism and politics
called the science of science”
 People plan
Radical Humanism:  National government
The term scientific humanism may be used in various
 Science and philosophy
terms. Broadly speaking it refers to the belief that science
 On the Congress constitution
can and should be used to enhance human well being and
 Rise, Romanticism & Revolution
dignity. In this sense it owes its origin to the
 Gandhism, Nationalism and
Enlightenment. In European history Enlightenment refers
Socialism
to a general intellectual movement of eighteenth century
 Twentieth Century Jacobism
France, Germany and Great Britain. It was a period when
 Colonial thesis
people‟s religious and political life was set free from
obscure and orthodox beliefs and new light was shed on
 League of radical congressman
the conduct of human affairs. This movement was inspired
by exponents of scientific method including Francis Bacon, John Locke, Issac Newton and David Hume
in England, By G. E. Lessing in Germany and by Voltaire and Denis Diderot. In the late nineteenth and
early twentieth century‟s scientific humanism found a new source of support from the exponents of
social science, particularly in Great Britain, Graham Wallas, British social scientist attacked both
intellectualism and anti-intellectualism as inimical to humanity.
Concept of Radical Humanism: M. N. Roy sought to develop the idea of Scientific Humanism into
what he called Radical Humanism, although he also described it as Humanism as well as Scientific
Humanism and new humanism. Radical Humanism is reflected in a number of works such as The
Problem of Freedom, New Humanism: A Manifesto and Reason, Romanticism and Revolution.
According to him New humanism proclaimed the sovereignty of man on the authority of modern
sciences. It maintains that a rational and moral society is possible because man is by nature a rational
being. He holds that education is indispensable to achieving the goal of new humanism or radical
humanism.
Roy comes to the conclusion that for creating a new world of liberty and social justice, revolution must
go beyond an economic reorganization of society. As the urge for freedom is the motive force of life, the
purpose of all rational human endeavors must be to strive for removal of social conditions which restrict
the unfolding of the potentialities of man. New humanism focuses on the basis fact of history that man is
the maker of the world.
Roy points out that the brain, as an instrument of thought, is owned individually. It cannot be possessed
collectively. Revolutions are heralded by iconoclastic ideas conceived by gifted individuals.
New humanism advocates a social reconstruction of the world as a commonwealth and fraternity of free
men, by the cooperative Endeavour of spiritually emancipated moral men.
Under this system boundaries of national states will gradually disappear under the impact of a new
Renaissance. In short, new humanism or radical humanism as enunciated by M. N. Roy projects a vision
of emancipated world community where human awakening and human dignity will reign supreme.
According to M. N. Roy man is essentially a rational being.
Roy on Revolution /Attack on Marxism:
Roy‟s commitment to radical humanism not only led to his departure from Marxism but also to an attack
on Marxism. Marxism was based on theory of economic determinism. It means that the economic
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structure of the society, that is the mode of production comprises the base or foundation of social
structure while legal and political institutions, religion, morals and other forms of social consciousness
constitute its superstructure. Marxist believed that any change in the base results in corresponding change
in the superstructure. Roy asserted that the theory of economic determinism blasts the foundation of
human freedom.
In Marxist theory, mode of production included forces of production as well as relations of production.
Forces of production include means of production as well as labour power. Roy pointed out that means
of production were themselves a creation of human mind. How could they determine the form of human
consciousness? Roy maintained that revolutionary changes are created by the force of ideas which
constitute the human will, not only by change in the name of production.
Marxism regards socialism as the ideology of Proletariat (the class of manual working). Roy does not
accept this position. He was of the view that Marx and Engels were from the middle class. Even the
Lenin realized that Proletariat itself could not serve as a revolutionary force. So he assigned the task of
leading the revolution to Vanguard of the Proletariat which represented the intellectual elite. Marxism
held that the state will wither away after the emergence of a classless society. Roy asserts that the state
represents the political organization of society. It cannot cease to exist after the abolition of class
distinctions. As long as the communist stay in power in the name of „dictatorship of the proletariat‟ they
will not allow the state to wither away. Individual freedom will remain crushed under their feet.
“Men have been either slaves of gods or the servants of kings or at best devotees of some religion. But
man must be man for himself, if he wants to work for his own salvation”.
He also formed Indian Federation of Labour in 1944 & Communist Party of India at Tashkant in 1920.
He formed League of Radical Congressmen. He had explained Radical humanism in his work „Rise,
Romanticism & Revolution‟.
V D Savarkar
Introduction
 Vinayak Damodar Savarkar (1883-1966), was popularly known as Veer
Savarkar (Savarkar the Brave)
 He was an ardent nationalist, revolutionary and a noted freedom fighter.
 He is regarded the inspirational forced behind the resurgence of militant
Hinduism in India.
 He was educated in England. During his stay in England, he came into
contact with the Indian revolutionists like Madame Came, Lala Har
Dayal and Madan Lal Dhingra.
 In England he engaged himself in revolutionary activities.
 In he was arrested and brought to India as a „dangerous state prisoner. But he escaped the
steamer to a French vessel and hence went to France & took protection of French law as a
political prisoner.
 He was sentenced for 55 years by British authorities.
 He was kept as prisoner in Andaman for 14 years & in in Ratnagiri for the next 14 years.
 He was released from prison in 1937.
 After his release he joined Democratic Swaraj Party led by Tilak and latter joined Hindu
Mahasabha. He spent his long life with Hindu Mahasabha.
Works of Savarkar
The Indian War of Independence, History of the Sikhs, The life of Mazzini, Hindu Pad-Padshahi, Hindu
Rashtrya Darshan, An Echo from Andaman
He is famous for developing his concept of Hindutva and Hindu Rashtra.
Concept of Hindutva
 Hindus was simply related to the religious system of the Hindus, their ideology and dogma.
Hindutva on the other hand, implied not only the religions tenets of the Hindus, but also
comprehended the cultural, social, political and linguistic aspects of their life.
 A Hindu means a person who regards this land of Bharatvarsha, from the Indus to Seas, as his
Fatherland (Pitribhumi) as well as his Holyland (Punyabhumi), that is the cradle land of his
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religion.
Idea of the Hindu Nation
 He was of the view that in Hindustan the Hindus are a „nation‟; other people are only
„communities‟.
 He gives three type of Hindu
a) A Territorial Entity (Rashtra)
b) Racial Entity (Jati)
c) Cultural Entity (Samskriti)
 All the barriers such as Jains, Sikhs, the Arya Samajists etc. should be abolished.
 He strongly favoured inter caste marriage.
 He even opposed the principle of non-violence on the way to realizing nationalism.
 We denounce the doctrine of absolute non-violence not because we are less saintly, because we
are more sensible.
 He also recommended Shuddhi (Purification) movement for the entry of Muslim & Christian
converts to Hindu fold.
Dr. B. R. Ambedkar
Introduction
 He was born in 1891 in the Mahar caste of Maharashtra and died in 1956.
 He obtained his Ph.D. degree from Columbia University and [Link]. from
London School of Economics.
 He started newspapers Mook Nayak, Bahishkrit Bharat and Janata.
 He was influenced by Mahatama Gandhi, Mahatama Phule & American
Philosopher John Dewey.
 He was posthumously awarded Bharat Ratna in 1990.
 He also started Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (Society for the
Amelioration of the Outcastes), Independent Labour Party & All India Scheduled Caste
Federation
His Works are
 Annihilations of Caste 1936
 Who where Shudras? 1946
 Te Untouchables 1948
 Buddha and His Dhamma 1957
Faith on Democracy and Constitutional methods
 He wanted to establish true democracy which is political democracy combined with social and
economic democracy.
 In his work States & Minorities: What are their Rights and How to serve them in the Constitution
of India 1947.
 Gandhi coined the term Harijan.
 Ambadkar preferred to use name Untouchable, Depressed Class, Dalit etc.
 He was of the view that the condition of Untouchbles cannot be improved by changing their
names.
 He said „They forgot that whitewashing does not save a dilapidated house. You must pull it
down and build a new‟.
 He was having a difference with Gandhi on the developing Untouchables. Gandhi wanted a
peaceful and gradual process whereas Ambedkar favoured a radical solution.
 According to him cause of caste system is Varna, Ashrama & Varnashrama.
 He wanted to replace formal religion by the true religion, to replace the „Religion of Rules‟ by
Religion of Principles‟.

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Difference between the views of Gandhi and Ambedkar
The Issue Gandhi‟s View Ambedkar‟s View
Description of Harijans (men of God) Untouchables, Depressed Classes, Scheduled Caste
the
Untouchables
Attitude toward Fountain of Morality, must A device to perform certain social functions like
religion be followed faithfully solemnization of marriages, performance of funeral
rites, etc. Procedure for these functions can be
redefined on logical basis; Religion of Rules should
be replaced by Religion of Principles.
Attitude towards It is an integral part of It is the source of social injustice; Annihilation of
Caste system Hinduism; it should be Caste is the only way to restore social justice.
retained but its rigidity
should be removed.
Attitude toward Industrialization and Modernization is a liberating force; the
Modern Urbanization leads to moral Untouchables should make full use of the
Civilization decline; these should be opportunities opened up by the Modern
stopped forthwith Civilization; they should shift to towns and cities,
get modern education and take up modern
professions.
Programme for Gradual Social Reform, Untouchables to shed inferiority complex,
the Persuade Hindu society to challenge irrational beliefs, avail themselves of the
Emancipation of accept dignity of labour and Government sponsored welfare programmes, take
the to fraternize the advantage of reservations, transform themselves
Untouchables Untouchables through modern education and taking up modern
professions, rely on legal channels for protection of
their rights

J L Nehru
Introduction:
Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru (1889-1964) was a freedom fighter and seasoned statesman of modern India.
He received education at his home in Allahabad and at Harrow and Cambridge.
During his nearly seven years stay in England he imbibed the tradition of British
humanist liberalism. He was influenced by Mill, Gladstone Morley, Bernard
Shaw and Bertrand Russell.
He began his political activities by his association with the Home Rule League
established by Tilak and Annie Besant. Along with Srinivasa Lyenger and
Subhas Chander Bose, Nehru proposed complete independence as the goal of
Indian National Congress.
All Parties Congress was presided over by his father. He became the president of
INC in Lahore session with the blessing of Gandhi ji & in his president ship the historic independence
resolution was on the mid night of 31 December, 1929. He again became the president of congress again
in 1936, 1937 & 1946. In 1946 he formed the interim Government of India and since August 15, 1947,
he had been the Prime Minister of India till his death on May 27, 1964.
Russellian skepticism perhaps destroyed his little faith on religion because of his contact with Besant
and his studentship with under Ferdinand T. Brooks. Nehru was not a Kantian but only a Spencerian
agnostic.
He was influenced by Buddism more. He said „the Buddha story attracted me even in early boyhood.
Edwin Arnold‟s Light of Asia was his favorite book. He was so much influenced by Buddhism that he
used the Buddhist concept of Panch Sila in an agreement with China in 1954. Nehru in his book
Glimpses of World history shows a reflection on the fascination of Chinghez Khan and Napoleon. This
book focuses on famous personalities of Asia only.
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He regards Lenin as the chief man responsible for the miracle of the Russian Revolution and the post-
revolutionary transformation.
Nehru in his Glimpses shows influence of H. G. Wells. He treated all religions equal and was not a
preacher of Veda. That is why he was having a good friendship with Jinna and Abdul Kalam Azad. He
visited Soviet Union in 1927 and was impressed with their development. Nehru did not show much
interest in Karl Marx‟s Labour Theory of Value, theory of Surplus value etc. He accepted Lenin‟s thesis
that modern imperialism is the consequences of capitalism accumulation and its tendency to expansion.
While a student in London he was attracted toward Fabian Socialism. In 1926 he associated himself with
the radical thinkers of his own province of UP. During the thirties he made it clear that his socialism was
not of the type of Owen, Fourier and St. Simon. He believed in socialism as an economic economic
theory of state ownership and basic means of production and distribution. He did not believe in Liberal
school of economics. He was opposite to Smithian-Ricardian economics, Physiocratic School of
Economics. His ideas were similar to those of German state socialists such as Wagner, Schmoller and
Knies etc. Like Max Adler he believed in ethical socialism. Under his leadership, the INC accepted the
ideals of a socialist‟s pattern of society at the Awadi Session in January 1955. Nehru had subscribed to
the ideas of welfare state accepted by Pigou and the exponents of the British Labour Party ideology.
The precise scope of science was given by him in his work “The discovery of India”.
Nehru is regarded as great nationalist leader of India. However, his idea of nationalism was different
from other nationalist leader of modern India such as Swami Dayanand, Swami Vivekanand, Bipan
Chandra and Sri Arbindo. Nehru‟s nationalism was strongly influenced by the idea of „synthetic
universalism‟ as evolved by Rabindra Nath Tagore.
Nehru defined secular state as a state that protects all religions but does not favour any one at the
expenses of the other. It does not adopt any religion as the state religion. During Independence
movement of India, Nehru drafted Congress Resolution on Fundamental Rights (19310 which stated that
the state should observe neutrality in regards to all religions. In The Discovery of India 1946, Nehru
preferred to use Dharma and defined it as something more than religion.
Nehru was impressed by Marxist thought but he could not accept it in it‟s entirely because of his intense
love for liberty. He accepted the Marxist analysis of the past, but he was not convinced by the Marxist
projection of the future. He was influenced by the concept of synthetic universalism propounded by
Rabindra Nath Tagore. Tagore has no sympathy with the assimilative integral religious approach to
nationalism and it was criticized by Dayanand, Vivekanand, Pal and Aurbindo. While Gandian ideology
was based on Eastern ideology but Nehru‟s ideology was based on Western ideology.
On June 1, 1954, the fundamental concepts of Pancha Shila were laid down in the course of a joint
declaration by Nehru and Chou-En-Lai. These are
 Mutual respect for each other‟s territorial integrity and sovereignty
 Non-aggression
 No-interference in each other‟s internal affairs
 Equality and mutual advantage
 Peaceful co-existence and economic cooperation
“Politics and Religion are obsolete. The time has come for science and spirituality” Nehru
“The future belongs to science and those who make friends and science” Nehru
“Science and technology have freed humanity from many burdens and given us this new perspective and
great power. This power can be used for good of all” Nehru
“the aim of scientific progress should be a marriage between ancient India thought based on a spiritual
approach and modern scientific endeavour based on experimentation in search of truth” Nehru
„Democracy means tolerance, tolerance not merely of those who agree with us, but of those also who do
not agree with us‟. Nehru
Works of Nehru
 The Minds of Jawaharlal Nehru 1980 ( Book by S. Gopal)
 Works of Nehru
 Autobiography
 A Bunch of old letters
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 Glimpses of World History
 Unity of India
Dr Ram Manohar Lohia (1910-1968)
Introduction
He was a brilliant political thinker of modern India and also a freedom fighter. In post Independence he
was known for three unique things
He sought to mobilize all backward castes of Indian in order to defeat Indian
National Congress in elections. He pleaded for affirmative action for backward
castes, redefined as Other Backward Classes (OBC). He championed to Banish
English from India to flourish the Indian Languages.
Lohia gave distinction between class and caste in his concept of the „wheel of
history‟. Lohia advanced his theory of history in his famous work Wheel of
History 1955. He rejected Marx‟s theory of history on the grounds that it
projects a reading of European history as history of mankind. Marx had treated
the struggle between antagonists‟ classes as the motive force behind history. Instead of this Lohia
initially proposed two principles of historical change.
 The struggle among various societies for supremacy in terms of power and prosperity.
 The struggle among various divisions within every society. In every society two types of social
divisions namely class and caste constantly tend to shift their position.
Western democracy is not democracy in real sense. In the ancient times there were small city states and
democracy was designed for it. But as today population is very much so this democracy is not democracy
in real sense. He was of the view that in a country like India true democracy can be established only
when citizens can play an active role in public life so that whenever they come across injustice they
could raise their voice against it. This concept of Lohia echoes the concept of Swaraj given by Gandhi ji.
In order to implemented true democracy in India Lohia wanted to replace parliamentary democracy by a
decentralized system described by him as four Pillar state. In his work Fragments of World Mind (1965)
he argued that when the structure of the state will be raised on four pillars namely; village, district,
province and centre and all of them will be armed with equal authority, only than democracy will be able
to strengthen the common people. He has given name to this federalism as functional federalism. This
four pillar model will represent both socialism and democracy.
Lohia‟s seven types of revolutions:
 Revolution against economic justice
 Revolution against caste system
 Revolution against gender inequality
 National Revolution against imperialism
 Revolution against colour discrimination
 Revolution for individual rights against collectivity
 Procedural revolution of non-violence civil disobedience

Jaya Prakash Narayan

Introduction:
Lok Nayak Jayaprakash Narayan (1902-1979): Popularly known as JP was a scholar, a freedom fighter
and an eminent exponent of Indian Socialism. He was educated at Patna College
in India and Berkeley University in USA. As a scholar in US he came in contact
with East European intellectuals and developed a faith in Marxism. He returned
to Indian and met Indian communist and learned about their approach to India‟s
struggle for Independence. He analyzed the functioning of communism in the
Soviet Union.
JP joined the Indian National Congress on the invitation of Jawaharlal Nehru
and become a follower of Mahatma Gandhi. He played an important role in
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Indian Freedom Struggle and was arrested several times. During his imprisonment he met with Ram
Manohar Lohia and other Indian social intellectuals who were working on a plan to modify socialism to
suit India. On his release from the jail he formed the Congress Socialist Party along with Acharya
Narinder Dev within the congress as a left wing group. He also played an important role in Quit India
Movement and become popular as a great freedom fighter.
After Independence of India in 1947 when INC came into power he made a separate Social Party for
playing the role of Opposition. Later JP detached himself from party politics and whole hearted devoted
himself to Sarvodaya movement based on Gandhian Philosophy and led by Vinoba Bhave.
In 1970s JP came in opposition to Indera Gandhi the then PM of India. He led student movement in
Bihar and gave a call for Total Revolution (Sampoorna Kranti). His movement become successful and
resulted in outbreak of emergency by Indera Govt. after the end of emergency in 1977 all anti-congress
leaders made a coalition under the name of Janta Party under the Jaya Prakash Narayan.
As a result congress got defeated in the election and government was made by a coalition remained in
power till 1979. In 1998, JP was posthumously awarded Bharat Ratna for his social work. He also
awarded by Magsaysay in 1965 for public services.
Although JP was a communist, he rejected the Marxian model of socialism as adopted in Soviet Union.
He realized that the authoritarian and totalitarian character of
Soviet Communism derived from the concept of „dictatorship Works of J P Narayan
of proletariat‟ was against the spirit of true socialism.  Why Socialism
Similarly JP severely criticized the Chinese Communists for  Democratic Socialism
their cruel and inhuman attitude toward Tibet.  Our ideas and our methods
As a votary of socialism, JP recognized the economic  Toward a new society
foundations of politics. According to his well known writing  A plea for reconstruction of
Towards Struggle (1946) socialism refers to an elaborate Indian Polity
theory of social economic reconstruction. He argued that you
 From socialism to
cannot promote cultural creativity among men until their
economic needs are fulfilled. This can be achieved only Sarvodhaya
through socialism which calls for comprehensive planning.  A picture of Sarvodhaya
The idea of socialism is not imported from abroad. He had social order
already a concept of Lok Samgraha which implies protection  Socialism
and welfare of the world. It is an idea of Hindu ethics and is a  Sarvodhaya & Democracy
divine function.  Prison Diary
JP gave the idea of True Socialism by combining socialism  Toward total revolution
with Mahatama Gandhi‟s idea of Sarvodaya. Sarvodaya  To all fighter of freedom why
implies uplift of all. Hence there is no place for the Marxian socialism
idea of class conflict in JP‟s model of socialism. On the
contrary, it is intended to promote the Gandhian idea of class
cooperation. In a nutshell, precedence of Lokniti (politics of people) over rajniti (Politics of power) and
that of lokshakti (power of people) over rajshakti (power of state) is the key of JP‟s concept of
democracy.
He claimed that the so called people‟s democracy as adopted in East European Countries largely
represent the replica of the communist system prevailing in the Soviet Union.
JP projected system of party-less democracy to carry out Sarvodaya based social programme.
Some of important works of JP
 From Socialism to Sarvodaya
 Swaraj for the people
JP describes his Party-less democracy model as Panchayati Raj which is akin to Gandhian scheme of
Gram Swaraj
“There can be neither a democracy nor a liberal institution without politics. The true antidote to the
perversions of politics is more politics and better politics, not the negation of politics”. J P Narayan
The economic structure of Sarvodaya democracy is designed to comprise a network of many local and
regional small scale industries, some central large scale industries each collectively owned and manages
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by the whole village.
The political structure will comprise a network of Gram Sabha or Nagar Sabhas (each consisting of all
adults of a village, town or neighborhood depending on the size of locality concerned. Then two distinct
structures will be raised on this basis. For the first structure, Gram Sabha will indirectly elect the
Panchayat Samitis (Block Committees) by consensus, and the Panchayat Samiti will in turn similarly
elect Zila Parishads (District Councils). These organs taken together will form a three tier structure of
local self government. Then for the second structure, Gram Sabha & Nagar Sabhas will elect Vidhan
Sabhas (State Assemblies) and Lok Sabhas (National Parliament) through the process of respective
electoral colleges.
Political parties had no role to play in this plan. They play negative role by dividing the common people.
He has a plan for making India party less. He suggested that in initial stage all political parties will be
invited to participate in a common programme forgetting their ideological differences.
Difference between Marxian Socialism and JP‟s Socialism
Issue Marxian Socialism JP‟s Socialism
Target Satisfaction of Material needs Satisfaction of Material as well as
Spiritual needs
Status of the Class conflict between haves and have- Class conflict may be contained by
class notes is inevitable until the final adopting the policy of Sarvodaya
revolution (uplift of all)
Procedure of Start revolution in base (mode of Revolution should comprehend the
revolution economic production) superstructure base as well as the superstructure
will be transformed automatically (legal, political, cultural as well as
intellectual structure of society)
Organization Supremacy of Communist Party Party less Democracy
recommended
He criticized the communist party for their elite rule as well as the rivalry between different units of
communist party.
He formed Bihar Socialist Party in 1931.

Deendayal Upadhyaya
Introduction
 Born on 25th September 1916 at present day Mathura, U.P & died on 11 February 1968 at
Mughalsarai, U.P.
 He lost his father when he was less than three years old.
 He lost his mother when he was 8 and his younger brother in 1934.
 He was brought by his maternal Uncle.
 He went to high school in Sikar, Rajasthan.
 He did intermediate at the Birla College in Pilani.
 He did his B.A. at the Sanatan Dharma College, Kanpur in 1939.
 He joined St. John‟s College, Agra to pursue a master‟s degree in English
literature but dropped out.
Association with RSS
 While he was a student at Sanatan Dharma College, Kanpurin 1937 he came into contact with
the RSS through his classmate Baluji Mahashabde and Sunder Singh Bhandari.
 He met the founder of the RSS, K. B. Hedgewar who engaged with him in an intellectual
discussion at one of the Shakhas.
 He started full time work in the RSS from 1942, attended the 40 days summer vacations RSS
camp at Nagpur, where he underwent training in Sangh education.
 After completing 2nd year training in the RSS education wing Upadhyaya become a life long
Pracharak of the RSS.
 He worked as the Pracharak for the Lakhimpur district & from 1955 as the joint Prant Pracharak
(as regional organizer).
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 He visualized for India a decentralized polity and self reliant economy with the village as the
base.
 He welcomed modern technologies but wanted it to be adapted to suit Indian requirements.
 Deen Dayal believed in a constructive approach. He exhorted his followers to cooperate with the
government when it was right and fearlessly oppose when it is wrong.
Publications & Magzines
 He started the monthly Rashtrya dharma from Lucknow in the 1940 the publication was meant
for spreading the ideology of Hindutya Nationalism.
 He did not have his name printed as editor in any of its issues. Later he started the weekly
Panchjanya and the daily Swadesh.
 In Hindi he wrote a drama on Chandragupta Maurya, & latter wrote a biography of
Shankracharya. He translated a Marathi biography of Hedgewar.
Association with Bhartya Jan Sang
 In 1951 when Dr Shama Prasad Mukherjee founded the Bhartya Jan Sang, Deen Daya Became
the first General Secretary of its UP branch.
 He was also chosen as All India General Secretary.
 After Dr. Mukherjee‟s death in 1953, the entire burden of nurturing the orphaned organization
and building it up as the nationwide movement fell on the young shoulders of Deen Dayal.
 For 15 long years he remained the General Secretary of the party & build it up brick by brick.
 The acumen as the leader of his statesmanship & vision was the historic sessions of the party in
1967.
Philosophy of Integral Humanism
 Integral Humanism was coined by D. D. Upadhaya. It means that the human being is at the core
position of the social political and economic model.
 He gave it systematic treatment in 4 lectures delivered at Poona in April 1965.
 The elements of his thanking on this matter had already been presented for discussions to the
Jana Sangh and was adopted as the party‟s fundamental ideological statement by the Bharatiya
Pratinidhi Sabha meeting at Vijayawada in late January 1965.
 He began systematically to apply integral Humanism to practical politics in his presidential
address to the Jana Sangh‟s 14th annual session at Calcutta in December 1967.
 It is useful exercise to review the concept. It is the task of the political philosopher to make clear
what man‟s nature truly is and, on this basis, to define the condition of a good political order.
This was the task he set for himself in his Poona Lectures on Integral Humanism.
 He didn‟t fully rely on western concept of Individualism, democracy, socialism, communism and
capitalism.
 He believes that the 4 aims (Purusharthas) of human being are Dharma, Artha, Kaama &
Moksha.
 Integral humanists consider that materialist advocate only Artha & Kamma negating the other
two.
 Integral humanist believes that all the three aims i.e. Dharma, Artha & Kamma are essential to
achieve liberation or Moksha.
Sarvodaya, Swadeshi & Gram Swaraj
 He borrowed the Gandhian principles such as Sarvodaya (progress of all), Swadeshi (domestic)
& Gram Swaraj (village self rule) & these principles were appropriated selectively to give more
importance to cultural national values. These values were based on an individual‟s undisputed
subservience to nation as a corporate entity.
 Richard Fox has characterized this as „ideological hijacking‟ and a „transplant‟ that was designed
with a purpose to appropriate the authority that the Gandhian idioms has on Indian Politics.
 M. S. Golwalkar believed in the concept of Organicism, from which the Integral Humanism was
not very difficult. In Integral Humanism, Golwalkar‟s thought were supplemented by
appropriating major Gandhian principles and presented as version of Hindu Nationalism.
 A major change here in compared to Golwalkar‟s work was use of the word „Bhartiya‟ which
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Richard For had translated as „Hindian‟ combination of Hindu Indian.
Deendayal‟s Death mystery
 Travelling in Train to Patna, a year after he was elected in 1967 as the president of Jana Sanga.
He was allegedly murdered.
 10 minutes of Train arrival at Mughal Sarahai Station his body was found near it clutching five
rupee note in his hand.
 Lastly he was seen alive was at Jaunpur after mid-night.
 The cause of death was identified as theft without evidence.
Grand Salute to the Legand
 A Delhi road Marg on his name.
 Deen Dayal Research institute was set up under the guidance of Padma Vibhushan Sh. Nana Ji
Deshmukh in March 1968.
 Mughalsarai Junction in U.P. where his body was found has been renamed as Deen Dayal
Junction in 2018 after 50 years of his death.

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Comparative Political Analysis

Political Economy: Political economy is the study of production and trade and their relationship with
law, custom and government; and with the distribution of national income and wealth.
The earliest works of political economy are usually attributed to the British Scholars Adam Smith,
Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo, although they were preceded by the work of the French
Physiocrats such as Francois Quesnay (1694-1774) and Anne Robert & Jacques Turgot (1727-1781).
Adam Smith: „Wealth of nations‟ (1776) in this book first time politician and economy superintendence.
David Ricardo: Principle of political economy and taxation 1817.
Karl Mars: Economic and Social Manuscript 1844.
J. S. Mill: Principles of political economy 1848
The writings of the Scottish economist Sir James Steuart, 4th Baronet Denham, whose „Enquiry into
the principles of political economy‟ (1767) is considered the first systematic work in English on
Economics are also linked to political economy.
Political economy appeared as a separate field of study in the mid-18th century, mostly as a reaction to
mercantilism, when the Scottish philosophers Adam Smith & David Hume and French economist
Francois Quesnay began to approach this study in systematic rather than fragmentary terms.
They took a secular approach, rejecting to explain the distribution of wealth and power in terms of
God‟s will and instead appealing to political, economic, technological, nature and social factors and the
complex interactions between them.
Indeed, Smith‟s landmark work, an inquiry into the nature and causes of the „Wealth of Nations‟ 1776
which provided the first comprehensive system of political economy expresses in its title the broad
scope of early political economic analysis.
Although the field itself was new, some of the ideas and approaches it drew upon were centuries old. It
was influenced by the individualist orientation of the English political philosophers Thomas Hobbes &
John Locke, the Realpolitik of the Italian political theorist Niccolo Machiavelli and the inductive
method of scientific reasoning invented by the English philosopher Francis Bacon.
Physiocracy: (French – Physiocratie; from the Greek for „government of nature‟) is an economic
theory developed by a group of 18th century Enlightenment French economist who believed that the
wealth of nations was derived solely from the value of “land agriculture” or “Land development” and
that agricultural products should be highly priced.
Their theories originated in France and were most popular during the second half of the 18 th century.
Physiocracy is one of the first well developed theories of economics.
Adam Smith coined the term “mercantile system” to describe the system of political economy that
sought to enrich the country by restraining imports and encouraging exports…most of the mercantilist
policies were the outgrowth of the relationship between governments of the nation-states and their
mercantile classes.
In common parlance, “Political economy” may simply refer to the advice given by economists to the
government or public on general economic policy or on specific economic proposals developed by
political scientists.
Politics + Economics – argument: both politician and economics are interconnected. Political factor
determine economic outcomes and economic factors determine political outcomes. This approach
explains their relationship.
From an academics standpoint, the term may reference Marxian economics, applied public choice
approaches emanating from the Chicago school and the Virginia school.
A rapid growing mainstream literature from the 1970s has expanded beyond the model of economic
policy in which planners maximize utility of a representative individual toward examining how political
forces affect the choice of economic policies especially as to distribution conflicts and political
institutions.
Debate, with his extended concern for the division of labour, even Emile Durkheim was deeply

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concerned with political economy.
Nonetheless, the major focus of political economy has persisted, as has its significance to sociological
theory. In simple way, political economy refers to interdisciplinary studies drawing upon economics,
political science, law, history, sociology and other disciplines in explaining the crucial role of political
factors in determining economic outcomes.
International political economy studies the economic impact of international relations and economic
models of political processes. The analysis of political economy, both in practical terms and as moral
philosophy, has been traced to Greek philosophers such as Plato & Aristotle as well as to the Scholastics
and those who promulgated a philosophy based on natural law.
A critical development in the intellectual inquiry of political economy was the prominence in the 16 th to
the 18th century of the mercantilist school, which called for a strong role for the state in economic
regulations.
England does not love coalition Disraeli
Systematic study of pressure group was done by Arthur Bentley
„The process of Government 1908‟ is the first book on Pressure Groups.
Books on England
S. No. Book Author
1. British Constitution Walter Baghehot
2. The Law of Constitution A. V. Dicey
3. Government of Great European Power H. Finer
4. Cabinet Government W. I. Jenning
5. The law and the Constitution W. I. Jenning
6. Parliament Government in England H. J. Laski
7. Reflection on Constitution H. J. Laski
8. Government of England Lasswell
9. British Parliamentary Democracy Morrisjones
10. Modern Constitution K. C. Where
11. Modern Democracies James Bryce
12. Essay on Government Ernest Barker
13. How Britain is Governed Ramsay Muir
Political culture: Inter-predators of Political culture at General level contending theories.
Interpretations of Political culture at specific levels, political communication studies, political
socialization studies
Political Culture: Credit of outlining concept goes to Gabriel Almond. Some definitions of political
culture are given below
Gabriel Almond “Every political system is embedded in a particular pattern of orientation to a political
system”.
Rose & Degan: Political culture reflects to various belief and emotions which gave meaning to a
political life.
Almond & Powell: Pattern of individual attitudes and orientation to critics among the member of a
political system.
Roy Macridis: Political culture means community shared goals and community accepted rules.
Gabriel Almond gave following two assumptions of political culture
a) Political Culture and Political System are interrelated.
b) Political System operates within the framework of set of meaning.
Political System is sum total of orientation of people toward objects

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Almond‟s analysis of political culture and political

system

Civic Culture Political System

Unmixed Pol. Culture Mixed Political Culture

Parochial Subject Political Participant

Political Culture Culture Political Culture

Parochial-Subject Subject Participant Parochial Participant

Political Culture Political Culture Political Culture

Continental Pre-industrial or Totalitarian

Anglo-American European Political partially industrially Political
Political System System Political System System

Orientation of People

Cognitive Orientation Effective Orientation Evaluative Orientation

Political objects

System as a whole Input Output Self

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S. P. Huntington connected culture with civilization. He favoured inter-disciplinary approach for study
of political development.
H. H. Hyman coined the term Political Socialization and has lead emphasis on perpetuation of political
values across generations. Political socialization changes with time & today the popular is „Political
Socialization of young witness‟ what Almond & Verba call Multidirectional flow of influences.
Greenstein: “Political Socialization in both stable and unstable societies is likely to existing pattern”.
Gabriel Almond borrowed most of his ideology from Talcot Person.
Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba wrote “The Civic Culture: Political Attitude and Democracy in
Five Nations”. It was based on study of USA, Germany, Mexico, Italy and U.K in 1963. According to
them nearest to Civic Culture is Great Britain.
Civic Culture is a mixture of
a) Parochial- Subject Political Culture
b) Subject-Participant Political Culture
c) Parochial-Participant Political Culture
Civic culture is highly stable and provides stable indirect democracy.
System as a whole Input Output Self Political Culture
Cognitive X X X X Parochial
Affective X X Subjective
Evaluative Participant
Participant Culture is balanced by Parochial and Subject. Civic Culture is highly stable. It is in USA,
UK & provides stable indirect democracy.
Gabriel Almond was of the view that Civic Culture maintains balance between power and
responsibility.
Concepts of Pareto
a) Doctrine of Innovation
b) Consolidation
c) Persistent of Aggregate
d) Residues
e) Theory of elite/Theory of Circulation of Elite
f) The Mind & Society
Political Culture was first used in 1950s by Gabriel Almond. Then it was outlined in “The Civic
Culture” in 1963 by Almond and Verba. Soon it was opposed by two political scientists Gerhard
Lehmbruch and Arend Lehbruch. Former analyzed politics in Switzerland & Austria & latter in
Netherland. Both urged that there are political systems more stable than one in USA & UK.
Political participation: Theories of political participation, Theories of party system,
Political development.
Definition of Political Parties: Political Parties first of all originated in Britain. Pressure groups first
originated in USA. Pseudo Pressure groups was used by Jean Blondel. Political Parties 1945 of Robert
Michaels was criticized by Lipson. Some of the definitions are given below.
Munro: He equates Democratic system with the party system.
Smith: He hailed Political Parties as Vanguard of democracy.
Sigmund Neuman: Political Parties are the life line of modern politics.
Sait: They are like tide of the oceans
Burke: Political Parties is a body of men united for promoting up their joint endeavors in the national
interest.
Schumpeter: The first and foremost aim of each political party is to prevail over the other in order to
get into power or to stay in it.
Field: A political Party is rather like a comet, which had a solid nuclear at the head and a long gaseous
tail which follows it.
Lenin: A small compact care, consisting of reliable, experienced and hardened workers.
Marx: Parties represent classes.
Laski: There is no alternative to party govt. to save dictatorship in a state of modern size.
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Zoya Hasan: A Party is a key Political institution in represent regime.
Finner: A Political Parties is a two way communication that combines 50 million people to 630 million,
who in common exercise omnipotent power.
Describe Political Parties as power beyond the thrown.
He suggests two party system good for a nation.
Lord Bryce: No free large country had been without them. No one has shown how representative govt.
could work without them.
Almond

Institution Anomic Associated Non-

al Pressure Pressure group Associational
Pressure Groups Pressure group
group
Maurice Duverger

Executive Partial Private Public

Group Group Group Group

Jean Blondel

Community interest group Associational Interest

Groups

Customary Institutional Protective Promotional

Groups Groups Groups groups
Classification of Political Parties given by Maurice Duverger: He gave them on the basis of study of
Western European countries
a) Elite/Traditional parties
i. European Type Classification of Political Parties
ii. American Type given by Hitchner & Levine
b) Mass Parties a) Pragmatic Parties
i. Socialist Parties b) Doctrinal Parties
ii. Communist Parties c) Interest Parties
iii. Fascist Parties
c) Intermediate Type
i. Indirect Parties
ii. Parties in Developing Countries

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Classification of Political Parties given Classification of Political

by Hitcher and Levine Parties given by Almond
a) Competitive two party system a) Authoritarian
b) Competitive Multi Party System Parties/Totalitarian/Dictators
c) Dominant/Non-authoritarian hip party
system b) Dominant/non-Authoritarian
d) Authoritarian Party System (Democratic)
e) State without party system c) Competitive two party
d) Competitive Multi Party

Classification of Political Parties by Sartori

a) One Party System
i Monopolistic – Totalitarian, Authoritarian, Pragmatic
ii Hegemonic - Ideological, Non-ideological
iii Predominant
b) Two Party System
c) Multiparty System
i Pluralism – Moderate (Limited), Extreme
(Unlimited)
ii Atomism

Classification of Political Parties Classification of Political Parties

given by Diverger given by La Palombra & Myron
a) Multiparty system Weiner
b) Two party system a) One Party Authoritarian
i One Party System b) One Party Pluralists
ii Dominant Party System c) One Party Totalitarian

Theories of Political Parties

S. No. Theory Author
1. Development Theory J. L. Palombra
2. Spatial Theory Giovomin Sartori
3. Re-alignment Theory Bunham & Sandquist
4. Permeation Theory Maurice Duverger
5. Political Parties and Political Development La Palombra & Myron Weiner
6. Democratic Theory Giovomin Sartori
7. New Theory of Democracy Schumpter and Anthony Downs
Political Development
Important books
S. No. Book Name Author
1. The First Nation S. M. Lipset
2. Political Man S. M. Lipset
3. Circulation of elite Pareto
4. Concept of Mass Mind Michels
5. Political Culture & Political Development Pye & Verba
6. Stages of economic growth W. W. Rustow

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7. Contemporary politics & Political Analysis Almond & Verba
8. Aspects of Political Development Lucian Pye
9. Political Economy & Development in India Pranab Bardhan
10. Critics of Political Development & Under- Chilcote
development
11. A System Analysis of Political Life David Easton
12. The Sociological imaginations C. W. Mill
13. Stages of Political Development 1965 Organsci
14. Political Decay S. P. Huntington
15. Elites & Society T. B. Bottomore
16. Politics of Modernization David Apter
17. The Change to Change Huntington
18. Comparative Politics Today G. K. Roberts
The term „Political Development‟ can be traced back to 1950 when a large no. of American thinkers
tried to study the political dynamics of newly emerged countries of Asia, Africa & Latin America.
Definitions
Daniel Lerner “The Passage of ancient societies and modernization of Middle East”. He equates
development with modernization.
W. W. Rustow: “A typical phenomenon of industrial societies”. Industrial societies are a goal of
pattern of series of development”. He adopted view of economic development.
Edward Shills: He views development as “national state building”. He classified political system into
following parts in his book “Political Development in New State”.
 Political Democracy
Kennth Organsci view development in
 Titulary Democracy
following terms
 Totalitarian Oligarchy
 Modernization Oligarchy  Political Unification
 Traditional Oligarchy  Industrialization
Sleeping Dog theory of Democratic culture was given  National Welfare
by Almond & Verba.  Abundance
Gabriel Almond “Disintegration and Specialization of
political structure and secularization of political culture”. He said effectiveness, efficiency, capacity are
benchmark of political development. James Coleman terms them as „Development Syndrome‟
Lycen W. Pye view development in terms of population, govt. performance and organization of policy.
Three essential attributes are Equality, Capacity & Differentiation.
S. P. Huntungton: “Industrialization of political organization and procedure”.
F. W. Riggs: There should be balance between equality & capacity otherwise “development Trap”.
Riggs integrated the concept of political development with the force of environment.
Four problematic situations pointed out by Claire Nettl of Political development.
a) Definitional priorities
b) Set of values
c) Connection between developed and less developed world.
d) Rank order for development.
Claire Nettl gave two works i.e. Growing Community & Community Gardening as Social Action.
Nettle gave four requirements of Almond & Verba gave four challenges to
Political Development Political Development
a) Inter-Related World a) Problem of State Building
b) Stability and Instability b) Problem of Nation Building
c) Population c) Problem of Participation
d) Race d) Problem of distribution

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Almond & Verba gave four major On the basis of study of England, Lucian
factors of Political Development Pye gave following six crises
a) Nature of problems confronting a a) Identity Crisis
political system b) Legitimacy Crisis
b) Resources of the system c) Penetration Crisis
c) Efforts of foreign social system d) Participation Crisis
d) Function of pattern of the system e) Integration Crisis
e) Response of the political elite f) Distribution Crisis

Halpern chosed will & capacity approach

Einsenstadt chosed Institutional framework or Institutional approach
Huntington freed it from economics & sociology & called it Political Decay.
Pye & Almond rejected Political Decay.
Roy C. Macrides in 1955 drew attention of Political Scientists toward study of political system of third
world countries.
S. P. Huntington gave four variables for mark of development & decay
a) Adaptability
b) Complexity
c) Autonomy
d) Coherence
Development & Under-development:
A deeper study of A. G. Frank, Paul A. Baran & F. H. Cardoso has lead to emergence of political under
development.
It is the exploitation of proletariat by the native bourgeois e.g. Multinational Companies. It is also
known as neo-colonialism. In realist terms, it is known as double exploitation. The theory of Political
Under-development is derived from Marx.
“Under-development goes hand-in-hand with economic development” Apter
Henrique Cardoso presents the model of “associated development” that combines development with
under-development.
Immanuel Wallenstein gave world economic system. It has three types
a) Core (Exploiters - Developed Countries)
b) Semi-periphery (Exploiters as well as exploited)
c) Periphery (Exploited)
Celso Furtado “Development and under-development becomes part of same continuum.
The concept of Associated depended development was given by Faletto & Cardoso.
An overview of the concepts of Modernization, Nation Building Political development and
political Decay
Political Modernization:
S. P. Huntington defined modernization as a multi faced process involving change in all areas of
human thought and activity.
Dimensions of Political Modernization
a) Psychological
b) Intellectual
c) Demographic
d) Social
e) Economic
Pye in his Syndrome gave following points
a) General attitude towards equality that allows equality of opportunity to participate in politics
and compete for govt. offices.
b) Capacity of a political system to formulate policies and to have them carried out
c) Differentiation and specialization of political functions
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d) Secularization of the political process – the separation of politics from religion and other
influences.
Four stages of Political Modernization by David Apter
a) Stage of contact and control
b) Stages of reaction and counter reaction
c) Stages of contradiction and emancipation
d) Stage of search for new generative solution

Edward A Shill classified the political system as follow

Democracy Oligarchy

Political Tetulary Modernizing Totalitarian Traditional

Democracy Democracy Oligarchy Oligarchy Oligarchy

Huntington‟s characterization of Approach Thinker

modernization process in his “The Organizational Approach G. Mosca, Robert
Change to Change” Michels, Pareto
Economic Approach James Burham
a) Revolutionary
Institutional Approach C. W. Mill
b) Complex
c) Systematic S. P. Huntington gave concept of Political
d) Global decay he gave following variables in it
e) Lengthy Political Development Political Decay
f) Phased Variables Variables
g) Homogenizing Adoptability Rigidity
Complexity Simplicity
h) Irreversible
Autonomy Sub-Ordination
i) Progressive Coherence/Unity In Coherence/disunity

Political Socialization: It is a process by which political culture is learned. Easton & Dennis see four
stages in Political Socialization.
a) Recognition of Authority e.g. parents, father, mother etc.
b) Distinction between public & private authority.
c) Recognition of imperial Political institutions e.g. Legislature, Judiciary etc.
d) Distinction between political institutions & people engaged in it.
Political development has two dimensions one is sociological and other is psychological. Both have lead
to emergence of two new concepts i.e. political acculturation and political socialization respectively.
Nature of State and class in Comparative Political Analysis
1. Theory of state and its importance and comparative political Analysis- Nature of the
contemporary state in advanced capitalist societies and developing societies.
2. Class and Political Rules
1. Theory of Ruling class.
2. Pluralist theory of politics.
3. Enlist theory of Democracy and its critique.

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Political Elite
Theorist such as Pareto, Mosca, Michels, Gasset, Burnham, C. W. Mill and Lasswell has sought to
prove that “There may exist in an society a minority of population which takes major decision in a
society”.
The word “Elite” was used in 17th Century in military & other high organization. In 19th Century it was
used in Europe & 1930 in Britain & America. Elite Theory was first started in Central & Western
Europe. Kroese defined elite as “They have a special mission to fulfil in a society”.
Elite Theory of Pareto (1848-1923):
„History is a graveyard of aristocrats‟. He gave a theory of elite known as “Theory of Circulation of
Elite”. He holds movement of individual elite from higher level to lower & vice-versa. He gives list of
qualities called „Residues‟ which elite must possess for stable. These are given below
Combination, Persistence of preservation, Expressiveness, Sociability and Sex
Pareto lays use of 1st two and on its basis gives his “Doctrine of Innovation”, “Consolidation”
Persistence of aggregate”.
He also wrote “Mind and Society”
“Society is governed by a minority section called Elite”.
Society

Lower Stratum/Non-elite Higher stratum/Elite

Governing elites Non Governing elites

Elite Theory of Gateno Mosca (1858-1941): „The Ruling Class‟ is considered as his independent
contribution to theory of elite. He said in all societies, two classes of people appear – the class that rules
and the class that ruled. The first class always less numerous performs all political functions,
monopolizes power and enjoys advantage. The second class more numerous is controlled by first. He
said in his „theory of two classes‟ that one class need cooperation of other. Ruling class need support of
ruled class and the latter need protection of former. He says a minority has advantage because it is
minority. He says political force possess a quality called „Inertia‟ in Physics.
Society

Ruling Class (Elite) Ruled Class

Robert Michels (1876-1936): His well known work is „Political Parties‟ 1915 and gave his work „Iron
law of Oligarchy‟ on the basis of study of German Social Democratic Party. He said “Who says
organization, say oligarchy”. According to him for the success and survival of an organization,
leadership becomes necessarily. „Reason for elite is majority of the people are indolent, apathetic and
political neutral‟. Michels calls the “Mass Mind”. He also says that “The democratic currents of history
resemble successive waves. They break the same shoal”
Ortega Y. Gasset (1883-1955): Development theory of elite on the basis of his superficial relevance to
the „Dogma of the Masses‟. It is the people who create the elite by responding their faith & rendering
support to chosen elements.
Two American Social Theorists of recent times are Burham & C. Wright Mill, who made good
contribution to theory of elite. Burham offered an economic approach that looks more or less analogue
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to Marxian approach. According to him the basis of any elite‟s power lies in the control over the
principles means of production and distribution & gave “Preferential Treatment”
Finally institutional approach of C. Wright Mill is „elite is the production of the institutional landscape
of the society‟. Hierarchy in these institutions constitutes the strategic command posts of the social
structure. Mill used his „Political elite” to explain nature of American political system.
Schumpter and Anthony Downs gave a „New Theory of Democracy‟.
Milovan Dijlas gave „New Class‟. He says that even a social system have an elite having special
privilege and economic preferences because of the administrative monopoly they held.
Burnham – The Political Process of Managerial Revolution
R. A. Dhal – Polyarchial Democracy
John Plamentz – Democracy and Illusion
„Will of the people is myth than will of the Minority also belong to same category.
Maurice Duverger in his work „Political Parties 1945‟ suggested that „Government by the people, for
the people, must be replaced by Government of the people by an elite spring from elite‟.
Works on Political Elite
S. No. Work Author
1. Elite and Society T. B. Bottomore
2. Democracy and Illusion John Plamentz
3. Political Parties 1945 Maurice Duverger
4. Permeation Theory of Parties Maurice Duverger
5. Conveyance theory of state Maurice Duverger
6. Political Elite C. Wright Mill
7. Dogma of Masses Ortega Y. Gasset
8. Political Parties 1915 Robert Michels
9. Mass Mind Robert Michels
10. Theory of Elite/Circulation of Elite Pareto
11. New Class Milovan Djilas
12. New Theory of Democracy Schumpter & Anthony Downs
13. Mind & Society Pareto
14. The Ruling Class Gateno Mosca
15. Elite theory of Democracy Almond
16. Political Machine Robert Merton
17. Elite in Welfare State J. S. Banks
18. Elite in South Asia S. N. Mukherji
19. The Process of Government 1908 Arthur F. Bentley
Classification of people based on political participation
Woodword and Roper

Very Active Active Inactive Very Inactive

Robert Dhal

Power Seekers
Apolitical Stratum Political Stratum Powerful

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Centre for Studies of Developing Societies

Apathetic Peripherals Spectators Auxiliaries Politists

Inputs in Almond‟s Political System

a) Political Socialization and requirement
b) Interest articulation
c) Interest aggregation
d) Political Communication
Definition of Contemporary Politics
Price: It is the study of general principles on which govt. can be carried on.
Blondel: It is the study of pattern of national Govt. in contemporary world.
Lasswell: It is the study of forms of political organization their properties, correlates, variants and mode
of change.
Comparative Politics developed in 1950 by USA philosopher but it was also present during the times of
Plato. In fact Aristotle was the first to study it on basis of 158 constitution of that time.
Approaches to comparative politics

Classical Approaches Contemporary Approaches/

Modern Approaches
Classical Approaches
Philosophical Approach: It is oldest approach. It is identified with name and preferences.
Contemporary exponent is Leo Strass, Lindsay, Eric Vogelin, Plato and Laski etc.
Historical Approach: This method was adopted by Aristotle, Montesquiue, Hegal, Machiavelli,
George Sabine & Michael Oakeshott.
Early historical and institutions - Sir Henry Maine
A Short history of Politics - Edward Jenks
Formal & Legal Method: In the 19th century efforts were made to study institutions on the basis of
their formal and legal structures. This was followed by Wilhelm Roscher, Woolsey, Woodrow Wilson,
Blackstone, Dicey and Neumann etc. These writers tried to make a comparative study of legislature,
executive, judicial and Bureaucracy etc.
Configurative method: These scholars treated the different Political System as independent entitles.
They studied these Political system analyzed them & examined their political feature. This approach
was adopted by R. G. Neumann in Europe comparative govt. & Herz in Major Foreign Power.
Area Study: Adopted after W. W. 2nd undertook comparative study of cluster of countries in a
particular area on account of their cultural uniformity. E.g. Government and Politics of South East by
Kalin, Government and Politics in Latin America by Davis and Government and Politics of Middle
East by Harari. This approach helps us to understand with system of Government is successful where
i.e. which leads to democracy and which to military dictatorship.
Problem Methods: This system was also adopted after W. W. 2nd. In this method scholars take some
problem just as bi-cameral, federal system, Parliamentary or President Government & study them on the
basis in various countries.
Institutional Functional Approach: This approach was adopted by Herman Finer, Char J. Friedrich
etc. tied to make contemporary study of government by concentrating on the study of various political
institutions like Political Parties, Legislative and Cabinet etc. This approach was adopted by Aristotle to
Giovanni Sartori, Bryce, Bagehot, H. J. Laski and Maurice Duverger.

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Contemporary Approaches/Modern Approaches: Modern approaches refer to the approaches
developed by scholars in the present century for the study of political institution. It not only
concentrates on institution but also takes into account the informal process of politics which greatly
influence working of institution. This approach also developed by American Scientists. Various modern
approaches are given below
Structural Functional Approach: This approach was developed I the 2nd decay of this century. This
approach started in Mathematics by Leibriz and found its way into political science through sociology
and anthropology. Chief exponents of this structural functional approach were Marian Levy, Robert
Merton, Talcott Person, Almond and David Easton. This approach assumes that the political system is
merely a sub system of main social system which performs different functions.
According to Gabriel Almond Political System has four Characteristics which may be called as
„Legitimate Pattern of Interaction‟. These characteristics mostly resemble with USA.
a) Every Political System has its structure, some more specialized and other less specialized,
which perform more specialized and less specialized functions respectively.
b) Despite the difference between the system and its structure, some political functions are
performed by all Political System.
c) Political functions which can be designated as multifunction.
d) All political systems being part of the society has a culture of their own, which is a mixture of
the traditional modernism.
Some important works based on this approach
Work Author
The Politics of Developing Area Almond & Coleman
Comparative Politics: A development Almond & Powell
Approach
The American Polity Mitchells
Merton made special contribution to the Structural functional approach. He draws distinction between
function and dys function. According to him function are those observed consequences which make for
the adoption or adjustment of a given system. Dys functions are those observed consequences which
lesson the adoption or adjustment of the same. Similarly manifest functions are those functions whose
purpose and consequences are both intended & recognized.
System Approach: This approach envisages the Political System as a sub system of the large social
system which is constantly engaged in communication with entitles and system outside its boundary.
Various scholars view system approach in different context as shown below
a) Guided Missile: It holds that Political System operates in a particular way and automatically
adjusts the cause of system in the light of pressure, both internal and external towards target
(Easton criticizes the Talcott Person).
b) Convertor: Those who holds that Political System operates on the same principles as an
automatic machine & converts input into outputs.
c) Kind of Structure: These view Political System as a kind of functions which are vital for the
survival of the system. System approach was introduced due to realization of Easton, Almond
& Mortan etc. They drew inspiration from the contribution of Ludving-von-Bartonfy, who
pioneered the moment of unification of all natural sciences.
Decision Making Approach: The decision making approach envisages a continuous process which
involves selection of a problem, followed by search for full information consideration of various
alternatives before final decision. Lasswell gives seven functional stages in decision making process
a) Information stage - Problem is identified
b) Recommendation - Various alternatives considered
c) Prescription - Selection made from various alternation
d) Innovation - Provisional enforcement of selected alternative
e) Specific Alternatives applied or implemented
f) Review of Decision or its effect is made
g) Termination Stage - Decision is renewed, revised or repeated.
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March and Herbert gave following four decisions
Problem Solving, Persuasion, Bargaining and Politics
Political Economy or Marxist Approach: The approach tries to examine the Political System with
reference to their economic system. They are of the view that change in economic system automatically
lead to change in Political System.
Definition of System Analysis
Ludwing Von Bertalanffy: A set of elements standing in interaction
Hall & Fagon: A set of objects together with relation between the objects and between their attitudes.
Collin Cherry: A System is a whole which is compounded of many parts – as ensembles of attitude.
Easton: A set of interaction
Easton wrote „A system analysis of political‟ life published in 1965.
Features of Easton‟s Political System:
a) A Political System is set of interactions abstracted from the totality of social behaviour through
which values are allocated for a society. He has coined a new definition of the term like politics
and Political System by „authoritative allocation of values‟.
b) There are certain properties common to both natural and social system. Like a living system, the
Political System has responding and self responding mechanism by which it can change, correct
and readjust its process.
c) If so, Political System is not a static but dynamic affair.
d) A Political System is an open system amenable to the influence or environment factors.
e) The environment of a Political System may be intra-social as well as extra social.
f) A Political System always remains subject to challenge from force operating in the
environment. Easton calls this force as stresses, having two types – demand stress and support
stress.
g) Political System may be in a steady state if there is proper balance between input and output.
h) A Political System lives in critical range. It is possible that input and output are properly
balanced or not.
i) The survival of the Political System requires certain structures e.g. Electronic Voting Machine
(EVM) Political Parties etc. he calls them as objects of support of the system.
j) The objects of the support of the Political System are three – Political Community, Regime and
Authority.
k) Political System consists of Sub-system e.g. Para-Political system.
Easton rejects the Talcott Person‟s view.
Structural Functionalism was first developed by A. R. Radcliffe Brown & it was for politics of
developing countries. It was systematically formulated by Tacott Person.
Gabriel Almond: He was an American Political Scientist best known for his work
on Comparative Politics, Political Development and Political Culture. He was
born in USA in 1911. He was an educator at Chicago University. He died in 2002
in USA. His notable work is (The Civic Culture 1963).
Some of his books are given below
S. No. Book Year
1. The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in 1963
Five Nations
2. Comparative Politics: A Developmental Approach 1966
(Almond & Powell)
3. The Politics of Developing Area 1960
4. Comparative Politics: A Theoretical Framework 1993
5. Political Development: Essays in Heuristic theory 1970
6. Comparative Politics Today: A World View (Almond,
Kaare Stra M., Russell J. Dalton, Kaare Stom, G.
Bingham Powell.

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David Easton: He was born in 1917 in Canada and then took American
Citizenship. He was a Political Scientists. He served as professor of Political
Science at Chicago University. He is well known for his Political System Theory.
He died in 2014. Some of his important works are given below
S. No. Book Year
1. A System Analysis of Political Life 1965
2. Children in Political System 1969
3. Systems Analysis in Political Science: A Marxist 1987
Critique of David Easton (Apurba Kumar Baruah &
Almond)
4. An Approach to the Analysis of Political System 1993
Lucian Pye: He was born in China in 1921. He took American Citizenship. He
was a well known Political Scientist well known for his work in Sociology &
Comparative Politics. He was a faculty at Wale University. Some of his
important books are given below
S. No. Book Autho
r
1. The Spirit of Chinese Politics 1968
2. Asian Power and Politics (Lucian Pye & Mary W. Pye) 1985
3. Political Culture and Political Development 1965
4. Aspects of Politics Development 1966
5. Communication and Political Development 1961
6. Mao Tse Tung: The Man in the Leader 1976
Talcott Person: He was born in America in 1902. He was an American Sociologist of the classical
tradition, best known for his social action theory and Structural Functionalism.
Pearson is considered as one of the most influential figure in sociology in 20 th
Century. He died in 1979 in Germany. Some of his important works are given
below
S. No. Book Author
1. The Social System 1951
2. The Structure of Social Action 1937
3. System of Modern Societies 1971
4. Social System and the Evolution of Action Theory 1977

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POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA

Constitution Development
 Charter of Act. 1833: Governor General of Bengal to be Governor General of British India. Lord
William Bentick was first. A law member was added to Governor General‟s executive council.
Macaulay was first.
 Charter of Act. 1853
 Post of Secretary of State created
 Governor General received title of Viceroy.
 Indian Council Act. 1892
 Non-office member nominated by Bengal Chamber of Commerce & Provincial
assembly members e.g. Gopal Krishan Ghokla, Mukherji, Ras Bihari Gosh, S N
Banerjee find their way in Legislative Council.
 Indian Council Act. 1909 or Morley-Minto Reform.
 Muslim were given separate representation. Thus communal representation was
introduced in India.
 Govt. of India Act. 1919 or Montague-Chelmsford
 Diarchy system introduced in the provinces.
 Center was to have bi-cameral first time.
 Communal representation extended to Sikhs, Christen & Angolo Indian.
 Govt. of India Act. 1935
 Establish All India federation.
 Diarchy system at Center
 Three fold power i.e. Center list (59), State list (54), Concurrent List (36).
 Provincial autonomy replaced Diarchy in Provinces.
 Federal Bank Established.
Framing of Constitution of India
 First Independence Day was observed on 26 January, 1930.
 Idea of Justice in our Constitution was taken from Russia.
 The idea to have constitution was given by M N Roy.
 B N Rao was appointed as Constitution advisor.
 The present constitution of India was formed under Cabinet Mission Plan 16 May, 1946. Is had a
total 389 members comprising 292 elected, 93 from princely states and 4 nominated from four chief
commissionaires i.e. Delhi, Ajme-Mawah, Coorag, British Baluchistan.
 The ratio of the representatives was one person per one million population, divided into
Hindu, Muslim, Sikh and General.
 On 16 July, 1947 because of separate assembly for Pakistan, their strength was reduced to
299 comprising 229 elected and 70 from princely states.
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 Drafting Committee: Responsibility of drafting in the recess of Constitution assembly was given to
its drafting Committee having following members;
 B R Ambedkar Chairman
 N Gopalaswami Ayyangar Member
 Alladi Krishna Swami Ayyar Member
 K M Munshi Member
 Sayyed Mohd Sadulla Member
 N Madhav Rao (in place of B L Mittra) Member
 D P Khaitan (after his death, T Krishnamachari) Member
 Other Committees
 Union Power Committee J L Nehru
 Union Constitution Committee J L Nehru
 Fundamental Right & Constitution V B Patel
 Provincial Constitution Committee V B Patel
 Flag Committee J B Kripali
 Steering Committee K M Munshi
There were total 13 Committees in Constitution Assembly.
 Functioning of Constitution Assembly
 First meeting of Constitutional Assembly was held on December 9, 1946 and elected Dr
Sachidnand Sinha as its President following French practice (eldest member of house
as president).
 Next meeting was held on 11 December, 1946 and elected Dr Rajinder Parsad its
president by voting.
 Constitution was adopted on 26th November, 1949 and came into force on 26th January, 1950. Some
provisions of the Constitution were made effective from 26th November 1949 i.e. Art. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
60, 324, 366, 367, 379, 380, 388, 391, 392 & 393.
 It took 2 yrs. 11 months and 18 days time to complete the formation of Constitution of India.
Whereas USA took 4 months to complete her Constitution.
 Its formation expenditure was 64 Lakhs.
 National Flag was adopted on 22nd July 1947.
Division of Constitution of India; Constitution of India consists of one preamble, 395 Articles,
eight Schedules and twenty parts.
 Preamble:-
 The words Socialistic, Secular, Integrity were added by 42nd Amendment in 1976.
 Preamble is not Justiciable.
 Schedules: At the time of adapting the constitution of India there were only eight Scheduled
but today with the amendments in Constitution there are twelve Schedules i.e.

Schedule 1 Deals with list of State and Union Territories.

Schedule 2 Deals with Salary of President, V-President, Chief Justice, Judges
of SC, HC & Attorney General.
Schedule 4 Deals with Allocation of seats for each State in Rajya Sabha.
Schedule 5 Administration and control of Scheduled Area and Tribes
Schedule 6 Provision for administration of tribal area.
Schedule 7 Power & Function between Center and States
Union List State List Concurrent

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100 61 52

Originally there were 97 subjects in Union list, 66 in State list and 47 in Concurrent list.
Schedule 9 Added by 1st amendment in 1951. It contains acts and order
related to land, revenue, railway etc.
Schedule 10 Added by 52nd amendment in 1985 contains provision for
disqualification.
Schedule 11 Added by 73rd amendment in 1992 and is related to Panchayati
Raj
Schedule 12 Added by 74th amendment in 1992 and is related to Municipal
Corporations i.e. Local Urban Govt.
 Parts: Our Constitution consists of 22 parts i.e.

Part I (Art. 1-4) Deals with Territory of India, formation of new State,
alteration name of existing states.
Part II (Art. 5-11) Deals with various rights of citizenship
Part III (Art. 12-35) Deals with fundamental Rights of Indian Citizens. In place of
word union, „Cooperative Society‟ was added in Clause l and
sub clause „C‟ by 97 amendment 2011‟
Part IV (Art. 36-51) Directive Principles of State Policy
Part IV(A) (Art. 51A) Fundamental duties added by 42nd Amendment 1976
Part V (Art. 52-151) Deals with govt. at Union level
Deals with govt. at State level (Art. 152 exempts J&K from
Part VI (Art. 152- the category of ordinary State
237)
Part VII (Art. 238) Deals B class States and was repealed in 1956 by 7th
Amendment.
Part VIII (Art. 239- Deals with Union Territories
241)
Part IX (Art). 243 Composition of Panchayats
(243 – 243o)
Part IX A (Art) (243p The Municipalities
– 243 zg)
Part IX B (243ZH) The Co-operative Societies
Part X (Art. 244- Deals with Scheduled and Tribal Area
244A)
Part XI (Art. 246- Deals with relation between Union & State
263)
Part XIB Added by 97th Amendment 2012
Part XII (Art. 264- Deals with distribution of revenue between center and State
300A)
Part XIII (Art. 301- Deals with Trade & Commerce within territory of India
307)
Part XIV (Art. 308- Deals with UPSA, SPSC.
323)
Part XIVA (Art. 323A, Deals with Administrative tribunal added by 42nd 1976.
323B )
Part XV (Art. 324 - Deals with Election and Election Commission
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329)
Part XVI (Art. 330 - Deals with special provision for ST/SC/Angalo Indians
342)
Part XVII (Art. 343 - Deals with Official languages
351)
Part XVIII (Art. 352 – Deals with emergency provisions
360)
Part XIX (Art 361 - Deals with exception of criminal proceeding of President,
367) Governor during their tenure.
Part XX (Art. 368) Amendments of Constitution

Part XXI (Art. 369- Contains following important articles

392)
Art. 369 Temporary power to parliament to make law
Art. 370 J&K, became operative on 17, Nov. 1952
Art. 371 Maharashtra and Gujarat
Art. 371A Nagaland
Art. 371B Assam
Art. 371C Manipur
Art. 371D Andhra Pradesh
Art. 371E Andhra Pradesh
Art. 371F Sikkim
Art. 371G Mizoram
Art. 371H Arunachal Pradesh
Art. 371I Goa
Art. 371J Karnataka Hyderabad region (formed in 2013)
Part XXII (Art. 393- Short Titles, Commencement & Special repeal of the
395) Constitution
Fundamental Rights:-
 „Magna Carta‟ of 1215 issued by King John of England is known as first written document of
Fundamental Rights.
 A resolution for Fundamental Rights was passed in 1931 by INC session held Karachi presided
over by Sardar Patel.
 Sapru committee made distinction between Justifiable and Unjustifiable Rights.
 They are placed in 4th Schedule and part 3rd of the Indian Constitution i.e. from Art 12 – 35.
 Part 3rd off Indian Constitution is also known as “Code of Administrators”.
 Art. 12 deals with definition of State.
 Art. 13 deals with law inconsistent with or in derogation of the Fundamental Rights.
 Originally there were 7 Fundamental Rights but one i.e. Right to property was deleted and it is
placed as a legal right under Art 300A in part 12th of Constitution by 44th Amendment in
1978.
 Six other fundamental rights are given below:
a) Right to Equality Art. 14, 15, 16, 17, 18.
b) Right to freedom Art. 19, 20, 21, 22.
c) Right against Exploitation Art. 23, 24.
d) Right to freedom of Religion Art. 25, 26, 27, 28.
e) Cultural and Education Rights Art. 29, 30.
f) Right to Constitution Remedies Art. 32.
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 Right to Equality
Art. 14 Equality Before Law.
Art. 15 Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of Religion, Race Caste, Sex
and Place of Birth.
Art. 16 Equality of opportunity in matter of Public employment.
Art. 17 Abolition of Untouchable.
Art 18 Abolition of Titles.
 Right to freedom
 Art. 19, Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech
a) Freedom of speech & expression
b) Freedom of Assembly
c) Freedom of Association
d) Freedom of Movement
e) Freedom of Residence and Settlement
f) Freedom of Profession, Occupation, trade or business.
 Art. 19(A) – Right to information Act.
 Art. 20 : Protection in respect of conviction for offence
a) No double Prejudice.
b) No Forcefully witness.
 Art. 21: Protection of life and personal liberty.
a)Personal freedom (writs, Habeas corpus etc.)
 Art. 21A: Added by 86th Constitution amendment 2002. States shells provide free and
compulsory education to Children between 6 to 14 yrs.
 Art. 22: Protection against arrest and detection in certain cases.
 Right Against Exploitation
 Art. 23: Protection of traffic in human beings and forced labour.
 Art. 24: prohibition of employment of Children in factories below 14 yrs age.
 Right to freedom of Religion
Freedom of conscience and free practice and propagation of religion.
Art. 25 :
Freedom to manage religious affairs.
Art. 26 :
Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion.
Art. 27 :
Art. 28 : Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in
certain education institutions.
 Cultural and Educational Rights
 Art. 29: Protection of interest of Minorities.
 Art. 30: Right of Minorities to establish and administer education institutions.
 Art. 31: Omitted by 44th amendment in 1978 but Art. 31A, 31 B, 31C also exist today
which as mentioned as under.
a. Art. 31A: Saving of law providing for acquisition of estate.
b. Art. 31B: Validation of certain acts & regulation.
c. Art. 31C: Saving of laws giving effect to certain Directive Principles.
 Right to Constitution Remedies Article 32:
 Right to move SC in case of Violation of any of the above F. Rights. It was called as
“heart and soul of the Constitution” by Dr B R Ambedkar. He also said “Art. 32 is
Fundamental Right of all Fundamental rights.
 Types of writs.
a. Habeas Corpus: „to have a body‟ it is a Latin term.
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b. Mandamus: Power of High Court under which he can command about his/her
duty of either civil officer or court.
c. Certiorari: Issued to quash order passed in excess of Jurisdiction of a court.
Certiorari and prohibition are almost same the only difference between them is
that Certiorari is always positive.
d. Prohibition: Issued to an inferior court to keep within limit of their
jurisdiction. It may be positive or negative. Prohibition & Certiorari are not
available against legislative bodies and private individual and bodies.
e. Quo-Warranto: Issued to enquiry into the legality of a public officer. It
means „what is your authority‟.
 Other Articles
Art. 33: Power of parliament to modify Fundamental Rights.
Art. 34: Restriction on Fundamental Rights while Marshal law is in force in any
area.
Art. 35: Legislation to give effect to some of the provision of Fundamental Rights.

Under emergency, Art. 20-21 cannot be suspended under any condition.

Art. 15, 16, 19, 29, 30 – are not available to foreigners, aliens etc. Fundamental rights are against
govt. but some rights in Art. 17 are also enforceable against private member. While the supreme Court
can issue writ only for enforcement fundamental right. The High Court can issue it for legal rights as
well.
Fundamental Duties:
 Not Part of Original Constitution and was added in 1976 by 42 Amendment.
 They were added on recommendation of Swarn Singh Committee.
 In 1976 ten Fundamental duties were added.
 There are today 11 Fundamental Duties and the last one was added by 86th Amendment 2002.
 They are placed in part 4th (A) of the Constitution.
 The idea of Fundamental Duties was borrowed in Constitution from Russia.
Directive Principles:
 They are the part of original Constitution.
 Art. 36 – 51 Deals with Directive principles of State policy and are placed in part 4 of
Constitution.
 The idea of Directive Principles was borrowed from Ireland who too borrowed from Spain.
 They are non-Justiciable.
 These are the aims which state shall achieve.
 These are a blend of Socialist, Liberal, Democratic, Gandhian Principles.
 In 1984 the state of Tamil Nadu Vs Abu Kavir Bai Case, SC held that though Directive
Principles are not enforceable still court should not avoid them.
 Directive Principle added in 42nd amendment 1976
 Art. 39(a), 39(f), 43(a) and 48(a)
 Directive Principle added in 44th amendment 1978
 Art. 38(i)
 Directive Principle added in 97th amendment 2012
 Art. 36(b)
 Directive Principle in other part of Constitution
 Art. 350(a), 351, 355
 Some definitions on Directive Principles
 „They represent manifestation of aims and aspirations‟ K C Where
 „They are like the instrument of instructions to govt.‟ B R Ambedkar
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 „They underlay philosophy of Fabian Socialism‟. Ivor Jenning
Amendments:
 42nd Amendment of 1978 is also known as mini Constitution.
Borrowed features of Indian Constitution:
USA UK
 Written Constitution a) Post of PM
 President as Supreme Commando. b) Post of President
 Vice President c) Speaker of Lok Sabha
 Preamble d) Cabinet System of Govt.
 Fundamental Rights e) Parliament type of Govt.
 Provisions of States f) Lower house more powerful
 Supreme Court g) Council of minister responsible to
 Independent Judiciary lower house
 Removal of SC/HC judges. h) Single Citizenship
i) Bicameral Parliament

Australia
UK
 Concurrent list
 Post of PM  Language of preamble
 Post of President  Provision of Trade, commerce etc.
 Speaker of Lok Sabha
 PIL
 Cabinet System of Govt.
 Parliament type of Govt.
 Lower house more powerful Ireland
 Council of minister responsible to  Directive Principle of State Policy
lower house  Method of election of President
 Single Citizenship  Nomination of member by President to
 Bicameral Parliament Lok Sabha

USSR Canada
 Fundamental Duties  Federalism with strong center
 Five year planning  Distribution of power between center and
state with residue power to center

South Africa Germany

 Method of Amendment in  Emergency provision
Constitution Japan
Russia  The Law on which Supreme Court works
 Fundamental Duties

Parliament:
 Indian Parliament Consists of President, Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha.
 President of India is not a member of any House of Parliament but he is an integral part of
Parliament.
 In USA president is not a part of Parliament.
Union Executives (52-78)
1. President
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2. V-President
3. Prime Minister
4. Council of Minister
5. Attorney General of India
President:
 He should be 35 yrs. Old with eligible for election for Lok Sabha.
 Must be proposed by 50 electoral & 50 secondary and had to pay 15000/. Security deposit in
RBI
 Election disputes related to president‟s election are heard by Supreme Court and its decision is
final.
 Election is held in electoral college consisting following members i.e. Member of Lok Sabha (
Non- Nominated) +Member of Rajya Sabha (Non-Nominated) + Member of Slate Legislative
assembly (Non-Nominated) + MLA of Delhi and Puduchery (Non-Nominated).

Value of Vote of MLA = Total population of the State X 1

Total MLA elected in State 1000

Value of Vote of MP = Total value of Vote of All MLA of all states

Total MP in Parliament (Rajya Sabha + Rajya Sabha) non−nominated

 Veto power of President:
 Absolute Veto: Withhold his assent to the bill passed by parliament e.g. for private
member bill, if the cabinet resigns before president‟s assent. In 1954, Dr Rajinder Parsah
withheld his assent to PEPSU appropriate bill. In 1991, R Venketaraman withheld his
assent to bill for salary, allowances & pension of member of parliaments because of
dissolution of Lok Sabha.
 Suspense Veto: If the bill is returned by president to parliament for reconsider, if they
return again to parliament after amendment or simply the president has to give his assent. It
means the president power is overruled simple by Cabinet.
 Qualified Veto: It is not power of India‟s Parliament. It is enjoyed by USA president. It
is reciprocal of suspensive veto i.e. which can be overruled by legislature by high
majority.
 Pocket veto: In this case the president neither gives assent to the bill nor returns it is
because there is no time limit to India‟s president to give within his assent as 10 days
limit to USA president. But the bill must not be a money bill or a constitutional
amendment bill. In 1986 president Zail Singh exercised it with respect to Indian Post
Office (Amendment bill). The bill passed by the Rajiv Govt. imposed restriction on the
freedom of press & hence was criticized much. The 24th Amendment made it obligatory
for the president to give his assent to a constitutional Amendment bill.
 Under Art. 300, A Governor may reserve bill for president. Under Art. 201, president can‟t do
following (In USA a governor cannot sent the bill for president‟s assent)
 The president may give accent to bill.
 May withhold his assent to the bill
 May not be bounded to give accent to the reconsidered bill.
 Under Art. 123 presidents can issue ordinary Law if the parliament is not in session and such
ordinances expire after six weeks from session of parliament.
 Under Art. 72 president has some pardoning powers
 Paradon Complete remission.
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 Commutation Reduce with change in type.
 Remission Reduce with no change in type.
 Respite It denotes rewarding a lesser one i.e. for pregnant women etc.
 Under Art. 161 Governor too possess some powers.
 President can pardon sentences in court Marshal where as Governor cannot. He can
reduce death sentence into life imprisonment etc. But cannot pardon.
 Art. 53: Executive power of union shall be executed by president.
 Art. 74: There shall be a council of ministers to aid and advice the President.
 Art. 75: The council of ministers shell be responsible to Lok Sabha.
 Art. 76: He lays report of CAG, UPSC, Finance Commission before Parliament.
 In history, Justice Hiditulla discharged duties of president in 1969. He is the only to act twice
as president.
 V V Giri was the only President to be elected as Independent.
 In 1977, N Sanjev Reddy was only to be elected unopposed.
 Art. 143: Advice from Supreme Court.
V- President:
 39th Amendment made election of President, V-President, PM, State Legislative Bodies
beyond the preview of Judicial Review.
 Vice-President is elected by all the members of parliament, elected as well as nominated only.
 Minimum age for election - 35 yrs. Old
 Impeachment by simple majority in Rajya Sabha.
 For election must have 20 proposers and 20 seconders and have to deposit 15000/. in RBI.
 Discharges the duties of president. E.g. Dr. S D Radha Krishna discharged duties of Dr
Rajinder Parsad two times- first time when he was 15 day visit to USSR &2nd time when he was
ill.
 Four president were elected unopposed-
 S D Radha Krishna
 M Hhiditulla
 S D Sharma
 Must be qualified for member of Rajya Sabha.
 Oath before President.
 Can resign writing to president.
 213 ordinance power of Governor.
Prime Minister:
 Art. 75 – only PM should be appointed by President.
 Holds office during pleasure of president.
 In 1980, Delhi High Court said PM will prove his majority in Lok Sabha after appointed as PM
by president.
 After 1997, a member who is not a member of either central or state houses can become PM
but he has to become member of either house of parliament within a period of 6 months.
 List of PM from Raj Sabha;
 Indera Gandhi 1966
 Deve Goda 1996
 Dr. Manmohan Singh 2004
 List of PM who became PM after CM:
 Marorji Desai – First non-Congress PM & was from state of Bombay.
 Charan Singh – From state of UP, (Janta Party).
 V P Singh - From state of UP, (Janta Dal).
 P V Narshima Rao - From state of Andhra Pradesh
 H D Devi Gora - From state of Karnataka, First PM who was elected as PM being a
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non-Parliamentary member. (Janta Dal).
 In Britain PM must be from Lower House (House of Common) but no such restriction in India.
In India any citizen can be appointed as PM by president provided that he has to prove his
majority in Parliament and get elected as member of any house of parliament within a period
of six months.
 National Commission to review constitution (NCRWC) was formed during the Prime Minister
ship of A B Vajpayee in 2002. It was an 11 member commission headed by M N
Vinketachalin.
 42nd amendment in 1976 made council of Ministers will binding on President but not for
the Governor in case of state govt.
 Some important definitions about PM
 “A sun around which planet revolve”. “He is keystone of constitution”. “All the roads
in constitution lead to PM”. Jennings
 “PM is center to its formation and center to its death (council of Minister). “The pivot
around which entire govt. Machinery revolves” HJ
Lasaki
 “The govt. is the mother of country & he is master of it” HR
Greaves.
Supreme Court (SC)
 It was inaugurated on 28 Jan. 1950. Art. 124 to 147 deals with Supreme Court.
 Art. 233 to 237 provide for Single, united, hierarchal organized judges.
 Supreme Court was adopted from USA and the law on which it works is borrowed from Japan.
 Where as in India Judiciary is unified and integral but in USA it is double i.e. one for center and
other for state.
 The main aim of Indian Judiciary is to resolve the dispute between Center and States.
 Supreme Court consists of 31 Judges and one Chief Justice of India.
 Art. 124: A Judge of the SC is appointed by President in consolation with SC Judges and High
Court Judges. In case of appointment other than Chief Justice, Chief Justice is also consulted.
 Art. 137; SC can review its decision.
 In 1973, A N Roy was appointed as Chief Justice of India after superseding three senior most
Judges because of later decision in Keshwananda Bharti Case.
Supreme Court in 2nd Judge Case 1993 held that senior most judge of SC will be appointed as Chief
Justice of India.
 Fist Judge Case 1982
 2nd Judge Case 1993 (made chief Justice view binding in case
of appointment of Judges in SC)
 3rd Judge Case 1998 (gave collegiums system)
 A Chief Justice holds office till 65 yrs. Age.
 Can resign by writing to president.
 Impeachment: Can be removed by president on recommendation of parliament on the ground
of proven misconduct and incapacity.
 Removal motion signed by 100 members (in case of Lok Sabha) and 50 members in case of
Rajya Sabha. Then a committee of three members is formed to investigate & if found guilty, this
resolution of impeachment is passed by each house with special majority.
 Since independence none was removed but two cases of impeachment came before parliament
i.e.
 Justice Shri R. Ramaswamy impeachment case 1991-1993, he was found guilty but
congress voted against his impeachment hence impeachment was not successful.
 Justice Sumitra Sen of Calcutta High Court 2010 (illegal finances transition).
 Art. 217 deals with removal of Judges of High Court.
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 Art. 124 deals with removal of Judges of SC.
 Justice R Banumalthi became 6th women Judge.
 Judges related to None of the Above (NOTA) Concept in India.
 Chief Justice P Sathasivam
 Justice Ranjan Prakash Desai
 Justice Ranjan Gogoi
 SC makes it mandatory during election to have NOTA symbol on Electronic Voting
Machine in a case named „People‟s Union for Civil Liberties Vs Union of India &
Anr.
 Collegium System: came after 3nd Judge Case. It consists of Chief Justice of India and four
senior most Judges. Appointment of HC and SC Judges is done on its recommendation. All its
member vote independently and decision is taken in majority.
 National Judicial Activation Commission (NJAC):
 Famous cases of Supreme Court.
 A K Gopalan Vs Madras (1950): Supreme Court held that Art. 21 is kept away from
right mentioned in Art. 19. This case is also known as first case of Fundamental
Rights.
 Shankri Parsad Vs India (1951): First amendment was challenged. SC held that
Parliament has power to amend any provision of Constitution including Fundamental
Rights.
 Sajjan Singh Thakur Vs Rajsthan (1954) (Leave case)
 Berubari Case (1960) : A case related to dispute between India and Bangladesh.
Preamble is not a part of Constitution.
 Golak Nath Case Vs Punjab (1967): Parliament cannot amend Preamble &
Fundamental Rights (Part 3rd of Constitution) under Art. 368. (Kaka Sabha Rao was
main Judge in it).
 42nd Amendment extended 368 influences to many parts of constitution.
 Bank Nationalization Case (1970): Compensation should be paid according to
market value.
 25th Amendment to Indian Constitution (Ruston Caverje Case) (1971) gave
theory of parliament sovereignty.
 Keshwananda Bharti Vs Kerela: (1973) theory of basic structure of constitution. It
was Chaired by Justice Mathew. He said preamble is a basic part of Constitution. Other
related to it were Chief Justice S M Sikri, Justice J M Shelat, Justice K S Hedge,
Justice A N Grover, Justice B Jagmohan Reddy, Justice D G Palekar, Justice H R
Khanna, Justice A K Mukherjee and Justice Yashwant Vishnu Chandrachud.
 Meneka Gandhi Case (1978): Right to travel is a legal right. This case is also known
as passport snatch case.
 Minerva Mill Case (1980): SC held that Judicial Review is a basic feature of
Constitution of India and parliament should not remove it by amendment. Chief
Justice Yeshwant Vishnu Chandra, Justice A C Gupta, Justice Untwalia, Justice P S
Kailasam. But Justice P N Bhagwati refused to signature it.
 Abu Kavir bai Vs Tamil Nadu (1984): Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles
are equally important.
Budget
 Receipt and expenditure of Govt. of India.
 Appropriate Bill: All the expenditure approved through various demands for grants and
expenditure charged on consolidated fund of India and is in the form of single bill called
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appropriate bill.
 Financial bill: The proposals for taxation to raise revenue are presented in the form of financial
bill.
 Art. 265: No Tax can be levied or collected except by authority of law.
 Art. 266: No money can be withdrawn from the consolidated fund of India without sanction of
Parliament.
 Art. 112(3) : Following are charged on consolidated fund of India. E.g. Salary of President, V-
President, Chief Justice of India, etc.
 Contingency Fund of India: It is money under disposal of president.
 Art. 110 deals with definition of money bill.
Committees in Parliament
 Public Account Committee: First formed in 1921 by Govt. of India Act. 1919. It consists of 22
members i.e. 15 from Lok Sabha and 7 from Rajya Sabha and is elected for one year. A
member cannot be elected to this committee.
 Estimate Committee: It was formed in 1921. It has Thirty members from Lok Sabha only.
 Committee on Public Undertakings: Created in 1969 on recommendations of Krishna Menon
Committee. It has 15 members having 10 from Lok Sabha and 5 from Rajya Sabha. A minister
cannot be elected as its member.
 Department Standing Committee: In 1993 there were 17 department standing committee and in
2004 there were 24. Each standing committee has 31 members 21 from Lok Sabha and 10
from Rajya Sabah. Out of 24 committees, 8 work under Rajya Sabha and 16 under Lok Sabha.
 Committee on welfare of ST/SC has 30 members.
 All the chairman of these committees is appointed by Speaker of Lok Sabha except the
committee on salaries & allowances of members of Parliament.
Constitutional Bodies in India established by Act in Constitution:
 Election Commission by Art 324
 Tenure is 6 years or 65 years age (For all )
 1950-1989 single Chief election Commissioner (CEC).
 1989-1990 one CEC and two Election Commission (EC)
 1990-1993 single CEC.
 1993-till date – one CEC and two EC.
 UPSC Art (315-323)
 Tenure 6 years service or 65 of year age. (all members)
 SPSC Art (315-323)
 Tenure 6 years service or 62 year age.
 Finance Commission Art 280
 Chairman and four other members.
 National Commission for SC& ST Art 338
 Established by 65th amendment act 1990.
 89th Amendment Act 2003 separated national commission for SC by art 338 and
National Commission for ST Art 338A.
Central Administrative Tribunals (CAT)
 it was established in 1985, with principal bench at Delhi.
 It deals with conflict between Courts.
 Art. 323 empowers parliament to establish CAT.
 State Administrative Tribunals were also established in 1985.
Art. 338 empower to appoint a special officer for SC/ST. Nation Commission for women was formed
in 1992.
National Commission for Minority was formed in 1993
National Commission for Backward Classes was formed in 1993 National Human Right Commission
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was formed in 1993
National Commission for Protection of Child was formed in 2007.
Famous Committees/Commissions for ST
 U N Debar Commission (For situation of Tribes) 1960.
 Dalip Singh Bhuria Commission (For Tribes, it suggested PESA Act (Panchayati Raj
extension to scheduled Area Act) 2002
Backward Commissions
 Kaka Kalekar Commission 1953
 B P Mandal Commission 1979
 Ram Nandan Commission 1993
 Setalved commission 1966
 Ragmanar Committee 1969
 Ranjeet Singh Committee 1983
 Punchi Commission 2007
Ram Nandan Commission was formed for Creamy layer in OBC
Attorney General & Solicitor General of India
 Art. 76 provides for office of Attorney General of India.
 He is appointed by President of India & can be removed by him at any time.
 Not a part of parliament but can take part in proceeding of Parliament without right to vote.
 He does not fall under govt. servant category.
 He is not a member of Cabinet.
 But mostly he is appointed by president for 5 years.
 There is same post in state known as Advocate General. He is appointed by Governor of State
mostly for 4 years.
Parliament of India
 Parliament consists of President, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
 Lok Sabha 550 (530 from state & 20 from UT)
 At present only 545.
 91st Amendment, 2003 breezed Lok Sabha & State Assembly seats till 2026. Art. 352 cannot be
imposed more than one year extension at a time, but can be extended by number of times.
 A member can be disqualified if
 Voluntarly
 If he over rules the whip (Vote in Parliament against his party will).
 Absent from house i.e. Parliament for more than 60 days.
 If a nominated member joins a political party after expiry of six months.
 Minimum age for election to Lok Sabha is 25 years. And must be registered as electorate in any
part of India.
 Its life is 5 years.
 Rajya Sabha has a total of 250 (238 elected +12 nominated) members.
 At present 245 (238 + 12).
 There is no reservation of Seats for SC/ST etc. In Rajya Sabha.
 Minimum age for election to Rajya Sabha is 30 years.
 It is a permanent house and is not dissolved but every member elected to it has a period of six
years only.
 Rajya Sabha ha some special powers such as creation of all India services (Art. 312), Vice
President Impeachment, making law in state list (Art. 249).
 1/3 members of Rajya Sabha retire after every three years.
Reserved Seats in Parliament and State Assembly

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 No of reserved seats for ST
Name of State Lok Sabha State Assembly
Madhya Pradesh 6 47
Orissa 5 33
Jharkhand 5 28
Chhattisgarh 4 29
Gujarat 4 27
Maharashtra 4 25
Rajasthan 3 25
Andhra Pradesh 3 19

No. of seats for SC

State Lok Sabha State Assembly
Utter Pradesh 17 85
West Bengal 10 68
Andhra Pradesh 7 48
Bihar 6 38
Karnataka 5 36
Maharashtra 5 29
 Total reserved seats for SC in Parliament – 84
 Total reserved seats for ST in Parliament – 47
 Resolution for removal against the speakers in parliament
 G V Mavalankar
 S Hukam Singh
 G S Dhillon
 Balram Jakhna
But none of them removed because of failure of removal resolution
Panchayati Raj in India
Art 243 to 243(O) deals with Panchayti Raj. It has total 19 functions. It was added by 73rd Amendment
in 1992 and is placed in 11th schedule and part 9th and state list of constitution of India. Lord Ripon is
known as father of local self govt. in India. His resolution of 1882 is known as Magna Carta of Local
Self Govt. in India. Art 243 D deals with reservation in PRI bodies.
Important committees on PRI
 Urban Relation Committee A P Jain
 Balwant Raj Mehta Committee 1957 (Demanded 3 tier PRI)
 Ashok Mehta Committee 1977
 Appointed by NDA govt. It demanded two tier PRI with 132 recommendations
 G V K Rao Committee 1985
 L M Shingvi Committee 1985
Ministry of Panchayati Raj was created on 27 May 2004, headed by a union level Minister. Ministry of
Urban Govt. Was created in 1985.
64th amendment bill was placed in 1989 by Rajiv Gandhi Govt. For constitution recognition of PRI
bodies but it failed in Rajya Sabha. Again failed in 1990 during V P Singh govt. Narshima Rao govt.
introduced the bill drafted by Nathu Ram in 1991 and it was passed by 73rd amendment in 1992. It
came into effect from 24 April 1993 after the assent of president of India S D Sharma. Ashok Metha
committee was first to demand constitutional reorganization to PRI bodies. Sanatham committee was
first to demand Omendsman institution for Local Urban Govt. In 2002 Kerela became the first state of
union of India to provide Omendsman institution for Local Self Govt. Bihar became the first state to
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provide 50% reservation to women in PRI bodies. Today Jharkhand provides 55%. Dalip Singh Bhuria
committee was appointed in 2002 for PRI in Tribal areas. On 2nd October 20, 1959 Nehru Ji, than PM
of India inaugurated the first PRI in Nagaur district of Rajasthan.
There are Scheduled Areas in 9 states and Tribal Areas in three states. Three state include Assam (3
districts), Meghalaya (3 Districts), Mizoram (3 Dist.) & Tripura (1 Dist.)

State Tribal Area Districts

North Cachar Hills
Assam The Karbi Anglong
The Bodoland Territorial Area
Khasi Hills
Meghalaya Jaintia Hills
The Garo Hills
The Chakma
Mizoram The Mara
The Lai
Tripura Tripura Tribal Area
Institutions for Panchayati Raj Training:
1. All India Institute of Local Self Govt. (Bombay) 1927 (maintained by a private
society.
2. Center for urban and Environment Studies (New Delhi) 1967 (on recommendation of
Nur-ud-din Ahmed Committee).
3. Regional center for urban environment studies (Kolkata, Lucknow, and Hyderabad &
Mumbai 1965 – Nur-ud-din Amid Committee.
4. National Institute of Urban Affair. 1976
5. Human management settlement institute. 1985
In order to form leader of opposition in Lok Sabha, a party need 10% of the seats of house i.e. 55 seats.
First leader of opposition in Lok Sabha was Dr Ram Subhang (1969).
Some important books
The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a nation Granvil Austin
 Election in Asia (2001) C Hartman
 Democracy‟s biggest gamble Ramachandra Guha
 Public opinion and the Phantum Public Water Lippmann
 The inheritance of Loss (it deals of Gorkha land) Ms Kiran Desai
Some important definitions and Concepts
 British parliament can do anything except women a man & man a woman. De Colma
 Solicitor General of India is appointed for 3 years by President. President and Vice President do
not have the right to vote in parliament but Vice- President can vote in case of a tie.
 In 1947, there were 14 Ministries but today there are 56.
 Zonal Administrative Councils are created by Zonal Council Act 1956. Union Home Minister
acts as its chairman.
 V P Singh Govt. was First Govt. to fall on no Confidence Motion.
 84th Amendment 2001 put a ban on the readjustment of LS & RS Seats till 2026.
 91st Amendment in 2003 made restriction that including PM, Council of Ministers shall not
exceed 15% of the total strength of Lok Sabha.

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Articles of Constitution

Art. (214-231) High Court Art. 76 Attorney General

Art. 76 Attorney General Art. (324-329) Election Commission
Art. 148 Comptroller & Auditor General Art. 262 Inter State water councils
Art. 165 Advocate General Art. 352 National Emergency
Art. (168-212) State Assembly •First (1962-1968)
Art. (79-122) Union Govt. •2nd (1971-1977)
Art. 244 Scheduled area & Tribe •3rd (1975-1977)
Art. (124-147) Supreme Court Art. 356, 365 President
Art. (214-231) High Court Art. 360 Financial Emergency
Art. 263 Inter State Councils (In 1990 Art. 151 CAG
by V P Singh)

Federalism
 Its roots are traced back to Philadelphia Convention 1787 of USA. Some federal countries of
world are USA, India, Australia, Canada, Switzerland etc.
 K C Where called Indian federalism as “Quasi federalism”.
 Morris Jones called Indian federalism as “bargaining federalism.”
 Granville Austin called Indian federalism as “Co-operative federalism.”
 Ivor Jennings called Indian federalism as “federalism with strong centralizing tendency.”
 Appleby called Indian federalism as “Extremely federal.”
 Contemporary Federalism: From 1989 onwards state govt. has stretched their arms. The
growth of regional parties and demanded leadership at the state level has federalized this trend.
 The idea of Federal System in India was first mooted in the Act of 1919.
 The expression „Federation of India‟ was first time used in Govt. of India Act 1935.
 Art. 1 of the Constitution declares India i.e. Bharat shall be a „Union of States‟.
 The term „Federation‟ has not been used anywhere in our Constitution.
 The expression „Judicial Review‟ does not figure in the Constitution. It has been derived by
the Judiciary through various provisions, especially Article 13.
 Part XI –XII having Article 245-300 deals with Centre-State Relations.
 The Constitution clearly divides the power of governance by Centre and State governments in
all spheres Legislative, Administrative and Financial.
 The Union govt. has the power to give directions to the State Government in the following
matters.
a) To ensure due compliance with Union laws in the implementation of the State Laws (Art.
256).
b) To ensure that the exercise of the executive power of the state does not impede the
implementation of the Union Laws (Art. 257).
c) To ensure the construction and the maintenance of the means of communication of
military or national importance (Art. 257).
d) To ensure protection of Railways within the State (Art. 339.2).
e) To devise and execute schemes for the welfare of the tribal communities as mentioned in
the direction (339).
f) To secure the provisions of the adequate facilities for the instruction in the mother tongue
at the primary stage to linguistic minorities (Art. 350A)
g) To ensure the development of Hindi Language.
 The National Development Council approved the Gadgil Formula for the transfer of plan
assistance from Centre to the States.
 The Indian Constitution provides for the allocation of the taxes to the Centre and the States.
 Such a division of resources is not in other federal countries such as USA &
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[Link] Federalism - India & Canada
 Centripetal Federalism - USA is its best example
 Unitary System - England, France, Japan and China etc areits best examples
 Federal System - USA, India, Canada, Pakistan and Australia etc. are its best examples
View on Unitary/Federal issue
 R. Ambedkar: Indian Constitution establishes a duel polity consisting of the union at the centre
and the state at the peripheral, each endowed with sovereign power to be exercised in the field
assigned to both by the constitution.
 K. P. Mukherjee: The Constitution is definitely un-federal or unitary Constitution.
 K. C. Wheare: Indian Constitution establishes a „system of government which is almost quasi-
federal almost devolutionary in character; a unitary state with subsidiary federal features rather
than a federal state with unitary features.
 D. D. Basu: It is neither wholly Federal nor wholly unitary it possesses the ingredients of both.
Article 263 of the Indian Constitution empowers the President to establish inter State Councils for
a) Inquiry into and advising upon disputes which may have arisen between states.
b) Investigate and discussing subjects in which some or all of the states, or Union and one or more
of the States, have a common interest.
c) Making recommendations upon any such subject and, in particular recommendation for the
better coordination of policy and action with respect to that subject.
Part VIII of the Indian Constitution from Article 239 to 241 deals with administration of Union
Territories.
G. K Roberts in his Comparative Politics Today put development of comparative politics into 3 phases –
Unsophisticated, Sophisticated and increasing Sophisticated..
Union-State & Inter State Relations
Some bodies formed to discuss Centre-State issue is
 Zonal Councils
 North-East Councils
 Inter-State Councils
Part XI, XII, XIII, XVIII of the Indian Constitution deals with relation between Union and States.
 Part XI is divided into two parts i.e. Legislative Relations (Article 245 – 263) & Administrative
Relations (Article 256-263)
 Part XII entitled Finance, Property, Contracts and Suits (Art. 264-300). It has 4 chapters
a) Chapter 1: Distribution of Revenue between Union & States.
b) Chapter 2: Borrowing by Govt. of India & States.
c) Chapter 3: Deals with Property, Contracts, Rights, Liberties and Suits.
d) Chapter 4: Deals with Emergency Provisions (Art. 352-360).
The Constitution vests power with President to establish an Inter-State Councils (Art. 263) and these
were established on recommendations of Sarkaria Commission. This Commission was established in
1983 & its report was published in 1988. They have suggested the name Inter Governmental Council
(IGC).
The State Reorganization Act 1956 divides the Country into six zones.
 Northern Zone: Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Delhi,
Chandigarh, Rajasthan & Ladakh. Its head-quarter is in New Delhi.
 Southern Zone: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Puducherry & Telangana.
Its head-quarter is in Chennai.
 Eastern Zone: Assam, Bihar, Manipur, Nagaland, Orissa, Tripura & West Bengal. Its
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headquarter is in Kolkata.
 Western Zone: Goa, Gujarat & Maharashtra, Union Territory of Daman & Diu &UT of Dadra
& Nagar Havelli. Its head-quarter is in Mumbai.
 Central Zone: Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh & Uttrakhand. Its head-quarter is
in Prayagraj.
All the Zonal Councils has Union Home Minister as their Chairman and Chief Minister as their Vice-
Chairman on rotation basis for a year. In case of President‟s rule in some States, Governor acts as Vice-
Chairman.
North East Council: It was constituted under NEC Act of 1971 & was inaugurated in August 1972. It
consists of Governor & Chief Ministers of seven sister states along with Sikkim which was added in
2002. Presently it has eight member states including Sikkim. & in 1971 it has only seven sister States.
The President of India nominates its Chairman. He may nominate a Union Minister as its member if
desire so. In 2002 amendment was made to NEC Act 1971 & it added Sikkim in it & also made Union
Home Minister as its ex-offico Chairman.
MandaI Report and its bearing in Indian Politics
 It is also known as „Socially and Economically Backward Classes Commission‟ (SEBC). It was
established 0n 1 January 1979 by Janata Party govt. under PM Mararji Desai.
 It was headed by B. P. Mandal an Indian Parliamentarian.
 The commission recommended that 52% of the total population of India (excluding SC/ST)
belong to 3,743 different caste & communities which are backward classes.
 It demanded 27% reservation for central services & public undertaking.
 The commission used Census of India 1931 to calculate the OBC.
 The recommendation of this commission was accepted by V. P. Singh govt. & implemented by
P. V. Narasimha Rao govt.
Important Political Thinkers (State Politics)
Thinker Date of birth Thinker Date of Birth
Rajni Kothari 1928 Partha Chatterjee 1947
Myron Weiner 1931 Zoya Hassan 1947
V. S. Naipal 1932 Atul Kohli 1949
Amritya Sen 1933 Sugato Bose 1956
Sudipta Kaviraj 1945
Books by the Foreign as well Indians who have worked on State Politics in India
Following are some of important books by different authors
Books by Hans Kohn (USA, 1891-1971)
Hans Kohn was an American philosopher and historian. He pioneered the
academic study of nationalism, and is considered an important authority on the
subject. Hans Kohn was an American philosopher and historian. His major of
the work is on the academic study of nationalism, and is considered an authority
on the subject. Kohn was a prominent leader of Brit Shalom, which promoted a
binational state in Palestine
 A History of Nationalism in the East 1929
 Nationalism: Its Meaning and History 1938
 The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in its Origins and Background (1944)
 Nationalism and Liberty: The Swiss Example 1956
 American Nationalism 1957
 The age of Nationalism: The First Era of Global History 1962
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Ernest Gellner
Ernest André Gellner was a British-Czech philosopher born in 1925 at Paris in
France. He served as the Professor of Philosophy, Logic and Scientific Method
at the London School of Economics for 22 years and the William Wyse
Professor of Social Anthropology at the University of Cambridge for eight
years. He is very famous for his theory of Nationalism. He died in 1995. His
works are given below
 Words and Things (1959)
 Nations and Nationalism 1983
 Postmodernism, Reason and Religion (1992)
 Nationalism (1997)
 Contemporary Thought and Politics (1974)
 Muslim Society (1981)
 Culture, Identity and Politics (1987)
 State and Society in Soviet Thought (1988)
Rajni Kothari: He was born in 1928 in Delhi. He was an Indian Political
Scientists, Political Theorist, academic and writer. He was the founder of
Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS) in 1963. He also
started the Lokayan (Dialogue of the people), started in 1980 as a forum for
interaction between activists and intellectuals. In 1985 Lokayan was awarded
the Right Livelihood Award. He died at Delhi in 2015.
His important books are given below
Book Year
Caste in Indian Politics 1973
Politics in India 1982
State against Democracy; In Search of human Governance 1988
Poverty: Human Consciousness and the Amnesia of Development 1995
Memories: Uneasy is the life of mind 2002
Rethinking Democracy 2008
The Writing of Rajni Kothari 2009
Myron Weiner: He was born in 1931 in America. He was an American
Political Scientist & renowned Scholar of India, South Asia, Ethnic Movement
& Child Labour etc. He was a student of Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) USA. His publication „The Child and the State in India: Child Labour
and Education Policy in Comparative Politics‟.
Some books written by Myron Weiner are shown below
Book Year
Party Politics in India: A Multi-Party System 1957
Factional Politics in an Indian State: The Congress Party in Uttar Pradesh 1965
Party building in a new nation (IN Congress) 1967
India at the Polls 1980 1983
The Indian Paradox: Essays in Indian Politics 1989
The Sons of Soil: Migration & Ethnic conflict in India 1978
The Child & the State in India 1991
Threatened peoples, threatened boarders: World Migration & US Policy 1995
Political Democracy, Demographic Engineering 2001
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Amartyasen: Amartya Kumar Sen is an Indian Economist, who since 1972 has taught and worked in the
United Kingdom and the United States. He was born in 1933 at Santiniketan
in West Bengal. He has worked on Human Development Theory and Famine.
He was awarded Nobel Prize in 1998 for „his contribution to welfare
economics‟ and Bharat Rattan in 1999 for his work in welfare economics.
Works of Amratya Sen
Books Year
Development as Freedom 2000
Indian Development and Participation 2002
The Argumentative India 2006
Identity & Violence: The illusion of destiny 2007
The Idea of Justice 2011
Peace & democratic Society 2011
An uncertain Glory: India & its Contradiction 2013
Theory of Human Capacity
The book written in 2013 is written by Sen & Jean Droze.
Sudipta Kaviraj: He was born in 1945. He is an Indian Scholar of South Asian Politics and Intellectual
History, often associated with Postcolonial and Subaltern Studies. He is currently teaching at the
Columbia University in the department of Middle East, South Asian and African
Studies. He was a student of Political Science at the Presidency College of the
University of Calcutta. He received his Ph.D. from Jawaharlal Nehru University,
New Delhi.
Some books by Sudipta Kaviraj are given below
Work Year
Imaginary Institution of India 1991
The Unhappy Consciousness 1993
Politics in India (ed.) 1998
Civil Society: History & Possibility 2000
Partha Chatterjee: He is an Indian Political Scientist and anthropologist. He was the director of the
Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta from 1997 to 2007 and continued as an honorary
professor of Political Science. He was born in Kolkata in 1947.
Some books of Partha Chatterjee are given belo
Book Year
National Thought and Colonial World: A Derivative 1986
Discourage
Nation & its Fragments 1993
Empire and Nation: Selected essays (1985-2005) 2010
Lineages of Political Society: Studies in Post Colonial 2008
Democracy
The Black hole empire: History of a Global Practice of Power 2012

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Zoya Hasan: She is an Indian academic and Political Scientist. She was born
in 1947. She was married to Mushirul Hasan, Indian Historian and former
Vice Chancellor of Jamia Millia Islamia University New Delhi. She was a
professor of Political Science and Dean of the School of Social Sciences
(SSS) at Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi. She also served as a
member of the National Commission for Minorities from 2006 to 2009. She
was better known for her path-breaking work on Uttar Pradesh.
Books written by Zoya Hasan are given below
Books Year
State, Political Process & Identity 1989
Dominance & Mobilization (U.P) 1989
Forging Identities 1994
State & Politics In India 2000
State & Politics in India (ed.) 2002
Quest for Power 2000
Unequal Citizens 2004
India‟s Living Constitution 2005
Educating Muslim Girls 2005
Democracy in Muslim Society 2007
Politics of Inclusion: Caste, Minority & Affirmative Action 2009

Congress after Indera: Policy, Power & Political Changes 2012

Atul Kohli: He was born in 1949. He is a Professor of Politics and International

Affairs at Woodrow Wilson School of Politics and International Affairs,
Princeton University. He is also the editor in chief of the journal of World
Politics. He completed his Ph.D. from University of California.
Books written by Atul Kohli are given below
Book Year
rd
State & Development in 3 World 1986
The State & Poverty in India 1987
India‟s Democracy 1990
Democracy & Discontent: India‟s growing crises of Governability 1991
Democratic Politics & Economic reforms in India 2000
The Success of Indian Democracy 2001
State Market & Just growth: Development of 21st Century 2003
State directed Democracy: Political Power & Industrialization in 2004
the Global Periphery
Democracy & Development in India: Essay on State Society & 2009
Economy
Democracy & Development in India: From Socialism to pro 2010
business
Poverty admits plenty in the New India 2012
Routedge handbook of Indian Politics 2012
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India‟s Democracy: An Analysis of Changing State-Society 2014
Relations
The State & Development in third World: A World Politics 2014
He viewed Indian States as „Incremental Democratic Modernization‟.
Sugata Bose: He was born in 1956 in India. He is an Indian Historian and
Politician who has taught and worked in the United States since mid 1980s. He
did his BA from Calcutta University and Ph.D. from Cambridge University.
His fields of study are South Asian and Indian Oceans history. In 2001 he
became a faculty member at Harvard University. From 2014 to 2019 he served
as Member of Parliament from Jadavpur Constituency in West Bengal from
All India Trinamool Congress (TMC).
Books written by Sugata Bose are given below:
Books Year
Modern South Asia: History, Culture and Political Economy 1998
A Hundred Horizons: The Indian Ocean in the Age of Global 2006
Empire
Peseants Labour & Colonial Capital 1993
Agrarian Bengal: Economy, Social Structure and Politics (1919- 1986
1947)
His Majesity Opponent: Subash Chander Bose and India‟s Struggle 2011
against Empire
The Nation as Mother: And Other Vision of Nationhood 2017
Ghanshyan Shah: He was born in 1939 in India. He is Professor at Jawaharlal
Nehru University, New Delhi. He has edited and written numerous books and
essays on the subject of caste, class and politics in India.
Some Books written by Ghanshyan Shah are given below:
Books Year
Social Movements in India: A Review of Literature 1990
Untouchability in Rural India 2006
Dalits & the State 2002
Caste and Democratic Politics in India 2004
Democracy, Civil Society and Governance 2019

Ivor Jenning: He was born in 1903 in United Kingdom. He was a British

Layer and academic. He was a prominent educator who served as the Vice-
Chancellor of University of Cambridge. He was proposed by Jawaharlal Nehru
to be the chairman of the Drafting committee of the Constitution of India
however eventually Mahatma Gandhi‟s candidate B. R. Ambedkar was chosen.
Some Books written by Ivor Jenning are given below:
Books Year
The Law of the Constitution 1959
The British Constitution 1941
Cabinet Government 1937
Parliament 1939
The Party Politics 1960
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Gunnar Myrdal: He was born in 1898 in Sweden. He was a Swedish
economist and sociologist. In 1974 he received the Nobel Prize in Economics
with Friedrich Hayek. He is well known in USA for his study of race relations,
which culminated in his book An American Dilemma: The Nigro Problem &
American Democracy. He was famous in Asia for his work “Asian Drama: An
Inquiry into the Poverty of Nations” published in 1968.
K C Wheare: Sir Kenneth Clinton Wheare was born in 1907 in Australia. He
was an academic who spend his most of carrier at Oxford University in England. He was an expert on
the constitutions of the British Commonwealth. He also served as the Vice-
Chancellor of the University of Oxford.
Some of his books are given below
Books Year
Federal Government 1949
Modern Constitutions 1960
The Constitutional Structure of the 1960
Commonwealth
Legislatures 1990

Paul Brass: He was born in 1936 in USA. After his B.A. in government in
1958 from Harvard College, he did M.A. in political science, University of
Chicago in 1959, followed by Ph.D. in political science, University of Chicago
in 1964. He was Professor emeritus of Political Science and International
Relations at the Henry M. Jackson School of International Relations,
University of Washington. He has studied the Indian subcontinent since 1961.
He has published numerous books on the politics of India, including Hindu-
Muslim Violence in India.
Some of his books are given below
Books Year
The Politics of India since Independence 1990
The Production of Hundu-Muslim violence in Contemporary India 2003
Ethnicity and Nationalism 1991
Language, Religion and Politics in North India 1974
Factional Politics in an Indian State 1965
An Indian Political Life: Charan Singh and Congress 1967-87 2011
Paul Henson Appleby: He was born in 1891 in USA. He was an important
American Theorist of Public Administration in democracies. He was the Dean of
School of Citizenship and Public Affairs, Syracuse University, USA. He died in
1963. He also worked in India after Independence on the demand of Govt. of
India. On his recommendation „Indian Institute of Public Administration‟ was
established in Delhi.
Some Books by Paul H. Appleby are given below:
Books Year
Big Democracy 1945
Policy and Administration 1949

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Public Administration in India: A Report of a Survey 1953
Re-examination of India‟s Administrative System 1956
Public Administration of a Welfare State 1961
Citizens as Sovereigns 1962
Morality and Administration in Democratic Government 1969
Gravinlle Austine: He was an American historian born in 1927 in USA. In
2011, in recognition for his writing on the framing and working of the
Constitution of India, he was awarded a Padma Shree. The National
Transmission Mission of Ministry of Human Resources Development of Govt.
of India has selected the “The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a Nation”
for transmission into Indian Languages. It is translated into Telugu, Marathi,
Punjabi, Hindi & Malayalam etc. He died in 2014 in USA.
Book Year
The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a Nation 1966
Working in a Democratic Constitution: A History of Indian Experience 1999
Retrieving Times 2008

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INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Introduction to thinkers of the Chapter

Alfred Zimmern:
Sir Alfred Eckhard Zimmern was an English classical scholar, historian, and political scientist working
on international relations. He was born in 1879 in UK. His book „The Third British Empire‟ was
among the first to apply the expression "British Commonwealth" to the British Empire. He was a
prominent liberal internationalist.
Works
S. No. Name of work Year of
Publishing
1. Henry Grattan 1902
2. Nationality and Government with other war-time essays 1919
3. Greek Political Thought an essay in The Legacy of Greece 1921
4. Europe in Convalescence 1922
5. America and Europe 1929
6. Prospects of Democracy & Other Essays
7. The Greek Commonwealth: Politics and Economics in Fifth Century Athens 1911
8. The Economic Weapon Against Germany, London 1918
9. The Third British Empire 1926
10. The League of Nations and the Rule of Law 1918–1935 1936
A G Frank
He was born in 1929 in Germany and died in 2005 in Luxemburg. He was a German-American
sociologist and economic historian who promoted dependency theory after 1970 and world-systems
theory after 1984. He employed some Marxian concepts on political economy, but rejected Marx's
stages of history, and economic history generally.
Books
S. No. Work Pub. Year
1. The Development of Underdevelopment 1966
2. Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America 1967
3. Latin America: Underdevelopment or Revolution 1969
4. On Capitalist Underdevelopment 1975
5. World Accumulation, 1492–1789 1978
6. Dependent Accumulation and Underdevelopment 1978
7. Crisis: In the World Economy 1980
8. Crisis: In the Third World 1981
9. Reflections on the World Economic Crisis 1981
10. Dynamics of Global Crisis 1982
11. The European Challenge 1983
12. Critique and Anti-Critique 1984
13. The World System: Five Hundred Years or Five Thousand? 1996
14. Re Orient: Global Economy in the Asian Age. Berkeley 1998
15. Re Orienting the 19th Century: Global Economy in the Continuing Asian 2013
Age
Bernard Brodie
(May 20, 1910 – November 24, 1978) was an American military strategist well known for establishing
the basics of nuclear strategy. He was known as „The American Clausewitz‟ and „the original nuclear
strategist‟. He was an initial architect of nuclear deterrence strategy and tried to ascertain the role and
value of nuclear weapons after their creation.
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Book
1. Sea Power in the Machine Age 1941
2. A Layman‟s Guide to Naval Strategy 1942
3. The Absolute Weapon: Atomic Power and World Order
4. Strategy in the Missile Age 1959
5. From Cross-Bow to H-Bomb 1960
6. Escalation and the Nuclear Option 1966
7. Bureaucracy, Politics, and Strategy (with Henry Kissinger) 1968
8. The Future of Deterrence in U.S. Strategy 1968
9. War and Politics 1973
10. A Guide to the Reading of "On War" 1976
Barry Buzan
barry buzan is Professor of International Relations at the London School of Economics. He was born in
1946. From 1988 to 2002 he was Project Director at the Copenhagen Peace Research Institute (COPRI).
From 1995 to 2002 he was research Professor of International Studies at the University of Westminster.
His research interest includes the conceptual and regional aspects of international security, structural
realism, international society, and the 'English School' approach to International Relations.
Books
S. No. Work Year
1. People, States & Fear: The National Security Problem in International Relations 1983
2. The Logic of Anarchy: Neo-realism to Structural Realism 1993
3. Security: A New Framework for Analysis 1997
4. The Arms Dynamic in World Politics 1998
5. The Mind Map Book 2000
6. Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security 2003
7. The United States and the Great Powers: World Politics in the Twenty-First 2004
Century
8. From International to World Society? English School Theory and the Social 2004
Structure of Globalisation
9. The Evolution of International Security Studies 2009
10. Non-Western International Relations Theory: Perspectives on and beyond Asia 2010
11. An Introduction to the English School of International Relations: The Societal 2014
Approach
12. The Global Transformation: History, Modernity and the Making of International 2015
Relations
13. The Making of Global International Relations 2019
Charles McClelland
He is a social historian with a particular focus on the history of the professions. He is professor emeritus
of History at the University of New Mexico and an associate faculty member of the Institute for the
Medical Humanities at the University of Texas Medical Branch. He was born on April 25, 1917 and
died on March 31, 2006. He was among the first to introduce General Systems Theory in the field of
International Relations. With Walter F. Buckley, Morton A. Kaplan, Karl W. Deutsch, Robert A. Dahl
and David Easton McClelland was among the first to introduce General Systems Theory in the social
sciences. In his 1966 book „Theory and the International System‟ McClelland introduced the idea to
apply general systems ideas in the study of international relations from different perspectives, which led
to the definition of different approaches. In 1969 McClelland postulated the "wisdom approach", an
approach that "invites scholars to prudently examine history and appreciate the precarious nature of
human conduct, rather than being overwhelmed by masses of data, which more often than not lead to
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Works
S. No. Work Year
1. Applications of General Systems Theory in International Relations 1955
2. The United Nations: the Continuing Debate. Chandler publishing 1960
3. Nuclear weapons, missiles, and future war: problem for the sixties 1960
4. Theory of the International System 1967
5. An Interaction Survey of the Middle East, with Anne Ancoli 1970
Carl W. Deutsch
Karl Wolfgang Deutsch (21 July 1912 – 1 November 1992) He was born in 1912 and died I 1992. He
was a social and political scientist from Prague. He was the Stanfield Professor of International Peace at
Harvard University. His work focused on the study of war and peace, nationalism, co-operation, and
communication. He is also well known for his interest in introducing quantitative methods and formal
system analysis and model-thinking into the field of political and social sciences and is one of the best
known social scientists of the 20th century.
Works
 The Nerves of Government: Models of Political Communication and Control (1966)
 Arms Control and the Atlantic Alliance (1967)
 Nationalism and its Alternatives (1969
 Problems of World Modeling: Political and Social Implications (1977),
 The Analysis of International Relations (1978),
 Tides Among Nations (1979)
 Politics and Government (1980)
 Comparative Government: Politics of Industrialized and Developing Nations (1981
 Voyage of the Mind
David Mittarany
He was born in 1888 in Romania and died 0n 1975. He became a naturalized British scholar, historian
and political theorist. The richest source of information concerning Mitrany‟s life and intellectual
activity are the memoirs he published in 1975 in The Functional Theory of Politics.
Works
 The Problem of International Sanctions (1925)
 The Land and the Peasant in Romania: the War and Agrarian Reform, 1917-1921 (1930)
 The Progress of International Government (1933)
 The Effect of the War in South Eastern Europe (1936)
 A Working Peace System (1943)
 The Road to Security (1944)
 American Interpretations (1946)
 World Unity and the Nations (1950)
 Marx against the Peasant: a Study in Social Dogmatism (1951)
 Food and Freedom (1954)
 The Functional Theory of Politics. New York: St. Martin's Press., 1975
E. Haas
Ernst Bernard Haas was born in 1924 and died on March 6, 2003. He was a German-American political
scientist who made numerous contributions to theoretical discussions in the field of international
relations. He was a leading authority on international relations theory and was the founder of neo-
functionalism. Haas was a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and acted as a
consultant to many national and international organizations. Haas was born in Frankfurt, Germany, in
1924 to a secular Jewish family. In 1997, The Uniting of Europe was chosen as one of the 50 most
significant books in international relations in the twentieth century by the journal Foreign Affairs. His
works are given below.
 The balance of power as a guide to policy-making, 1953
 The Uniting of Europe. Stanford, 1958
 Beyond the Nation State. Stanford, 1964
 Human Rights and International Action, 1970.
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 Nationalism, Liberalism and Progress, 2000.
 The Uniting of Europe, 2004.
E. H. Carr
Edward Hallett was born on 28 June 1892 and died on 3 November 1982. He was a British historian,
diplomat, journalist and international relations theorist, and an opponent of empiricism within
historiography. Carr was best known for A History of Soviet Russia, a 14-volume history of the Soviet
Union from 1917 to 1929, for his writings on international relations, particularly The Twenty Years'
Crisis, and for his book What Is History? in which he laid out historio-graphical principles rejecting
traditional historical methods and practices. He also participated at the Paris Peace Conference as a
member of the British delegation.
Works
 Karl Marx: A Study in Fanaticism, 1934.
 International Relations since the Peace Treaties, 1937.
 The Twenty Years' Crisis, 1919–1939: an Introduction to the Study of International Relations,
1939
 Britain: A Study of Foreign Policy from the Versailles Treaty to the Outbreak of War, 1939.
 Conditions of Peace, 1942.
 Nationalism and After, 945.
 The Soviet Impact on the Western World, 1946.
 A History of Soviet Russia, 1950–1978. Collection of 14 volumes:
F Zakaria
Fareed Rafiq Zakaria was born 20 January 1964 and is an Indian-American journalist, political
commentator, and author. He is the host of CNN's Fareed Zakaria GPS and writes a weekly paid column
for The Washington Post. He has been a columnist for Newsweek, editor of Newsweek International,
and an editor at large of Time.
Books
 Ten Lessons for a Post-Pandemic World 2020
 In Defence of a Liberal Education, 2015
 The Post-American World, Release 2011
 The Post-American World, 2008
 The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad 2003
 From Wealth to Power, 1998
Francis Fukuyama
Yoshihiro Francis Fukuyama was born on October 27, 1952 and is an American political scientist,
political economist, and writer. Fukuyama is known for his book The End of History and the Last Man
(1992), which argues that the worldwide spread of liberal democracies and free-market capitalism of the
West and its lifestyle may signal the end point of humanity's socio-cultural evolution and become the
final form of human government. However, his subsequent book Trust: Social Virtues and Creation of
Prosperity (1995) modified his earlier position to acknowledge that culture cannot be cleanly separated
from economics. Fukuyama is also associated with the rise of the neoconservative movement, from
which he has since distanced himself.
Books
 The End of History and the Last Man, 1992
 Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity., 1995
 The Great Disruption: Human Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Order, 1999
 State-Building: Governance and World Order in the 21st century, 2004
 America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy 2006
 After the Neo Cons: Where the Right went Wrong, 2006
 Political Order and Political Decay: From the Industrial Revolution to the Present Day. 2014
 Identity: The Demand for Dignity and the Politics of Resentment, 2018
Gunnar Myrdal
Karl Gunnar Myrdal was born on 6 December 1898 and died on 17 May 1987. He was a Swedish
economist and sociologist. In 1974, he received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences along
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with Friedrich Hayek for "their pioneering work in the theory of money and economic fluctuations and
for their penetrating analysis of the interdependence of economic, social and institutional phenomena."
When his wife, Alva Myrdal, received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1982, they became the fourth ever
married couple to have won Nobel Prizes, and the first to win independent of each other.
He is best known in the United States for his study of race relations, which culminated in his book An
American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy. The study was influential in the
1954 landmark U.S. Supreme Court Decision Brown v. Board of Education. In Sweden, his work and
political influence were important to the establishment of the Folkhemmet and the welfare state. Myrdal
and his wife were staunch believers in Social engineering (political science).
Works
S. No. Works Year
1. The Political Element in the Development of Economic Theory 1930
2. Contact With America 1941
3. An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy 1944
4. An International Economy, Problems and Prospects 1956
5. Rich Lands and Poor 1957
6. Economic Theory and Underdeveloped Regions 1957
7. Myrdal Beyond the Welfare State 1960
8. America and Vietnam 1967
9. Asian Drama: An Inquiry into the Poverty of Nations 1968
10. The Challenge of World Poverty: A World Anti-Poverty Program in Outline. 1970
George F Kennan
George Frost Kennan was born on February 16, 1904 and died on March 17, [Link] was an American
diplomat and historian. He was best known as an advocate of a policy of containment of Soviet
expansion during the Cold War. He lectured widely and wrote scholarly histories of the relations
between the USSR and the United States. He was also one of the groups of foreign policy elders known
as "The Wise Men"
S. No. Work Year
1. "X" "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" 1947
2. American Diplomacy 1951
3. Realities of American Foreign Policy 1954
4. Russia, the Atom, and the West 1958
5. Russia and the West under Lenin and Stalin 1961
6. The Nuclear Delusion: Soviet-American Relations in the Atomic Age 1982
7. The Kennan Diaries 2014
Hedley Bull
He was born in Australia in 1931. Hedley Norman Bull FBA was Professor of International Relations at
the Australian National University, the London School of Economics and the University of Oxford until
his death from cancer in 1985. He was Montague Burton Professor of International Relations at Oxford
from 1977 to 1985, and died there.
S. No. Work Year
1. The control of the arms race: Disarmament and arms control in the missile age 1965
2. Strategic studies and its critics 1967
3. The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics 1977
4. The Expansion of International Society, co-edited with Adam Watson 1984
5. Intervention in World Politics 1984
6. Justice in international relations 1984
7. The Challenge of the Third Reich 1986

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Holsti
Olavi Rudolf Holsti was born in Geneva, Switzerland, on August 7, 1933. He received his Bachelor of
Arts degree from Stanford University in 1954, his Master of Arts in Teaching from Wesleyan
University in 1956, and his Ph.D. from Stanford University in 1962. He was professor of Political
Science in Duke University. . He was noted for his writings on international affairs, American foreign
policy, and content analysis, decision-making in politics and diplomacy, and crises. He died in 2020.
Henry Kissinger
Henry Alfred Kissinger born on May 27, 1923 and was a German-born American politician, diplomat,
and geopolitical consultant who served as United States Secretary of State and National Security
Advisor under the presidential administrations of Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. A Jewish refugee
who fled Nazi Germany with his family in 1938, he became National Security Advisor in 1969 and U.S.
Secretary of State in 1973. For his actions negotiating a ceasefire in Vietnam, Kissinger received the
1973 Nobel Peace Prize under controversial circumstances, with two members of the committee
resigning in protest. A practitioner of Realpolitik, Kissinger played a prominent role in United States
foreign policy between 1969 and 1977.
Works
 Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy 1957
 The Necessity for Choice: Prospects of American Foreign Policy 1961
 American Foreign Policy: Three Essays 1969
 Diplomacy 1994
 Does America Need a Foreign Policy? Toward a Diplomacy for the 21st Century 2001
 On China 2011
 World Order 2014
Immanuel Wallenstein
Immanuel Maurice Wallerstein was born on September 28, 1930 and died on August 31, 2019. He was
an American sociologist and economic historian. He is perhaps best known for his development of the
general approach in sociology which led to the emergence of his world-systems approach. He was a
Senior Research Scholar at Yale University from 2000 until his death in 2019, and published bimonthly
syndicated commentaries through Agence Global on world affairs from October 1998 to July 2019.
J. Mearsheimer
John Joseph Mearsheimer was born on December 14, 1947 is an American political scientist and
international relations scholar, who belongs to the realist school of thought. He is the Professor at the
University of Chicago. He has been described as the most influential realist of his generation.
Mearsheimer is best known for developing the theory of offensive realism, which describes the
interaction between great powers as being primarily driven by the rational desire to achieve regional
hegemony in an anarchic international system. He was a vocal opponent of the Iraq War in 2003 and
was almost alone in opposing Ukraine's decision to give up its nuclear weapons in 1994, predicting that
it would invariably face Russian aggression without a nuclear deterrent.
Books
 Conventional Deterrence 1983
 Liddell Hart and the Weight of History 1988
 The Tragedy of Great Power Politics 2001
 The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy 2007
 Why Leaders Lie: The Truth About Lying in International Politics 2011
 The Great Delusion: Liberal Dreams and International Realities 2018
Joseph Nye
Joseph Samuel Nye Jr. was born on January 19, 1937 in American. He was a political scientist. He is the
co-founder, along with Robert Keohane, of the international relations theory of neo-liberalism,
developed in their 1977 book Power and Interdependence. Together with Keohane, he developed the
concepts of asymmetrical and complex interdependence. They also explored transnational relations and
world politics in an edited volume in the 1970s. More recently, he explained the distinction between
hard power and soft power, and pioneered the theory of soft power. His notion of "smart power" ("the

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ability to combine hard and soft power into a successful strategy") became popular with the use of this
phrase by members of the Clinton Administration, and more recently the Obama Administration.
Work
 Pan Africanism and East African integration 1965
 Peace in Parts: Integration and Conflict in Regional 1971
 Transnational Relations and World Politics, co-authored with Robert O. Keohane, 1972
 Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition, co-authored with Keohane 2000
 Living with Nuclear Weapons, 1983
 Hawks, Doves and Owls: An Agenda for Avoiding Nuclear War 1985
 Nuclear Ethics 1986
 Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power 1990
 The Paradox of American Power: Why the World‟s Only Superpower Can‟t Go it Alone 2002
 Power in the Global Information Age: From Realism to Globalization 2004
 Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (Public Affairs, 2004)
 "Soft Power and American Foreign Policy." Political Science Quarterly (2004).
 The Power Game: A Washington Novel 2004
 The Powers to Lead 2008
 The Future of Power 2011
 Is the American Century Over? 2015
 Do Morals Matter? Presidents and Foreign Policy from FDR to Trump 2020
Johan Galtung
Johan Vincent Galtung was born on 24 October 1930 and was a Norwegian sociologist, and the
principal founder of the discipline of peace and conflict studies. He was the main founder of the Peace
Research Institute Oslo (PRIO) in 1959 and served as its first director until 1970. He also established
the Journal of Peace Research in 1964. In 1969 he was appointed to the world's first chair in peace and
conflict studies, at the University of Oslo. He resigned his Oslo professorship in 1977 and has since held
professorships at several other universities; from 1993 to 2000 he taught as Distinguished Professor of
Peace Studies at the University of Hawaii. He has been based in Kuala Lumpur, where he was the first
Tun Mahathir Professor of Global Peace at the International Islamic University Malaysia until 2015.
Works
 Gandhis politiske etikk (Gandhi's political ethics, 1955, with philosopher Arne Næss)
 Violence, Peace and Peace Research (1969)
 Members of Two Worlds (1971)
 Peace: Research – Education – Action (1975)
 Europe in the Making (1989)
 Peace By Peaceful Means: Peace and Conflict, Development and Civilization (1996)
 50 Years: 100 Peace and Conflict Perspectives (2008)
 Democracy – Peace – Development (2008, with Paul D. Scott)
 50 Years: 25 Intellectual Landscapes Explored (2008)
 Globalizing God: Religion, Spirituality and Peace (2008)
Kenneth Waltz
Kenneth Neal Waltz was born on June 8, 1924 and died on May 12, 2013. He was an American political
scientist who was a member of the faculty both at the University of California, Berkeley and Columbia
University and one of the most prominent scholars in the field of international relations. He was a
veteran of both World War II and the Korean War. Waltz was one of the original founders of neo-
realism, or structural realism, in international relations theory and later became associated with the
school of defensive neo-realism. Waltz's theories have been extensively debated within the field of
international relations. His 1979 book Theory of International Politics is the most assigned book in
International Relations graduate training at U.S. universities.
Works
 Man, the State, and War 1959.
 Foreign Policy and Democratic Politics: The American and British Experience 1967.
 Theory of International Politics 1979
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 The Use of Force: Military Power and International Politics 1983
 Reflections on Theory of International Politics. A Response to My Critics, in: Keohane, Robert:
Neo-realism and Its Critics. 1986.
 The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: A Debate Renewed 1995.
 Realism and International Politics 2008.
Kenneth W. Thompson
Kenneth W. Thompson was born on August 29, 1921 and died on February 2, 2013. He was an
American academic and author known for his contributions to normative theory in international
relations. In 1978 he became director of the Miller Centre of Public Affairs at the University of
Virginia. He retired as director in 1998, but continued to head its Forum Program until 2004.
Works
 Principles and Problems of International Politics: Selected Readings. With Hans Morgenthau,
1951.
 Political Realism and the Crisis of World Politics: An American Approach to Foreign Policy.
Princeton, 1960
 The Moral Issue in Statecraft. Baton Rouge, 1966.
 Interpreters and Critics of the Cold War, 1978
 Morality and Foreign Policy. Baton Rouge, 1980.
 Cold War Theories. Baton Rouge, 1981
 Toynbee's World Politics and History, 1985.
 Traditions and Values in Politics and Diplomacy, 1992.
 Schools of Thought in International Relations: Interpreters, Issues, and Morality. Baton Rouge,
1996.
Kenneth Boulding
Kenneth Ewart Boulding was born on January 18, 1910 and died on March 18, 1993 He was an English-
born American economist, educator, peace activist, and interdisciplinary philosopher. He published over
36 books and over 112 articles. Boulding was the author of two citation classics: The Image:
Knowledge in Life and Society (1956) and Conflict and Defence: A General Theory (1962). He was
co-founder of general systems theory and founder of numerous ongoing intellectual projects in
economics and social science. He was married to sociologist Elise M. Boulding.
Books
 Economic Analysis, 1941
 Evolutionary economics
 The Economics of the Coming Spaceship Earth, 1966
K.J. Holsti
Kal Holsti was born in Geneva, while his father Rudolf served as Finland's ambassador to the League of
Nations. Following the outbreak of World War II, the Holsti family was unable to return to Finland, and
instead settled in the United States, where Rudolf held a visiting professorship at Stanford University.
Kal Holsti entered Stanford as an undergraduate in 1952 and completed a doctorate at the institution in
1961. He later immigrated to Canada and became a professor at the University of British Columbia
(UBC) in 1970.
Morgenthau:
Hans Joachim Morgenthau was born in 1904 and died in 1980. He was one of the major twentieth-
century figures in the study of international relations. Morgenthau's works belong to the tradition of
realism in international relations theory, and he is usually considered among the most influential realists
of the post-World War II period. Morgenthau made landmark contributions to international relations
theory and the study of international law. His Politics Among Nations, first published in 1948, went
through five editions during his lifetime and was widely adopted as a textbook in U.S. universities.
In addition to his books, Morgenthau wrote widely about international politics and U.S. foreign policy
for general-circulation publications such as The New Leader, Commentary, Worldview, The New York
Review of Books, and The New Republic. He knew and corresponded with many of the leading
intellectuals and writers of his era, such as Reinhold Niebuhr, George F. Kennan, Carl Schmitt and
Hannah Arendt. At one point in the early Cold War, Morgenthau was a consultant to the U.S.
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Department of State when Kennan headed its Policy Planning Staff and a second time during the
Kennedy and Johnson administrations until he was dismissed by Johnson when he began to publicly
criticize American policy in Vietnam. For most of his career, however, Morgenthau was esteemed as an
academic interpreter of U.S. foreign policy
Works
 Scientific Man versus Power Politics (1946)
 Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace
 In Defence of the National Interest (1951)
 The Purpose of American Politics (1960)
 Crossroad Papers: A Look into the American Future (ed.) (1965)
 Truth and Power: Essays of a Decade, 1960–70 (1970)
Michael Doyle
Michael W. Doyle is an American international relations scholar who is a theorist of the liberal
„democratic peace‟ and author of Liberalism and World Politics. He has also written on the comparative
history of empires and the evaluation of UN peace-keeping. He is a University professor of International
Affairs, Law and Political Science at Columbia University - School of International and Public Affairs.
He is the former director of Columbia Global Policy Initiative. He co-directs the Centre on Global
Governance at Columbia Law School.
Works
 The Question of Intervention: John Stuart Mill and the Responsibility to Protect
 Ways of War and Peace: Realism, Liberalism, and Socialism
 Empires
 Liberal Peace: Selected Essays
 UN Peacekeeping in Cambodia: UNTAC's Civil Mandate
 Striking First: Preemption and Prevention of International Conflict
 Making War and Building Peace
 Keeping the Peace
 Peacemaking and Peacekeeping for the New Century
 New Thinking in International Relations Theory
 The Globalization of Human Rights
Michael Laban Walzer
He is an American political theorist and public intellectual. A professor emeritus at the Institute for
Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he is editor emeritus of Dissent, an intellectual magazine that
he has been affiliated with since his years as an undergraduate at Brandeis University. He was born on 3
March 1935 (age 86 years), New York, New York, United States
Morton A Kaplan
Morton A. Kaplan (May 9, 1921 – September 26, 2017) was Distinguished Service Professor of
Political Science, Emeritus, at the University of Chicago. He was also President of the Professors World
Peace Academy International; and Editor of the World &I magazine, published by the Washington
Times Corporation, from its founding in 1986 until 2004.
He attended Temple University and Stanford University, and received his Ph.D. from Columbia
University in 1951. He has held fellowships from the Centre of International Studies at Princeton
University and from the Centre for Advanced Study in the Behavioural Sciences. He was also a
Carnegie Travelling Fellow. Kaplan has published extensively in the areas international relations and
international politics.
His many books include Science, Language and the Human Condition, Law in a Democratic Society,
and System and Process in International Politics (1957), a seminal work in the scientific study of
international relations. He was a critic of communism and of the policies of the Soviet Union. In 1979
he edited The Many Faces of Communism.
Martin Wight
Robert James Martin Wight (1913–1972), also known as Martin Wight, was one of the foremost British
scholars of international relations in the twentieth century. He was the author of Power Politics (1946;
revised and expanded edition 1978), as well as the seminal essay "Why Is There No International
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Theory?" (first published in the journal International Relations in 1960 and republished in the edited
collection Diplomatic Investigations in 1966). He was a teacher of some renown at both the London
School of Economics and the University of Sussex, where he served as the founding Dean of European
Studies.
Books
Neibuhr
Karl Paul Reinhold Niebuhr (1892–1971) was an American Reformed theologian, ethicist, commentator
on politics and public affairs, and professor at Union Theological Seminary for more than 30 years.
Niebuhr was one of America's leading public intellectuals for several decades of the 20th century and
received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1964. A public theologian, he wrote and spoke frequently
about the intersection of religion, politics, and public policy, with his most influential books including
Moral Man and Immoral Society and The Nature and Destiny of Man. Andrew Bacevich labelled
Niebuhr's book The Irony of American History "the most important book ever written on U.S. foreign
policy." The historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr. described Niebuhr as "the most influential American
theologian of the 20th century" and Time posthumously called Niebuhr "the greatest Protestant
theologian in America since Jonathan Edwards.
Books
 Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study of Ethics and Politics (1932)
 Christianity and Power Politics (1940)
 The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness (1944)
 The Irony of American History (1952)
 Christian Realism and Political Problems (1953)
 Pious and Secular America (1958)
Noam Chomsky
Avram Noam Chomsky is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian, social critic,
and political activist. Sometimes called "the father of modern linguistics", Chomsky is also a major
figure in analytic philosophy and one of the founders of the field of cognitive science. Born: 7
December 1928 (age 93 years), East Oak Lane, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
Books
 American Power and the New Mandarins (1969)
 Counter-Revolutionary Violence (1973)
 The Political Economy of Human Rights (1979)
 Towards a New Cold War (1982)
 The Fateful Triangle (1983)
 Pirates and Emperors (1986)
 Manufacturing Consent (1988)
 Necessary Illusions (1989)
 Deterring Democracy (1991)
 Letters from Lexington (1993)
 The Prosperous Few and the Restless Many (1993)
 World Orders Old and New (1994)
 Objectivity and Liberal Scholarship (1997)
Norman Angell
Sir Ralph Norman Angell was born in 1872 and died in 1967. He was an English Nobel Peace Prize
winner. He was a lecturer, journalist, author and Member of Parliament for the Labour Party. Angell
was one of the principal founders of the Union of Democratic Control. He served on the Council of the
Royal Institute of International Affairs, was an executive for the World Committee against War and
Fascism, a member of the executive committee of the League of Nations Union, and the president of
the Abyssinia Association. He was made a Knight Bachelor in 1931 and awarded the Nobel Peace Prize
in 1933.
Norman Durban Palmer: He was born in 1909 in USA and died in 1996.
Works
 The Indian Political System 1961
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 The National Interest: Alone or with others 1952
 International Relations: Communist World in Transition 1954
 Elections and political Development: The South Asian Experience 1976
Norman J. Padelford
He studies Ph.D. from Harvard University and was the professor of Political Science from MIT USA.
He is well known for his work Author of The Panama Canal in Peace and War. He was born in USA
in 1903. He helped in formulation of UN Charter. He authored most of his work with Prof Lincoln.
 The dynamics of international politics by padelford and Lincoln
Raymond Aron
Raymond Claude Ferdinand Aron was born on 14 March 1905 and died on 17 October in 1983. He was
a French philosopher, sociologist, political scientist and journalist, one of the country's most prominent
thinkers of the 20th century. Aron is best known for his book The Opium of the Intellectuals, the title
of which inverts Karl Marx's claim that religion was the opium of the people; he argues that Marxism
was the opium of the intellectuals in post-war France. In the book, Aron chastised French intellectuals
for what he described as their harsh criticism of capitalism and democracy and their simultaneous
defence of Marxist oppression, atrocities and intolerance. Critic Roger Kimball suggests that Opium is
"a seminal book of the twentieth century". Aron is also known for his lifelong friendship, sometimes
fractious, with philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre.
Robert Kaplan
Robert David Kaplan was born on June 23, 1952 in America. His books are on politics, primarily
foreign affairs, and travel. His work over three decades has appeared in The Atlantic, The Washington
Post, The New York Times, The New Republic, The National Interest, Foreign Affairs and The Wall
Street Journal, among other newspapers and publications. One of Kaplan's most influential articles is
"The Coming Anarchy", published in The Atlantic Monthly in 1994. Critics of the article have
compared it to Huntington's Clash of Civilizations thesis, since Kaplan presents conflicts in the
contemporary world as the struggle between primitivism and civilizations. Another frequent theme in
Kaplan's work is the re-emergence of cultural and historical tensions temporarily suspended during the
Cold War.
Works
 Imperial Grunts: The American Military On The Ground 2005
 Hog Pilots, Blue Water Grunts: The American Military in the Air, at Sea, and on the Ground,
2007
 Monsoon: The Indian Ocean and the Future of American Power 2010
 The Revenge of Geography: What the Map Tells Us About Coming Conflicts and the Battle
Against Fate 2012
 Asia's Cauldron 2014
 In Europe's Shadow 2016
 The Return of Marco Polo's World: War, Strategy, and American Interests in the Twenty-first
Century 2018
 The Good American: The Epic Life of Bob Gersony, The U.S. Government's Greatest
Humanitarian 2021
Robert Keohane
Robert Owen Keohane is an American academic working within the fields of International Relations
and International Political Economy. He was born in 1941 in USA. After Hegemony (1984), he has
become widely associated with the theory of neoliberal institutionalism in international relations, as
well as transnational relations and world politics in international relations in the 1970s. He is Professor
Emeritus of International Affairs at the Princeton School of Public and International Affairs, and has
also taught at Swarthmore College, Duke University, Harvard University and Stanford University.
Books
 Transnational Relations and World Politics 1972
 After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy 1984
 Neo-realism and Its Critics 1986
 International Institutions and State Power: Essays in International Relations Theory 1989
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 Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition 1977
 Power and Governance in a Partially Globalized World 2002
 Humanitarian Intervention: Ethical, Legal, and Political Dilemmas 2003
 The Regime Complex for Climate Change with David G. Victor (2010)
Richard C. Synder: He was born in 1916 at USA and died in 1997. He was an American Professor
with specialization in foreign policy.
Works
 The Most Favoured Nation Clause
 American Foreign Policy
 Roots of Political Behaviour
Stanley Hoffman
Stanley Hoffmann was born in 1928 at Vienna in Austria and died in 2015. He was a University
Professor at Harvard University, specializing in French politics and society, European politics, U.S.
foreign policy, and international relations.
Works
 The State of War: Essays on the Theory and Practice of International Politics 1965
 Decline or Renewal? France since the 1930s 1974
 Primacy or World Order: American Foreign Policy since the Cold War 1978
 Duties beyond Borders: On the Limits and Possibilities of Ethical International Politics 1981
 Dead Ends: American Foreign Policy in the New Cold War 1983
 Janus and Minerva: Essays in the Theory and Practice of International Politics 1987
 The European Sisyphus: Essays on Europe 1995
 World Disorders: Troubled Peace in the Post-Cold War Era 1998
Thomas C. Schelling: He was born in 1921 in USA and died in 2016. He was an American economist
and professor of foreign policy, national security, nuclear strategy, and arms control at the School of
Public Policy at University of Maryland, College Park. He was also co-faculty at the New England
Complex Systems Institute.
Books
 The Strategy of Conflict 1960
 Arms and Influence 1966
 Micromotives and Macrobehavior 1978
Woodrow Wilson:
He was born in 1856 and died in 1924 in USA. Wilson was an American politician and academic who
served as the 28th president of the United States from 1913 to 1921. A member of the Democratic
Party, Wilson served as the president of Princeton University and as the governor of New Jersey before
winning the 1912 presidential election.
Works
 Congressional Government: A Study in American Politic 1885.
 The State: Elements of Historical and Practical Politics 1889.
 An Old Master and Other Political Essays 1893.
 Mere Literature and Other Essays. Boston 1896.
 The History of the American People
 Constitutional Government in the United States 1908.
 The Free Life: A Baccalaureate Address 1908.
 The New Freedom: 1913
 The Road Away from Revolution. 1923
 The Public Papers of Woodrow Wilson 1925–27.
 Study of public administration 1955
 A Crossroads of Freedom 1956.
 The Papers of Woodrow 1967–1994.

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Quincy Wright: He was born in 1890 and died in 1970 in USA. He was an American political scientist
based at the University of Chicago known for his pioneering work and expertise in international law and
international relations. He is also a pioneer in the field of security studies.
Works
 The Control of American Foreign Relations 1922
 Mandates Under the League of Nations 1930
 A Study of War 1942
 The Study of International Relations 1955
 The Strengthening of International Law 1960
 International Law and the United States 1960
 The Role of International Law in the Elimination of War 1961
Definitions of IR:
Morgenthau: Struggle for Power among sovereign nations
Padeford and Lincoln: relationship between states.
Palmer and Perkins: The totality of the relations among peoples and group in the world society.
Hoffman: It is concerned the factors and activities which affect the external policies and the power of
the basic unit into which the world is divided.
Wright: Relation between many entities of uncertain sovereignties.
Mathiesen: All human behaviour originating on one side of the state boundary and affecting human
behaviour on the other side of the boundary.
Lawson: Study of relations between states.
Development or Evolution of International Politics:
Thucydides History of Peloponnesian War
Chanakya Artashastra
Machiavelli II Principe (The Prince)
Before 1st World war IR was studies as a branch of History, Law Philosophy, Political Science and
others etc. After First World war IR started as an academic discipline in its own. This gave birth to the
Liberal approaches to IR which is collectively known as Idealism or sometimes as Utopianism. There
focus was what ought to be, human being are rational and they can apply reason to IR, they can set up
organizations for the benefit of all. Therefore main focus during this approach was outlawing war,
disarmament, international law and international organization. The chief advocates of this approach
were Alfred Zimmern (1879-1957), Norman Angell (1872-1967), James T. Shotwell (1874-1965) and
Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924). Wilson Delivered 14 Points before the US Congress in 1918
1. Making the world safe for democracy
2. Creation of International Organization for promotion of peaceful cooperation among national
states.
As a result of Wilsonian 14 points League of Nations was created. These thinkers adopted Legalistic-
moralistic assumptions.
IR soon made its appearance in American Universities. The first chair that formally established the
discipline was the Woodrow Wilson Chair of International Politics at the University of Wales,
Aberystwyth in 1919. It was endowed by Philanthropist David Davies. Sir Alfred Zimmern was the first
holder of the prestigious chair. Similar hairs were established in Jerusalem 1929, Oxford University
1930, London School of Economics 1936, and University of Edinburgh 1948. Hence Zimmern, Wilson
and Davies laid foundation of its academic discipline.
They were an idealistic and got shocked on outbreak of W.W.2nd. As a result of rise of Fascism and
Nazism, Germany Joined the League of Nations in 1926 and left in early 1930. Following its invasion
of Manchuria, Japan Left the League. Russia joined it in 1934 but expelled in 1940 following an attack
on Finland. Britain and France has never regards for League. USA was a forerunner of creation but
could not join it because of Senate‟s refusal to ratify.
After out broke of W. W. 2nd idealists were criticized and a new group of thinkers emerged know as
Realist also known as Realpolitik. It was known as antithesis of Liberals. These thinkers were E. H.
Carr 1939, George F Kennan 1954, Hans J Morgenthau, Reinhold Neibuhr, Kenneth W. Thompson
and others. This was the emergence of 1st great debate in IR.
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Realists were of the view that State is the principle actor and their activities are guided by their interest.
Conflict is inevitable which results in an anarchical international system.
With the coming of behavior approach in IR, the second great debate originated between realist and
behaviouralists. The first debate was among Idealists and Realists about the subject matter of IR and the
second debate was among the Realists and Behaviouralists about the methodology.
Wittkopf: Its central focus was on theorizing about theory rather than theorizing about international
relations.
Quincy Wright A Study of War
Morton A Kaplan System and Processes in International Politics
Charles McClelland Theory of the International System
As a result of great debate new avatars of Idealism and Realism emerged in the shape of Neo-Idealism
and Neo-Realism respectively.
The Neo-liberals adopted the idea of progress and change but discarded the idealism of liberals. They
tried to formulate theories and apply new methods which are scientific. Among various branches of this
neo-liberalism most important was Pluralism and its model Interdependence model.
The chief exponent of neo-liberal approach was E. Haas, Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye. They
rejected the idea of state as single actor in IR and stressed on the pluralist or multiplicity of actors such
as UN, EU, AU, ASEAN, IMF, World Bank, Red Cross, Amnesty International and others etc. They
also gave concept of complex interdependence which means that instead of govt. to govt. relation
between two states there is also other Trans links between societies including transnational links
between business corporations etc. Here military power is not given so much importance. Therefore it
can be said that Neo-liberals put forward a non-military paradigm of IR which focuses much on peace
and cooperation.
Kenneth Waltz renewed the realism into neo-realism. This new branch tried to build upon the principles
of classical realism especially Morgenthau and tried to update it to suit it to the condition of late 20th
century. His path breaking work Theory of International Politics 1979 laid essential basis of Neo-
realist debate. He focused on the structure of International System. International system is Anarchical.
State were power seeking and security conscious not because of human nature view as plain bad by
classical realist but because the structure of the international system compels them to do so. Therefore,
neo-realist did not overlook the prospects of cooperation among the states. States while cooperating
with each other tried to maximize their relative power and preserve their autonomy.
During 1980 scholars tried to bring the realist as well idealist school close. Notable among them were
Robert Keohane & Barry Buzan, Barry Buzan along with Charles Jones and Richard Little tried to
synthesize neo-realist and neo-liberal institutionalists position and they introduced the concept of deep
structure, which meant that political structure encompasses anarchy as well as hierarchy and it included
not only power and institution but also rules and norms.
Both neo-liberal and neo-realist got another challenge from the neo-Marxist scholars. The main
contribution came from A G Frank, Immanuel Wallenstein and others who formed the School of
International Political Economy (IPE). They were of the view that international system is divided into
dominant north and dependent south. World System theory and Dependency theory were its 2 important
contribution. A core-periphery bifurcation of the world was developed by dependency theorist and they
took its clue from the Lenin‟s work i.e. Imperialism: The Highest stage of Capitalism. Immanuel
Wallenstein added a third category i.e. semi-periphery between core and periphery. They suggested that
there is transfer of wealth and resources from the peripheral countries to the core countries. Its result is
rich countries getting richer and poor getting poor.
Core = Countries in North American Europe as well as Japan
Semi-periphery = Soviet
Periphery = Poor Countries
1970s and 1980s were occupied by neo-liberal and neo-realist but after the end of cold war there
emerged another strong branch of scholars known as English School and it emphasis on the society of
states or international society. Its dominant figures were Hedley Bull, E H Carr, C A W Manning, F S
Northedge , Martin Wright, Adam Watson, R J Vincent, James Mayall, Robert Jackson and new

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scholars like Timothy Dunne and Nicholas Wheeler. They tried to provide an alternative of Hobbesian
nor Utopian view about international society. They are of the view that there is presence of a world of
sovereign states where both power and law are present. Power and national interest do matter but norms
and institutions also have great significance.
Zimmerin is known as first Professor of International Politics or International Relation.
Some of the main debates in IR are between
 Utopian Liberalism/Idealism and Realism
 Traditional Approaches and Behaviouralism
 Neo Liberalism/Neo-Realism and neo-Marxism
 Positivism and post-Positivist approach.
Abdul A Said ----- Five categories of theories
Theory of Theory, System analysis, Action Theories, Interaction theories and newer research techniques
Scholars related to following approaches
 Post Modernist theories --- Richard Ashley, R B J Walker, James Derian and others.
 Critical theories --- Andrew Linklater, Robert Cox and others.
 Historical Sociology --- Michael Mann, Charles Tilly, ThedaSkocpol and others.
 Feminist Theories --- J Ann Tickner, Cynthis Enloe and Christine Sylvester.
Development as an academic Discipline:
International Relation is integrally related to W. W. 1st. After W. W. 1st, its study was initiated by the
North American and West Europeans. The first chair of IP was founded in 1919 at the University
College of Wales (UK) under the name of Woodrow Wilson. Several prominent historians like
Zimmern, C.K. Webster, E. H. Carr and etc were the early occupants of this chair. In 1920s the rise of
USA as global power encouraged the teaching of IR as an independent subject. But in USSR it was not
recognized as a separate discipline even after the 2nd WW. It was still part of history even in mid sixties.
An Introduction to the study of International Relations was the earliest text book in the discipline. It
was written jointly by Gant, Hughes, Greenwood, Kerr and Urguhart and was published in 1916 in
Britain. Lord Brice delivered a series of 8 lectures in USA in 1921 and was published as International
Relations. In 1922, E. A. Walsh edited a volume on The History and Nature of International Relation
from New York. In 1925, Professor Buell, Research Director, Foreign Policy Association USA
published a lengthy text on IR. In 1926 Prof. Moon published a Syllabus on International Relations.
In 1919 University of Wales set up separate chair on IR. Its first two incumbents were Sir Alfred
Zimmern and Charles Webstwe both historian. In USA School of Foreign Services set up at
Georgetown University in 19191 and School of International Relations at University of Southern
California in 1924. In Paris Institute of Advanced International Studies was founded in 1923.
Research Bodies:
In USA 1910, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace at Washington DC
1918 two research bodies i.e. Foreign Policy Association and Council on Foreign Relations. Headline
series and Foreign affairs were their journals.
In 1920, Royal Institute of International Affairs was established in London. Survey of International
affairs and International Affairs wee its journal. In 1934 New Commonwealth Institute was renamed as
London Institute of world affairs. World affairs and the year book of world affairs were its journals. In
1935 Institute of world affairs, a research organization was formed in Paris. In 1943 Indian Council of
World affairs was established in New Delhi. India Quarterly was its journal.
Creation of institutions like WTO, IMF, IBRD also made the scope of IR broad. The UN and its
specialized agencies such as FAO, ICAO, ILO, IUU, UPU, WHO, UNESCO etc also helped in her
development. UNESCO has also sponsored The University Teaching of Social Sciences: International
Relations and this international survey was edited by Prof Manning of University of London in 1954.
World Order Model Project (WOMP) was an international trend both as an institution as well as an
intellectual tradition. It was a trans-national research initiative.
Stages of Development
Kenneth Thompson has give following 4 stages of IR
1. First Stage: Up to end of 1 WW. Their main concern was description of past events rather than
the analysis of present and their projection for future.
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2. 2nd Stage: Starts from the end of First World War and stressed only on current events.
3. 3rd Stage: Started from WW 1 and continued even after war period. Their approach was
moralistic-legalistic and their objective was to establish a healthy world order. Much hope was
from League of Nations. Wilson, Potter, Shotwell, Fenwick belonged to this approach.
4. 4th Stage: Came after Second World War and their emphasis was to making a scientific analysis
of IP. In 1950s and 1960s Realists became the prevailing schools & these were E H Carr, Hans
J Morgenthau, Kenneth W. Thompson, Reinhold Niebuhr, George F. Kennan, Henry A.
Kissinger. According to them power is a means as well as end in itself. International politics is
nothing but struggle for power. Deterrence theory as well as Game theory in 50s and 60s also
contributed in this stage.
In addition to these four stages some others stages were also added by various other scholars.
5. 5th Stage: may be counted from sixties to seventies. In this stage the quantitative study of IR
was done by Singer, Zinnes, Hoole, La Barr and Rousseau.
6. 6th Stage: Late seventies to first half of eighties. Efficiency of Détente, New Cold War Star war
programe etc. scholars of the west particularly USA showed interest in third world countries.
7. 7th Stage: Began in 1985 when Mikhail Gorbachev came in scene.
8. 8th Stage: commenced in early nineties. Disintegration of USSR, formation of EU. Most
important issue of this stage is creation of new world order. Some of the theories related to
creation of new world order are given below
 Pax Americana - George Bush, Goodby and Morel
 Liberal democracy or Pax Democratica – James Robert Huntley, Richardson, Miles
Kahler
 Constitutionalism and Global governance – Martin Wight, Butterfield, Linklater
 International Society - Ken Booth and Smith
This stage also covers the Power diffusion as given by Nye, Newmann and Halliday
This stage also consists of four security models as suggested in post cold war period
 Unipolar security model like NATO
 Balance of power model like NATO, EU, ASEAN, CIS etc.
 Concert of power model like IMF, OECD, IMF WORLD BANK, IAEA etc.
 Universal security models like UNO
9. 9th stage: involve drawn of 21st century, in this stage William R Thompson suggests
nomenclature World politics in place of IR and Walker talks of a transition from International
relation to world politics.
Scope and subject matter of IR:
Traditionally it was known as International Politics and with the passage of time it was known as
International Relations and present days it is known as Global Politics.
Schleicher: It includes all inter-state relation in international politics.
Padelford and Lincoln: The interaction of state policies within the changing pattern of power
relationship.
Morgenthau: It deals mainly with political relations and the problem of power and peace.
It is struggle for and use of power among nations.
Burton: It is a system of peaceful communication whereby states consciously like to avoid conflict
because of costs of conflict is very high.
Harold and Margaret Sprout: Those aspects of interactions and relations of Independent political
communities in which some elements of opposition, resistance or conflict of purpose or interest is
present.
Thompson: It is study of rivalry among nations and the conditions and institutions which ameliorate or
exacerbate these relationships.
Quincy Wright: The art of influencing, manipulating or controlling major groups so as to advance the
purpose of some against the opposition of others.
It is a process by which power is acquired, maintained and explained.
Mohinder Kumar: A process in which nations try to serve their national interests which may be in

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conflict with those of others nations by means of their policies and actions.
R T Jangan: The existence of nations; friendly or unfriendly relations, struggle for acquisition,
retention and extension of power and other stakes.
Baral: Three components of IP are international system, the state and the individual.
Quincy Wright: It includes various types of groups – nations, states, governments, peoples, religions,
alliances etc. He coined the term “relations between powerful nations” to designate the relations
between groups of major importance in the life of the world at any period of history.
Hoffmann: “It is concerned with the factors and the activities which affect the external policies and the
power of the basic units into which the world is divided”.
Palmer and Perkins: It encompasses much more than the relations among nation-states. It includes a
variety of transitional relationships.
Frankel: This new discipline is more than a combination of the studies of the foreign affairs of the
various countries and of international history. He suggested using the term World Politics. Rosenau,
Calvocoressi, kegley, wittkopf, William R Thompson, Walker Baylis and Smith also suggested using
term World Politics.
Rosenau: World politics comprises primarily the nation-states as the prime-actor.
Trygve Mathiesen: All kind of relations traversing state boundaries, no matter whether they are of
economic, legal, political or any other character, they can be private or official. „All human behaviuour
originating on one side of the state boundary and affecting the human behaviour on the other side of the
boundary‟.
Holsti: It refers to all forms of interaction between the members of separate societies, weather govt.
sponsored or not.
Adi H. Doctor: Those interested in oppositional relations label their study as International Politics and
those who also include cooperative relations name their study as International Relations.
Liberal Approach:
Traditional Liberal thinkers are Immanuel Kant, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, J S Mill, Locke,
Hume Rousseau and Adam Smith. Chief proponents of post W W 1 liberalism were Zimmern, Norman
Angell, James T Shotwell and Woodrow Wilson. These are some time also known as liberal idealist or
simply idealists and E H Carr described them as utopians. They try to justify the irrational and immoral
behaviour of the individuals as not the manifestation of flawed human nature but the result of ignorance
and misunderstanding, which is possible to overcome through education and reforming of social and
political institutions. They also believe in greatest happiness of greatest number. They lay emphasis on
the common interest. The majority of the interactions among nations are cooperative and not conflictual.
Majority of the nation like to live in peace and peace is not because of any balance of power. Human
beings by nature are rational creatures.
Liberalism can be classified as
a) Liberal Internationalism: Faith in human reason and believes that it could delivered freedom
and justice in IR. They emphasis on transformation of individual consciousness, abolishing war,
setting up of world govt. promoting free trade and maintaining peace. Jeremy Bentham and
Immanuel Kant were its leading figures. It was criticized by E H Carr in his famous essay The
Twenty year Crisis 1939.
b) Idealism: They believe that peace and prosperity is not a natural condition but is one which
must be constructed and it is possible by „consciously devised machinery‟. They talked about
establishment of an international institution to secure peace. They supported League of Nations,
UN etc.
c) Liberal Institutionalism: They were of the view that integration through international and
regional institutions would help to solve common problems. David Mitrany and Ernst Haas
were its supported and Koehane Nye were the supported of later liberal institutionalism.
d) Neo-Liberal Institutionalism: They were mainly supported of democratic peace theory. They
believe that „liberal states do not go war with other liberal states. Francis Fukuyama in his
article „The End of History‟ championed the victory of liberalism over all ideologies. He
believes that liberal states have established pacific union within which war becomes
unthinkable.
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e) Neo-idealism: They believe that global politics must be democratized. Its advocates include
David Held, Norberto Bobbio and Danielle Archibugi. David Held even prescribes a
„cosmopolitan model of democracy‟ in place of Westphalian and UN models. They support
extension of regional organizations such as EU as well as democratize the UN, creation of new
International Court of Human Rights.
f) Neo-Liberal institutionalism: It was a response to Kenneth Waltz‟s theory of realism in his
famous work Theory of International politics 1979. They share the assumption with realist that
states are the most significant actors and the international environment is anarchical but they try
to focus on the task of initiating and maintaining cooperation among states under anarchical
condition.
Reinhold Niebuhr in his work The Children of Light and Children of Darkness 1944 opines that it
is possible to combine the wisdom of realist with the optimism of the idealist. Children of light
regard subordination of self-interest to universal law whereas children of darkness regard self
interest as the prime guiding principle.
Robert Gilpin ------- War and change in world politics
Political Realism:
It has been the most dominant school of thought after W. W. 2nd. It focuses on power and its exercise
by states. It is chiefly concerned with realpolitik.
Realism can be traced to
History of Peloponnesian war Thucydides
Arthashastra Chanakya
ll Principe/The Prince Machiavelli
Leviathan Hobbes
Otto Von Bismarck coined the term „Balance of Power‟
On War Carl Von Clausewitz
C V Clausewitz said „war is nothing but continuation of policies by other means‟.
Machiavelli suggests qualities of man and beast, lion and fox in a prince. He provides the masculine
character to the statecraft by saying „fortune as a female‟
Chanakya wrote Arthashashtra which means the „science of material gain or science of polity‟ his book
1 chapter XI is „the institution of spies‟
Hobbes too wrote his leviathan in Latin and gave concept of the common wealth i.e. civitas after social
contract.
E. H. Carr criticized the liberals in his work Twenth years Crisis 1919-1939. He opines that the inner
meaning of modern international crisis is the collapse of whole structure of utopianism based on the
concept of harmony of interest. He was of the opinion that to get sound political theories in IR both
elements of utopianism and realism namely power and moral values are required.
Morgenthau and realism
Political realism reached its zenith during the times of Morgenthau. Morgenthau in his work Politics
among nations: the struggle for power and peace 1948 gave following six elements
 Politics is governed by objective laws which are based on human nature.
 National interest defined in terms of power.
 National interest is not fixed and changes with environment.
 Universal moral principles cannot be applied to state‟s action.
 There is no identity between moral aspiration of a nation and the moral law which governs the
universal law.
 Maintain autonomy of the political sphere.
He insists that „let the justice be done even if the world perish‟.
Morgenthau defines power as „psychological relationship between states‟.
Realism can be classified as below
a) Neo-Realism: Realism suffered a setback due to the emergence of the neo-liberalism especially
by the pluralists. The pluralists were of the view that state may be a significant factor in
international relations but it is not the sole actor. The acknowledged the plurality of actors in
international relation. This pluralist challenge was soon met by a new branch of realist the
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forerunner of which was Kenneth Waltz. Waltz in his famous works „Man, the State and War‟
1959 and Theory of International Politics 1979 came up with idea of world politics which is
known as neo-realism. Waltz uses game theory for this. Neo-realist did not overlook the
prospects of cooperation among states also but also holds that states while cooperating with
each other tried to maximize their relative power and preserve their autonomy. The cause of
conflict or war does not rest on human nature but within the framework of the anarchic structure
of International relations.
Benno Wasserman, Robert Tucker & Stanley Haffman criticized the classical realist. Quincy
Wright and Robert Tucker also criticized it. She criticized the masculine character of realism.
b) Pluralism: They are of the view that state is not the alone actor and there are also other
important actors such as MNCs, NGO, etc. important pluralists are Alexander George, Ole
Holsti, Robert Jervis, Richard C. Sunder, Keohane and Nye.
Transnational Relations and World Politics Power and Interdependence Joseph Nye
Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition Keohane and Nye
They give following three main characteristics of complex interdependence
 Societies connected by multiple channels of communication.
 An absence of hierarchy among issues
 Lesser importance of military force
Prof Arun Bose is of the view that basic framework of international politics includes four basic tents
Proletarian internationalism, Anti-imperialism, Self-Determination and Peaceful Coexistence
Security Dilemma: when one nation increases its security than in return the other nation also increase
their security so as to save itself from the first. This leads to competition which is known as security
dilemma.
Eclecticism: It is a school of thought which does not regard either the realist approach or the idealist
approach as completely satisfactory. They offer a synthesis of the pessimism of the realist and the
optimism of idealists. E. H. Carr has also suggested that the combination of realism and idealism is the
best solution.
Dependency Model/World System Theory: Its traces can be found in Lenins‟s work Imperialism: The
Highest Stage of Capitalism. He provided a two tier structure of the world economy i.e. Core and
Periphery. Galtung and Wallerstein further developed this concept. Capitalism and underdevelopment in
Latin America 1976 A G Frank
Raul Prebisch - First executive director of United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America
John Gallagher, Ronald Robinson Gunnar Myrdal the author of Asian Drama. Their main argument of
the World System theorists is that the dependency situation of the developing countries is the direct
result of the economic exploitation by the advanced countries.
Modern World System: Capitalist Agriculture and the origin of the Economy in the Sixteenth Century
1974 ---- Immanuel Wallenstein
He added semi-Periphery between core and periphery and placed countries like Russia in it.
Johan Galtung --------- A Structural theory of Imperialism
Prof Jayantanuja Bandyopadhyaya North Over South – A Non Western Perspective of International
Relations 1984
Theories of international Politics: Systems Theory: Decision making.
System Theory: This theory originated due to behavioural revolution in social sciences. Easton, Kaplan,
McClelland, Rosenau and Boulding are related to this theory. Easton is the chief exponent of system
theory in comparative politics where as Kaplan is the chief exponent of system theory in international
relation. Kaplan gave six models of international relations
1. The Balance of Power: It golden period was from 1815 to 1914. It collapsed with the outbreak
of WW1 in 1914.
2. The Loose bipolar system: It was during cold war period consisting two super powers i.e.
USA & USSR along with others such as Non-alignment and UN etc.
3. The Tight bipolar system: It consists, only two super powers and others like Non-alignment
either disappear or become less significant. Even the international organization becomes too
weak to mediate.
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4. The Universal System: This system emerges when world gets transformed into a world
federation.
5. The Hierarchical System: It comes into existence when single universal actor absorbs all other
states either through conquest or treaty.
6. The Unit Veto System: It comes into existence when every state has nuclear weapons i.e. every
state is in a position to destroy the other states.
Communication Theory: The term communication has borrowed from the concept of cybernetics
which means steering. Nobert Weiner developed the concept of Cybernetics in his work Cybernetics to
signify the concept of Political System. This approach in international relations was adopted by Karl
Deutsch in his work The Nerves of Government: Model of Political Communication and Control 1963.
Decision making approach: This approach became more popular in USA. Richard C Snyder, H W
Bruck and Burton Sapin gave work „Decision making as an approach to the study of international
relation‟. 1954.
Definitions of International Politics
David V. Edwards: It is made up of incidents in which the units or actors generally nations or
combinations of nations, differ over power, resources, status or other desired ends and attempts to
resolve differences by whatever means available and accepted.
Quincy Wright: It consists of relations between groups of major importance in the life of world at any
period of history.
Morgenthau: International politics is struggle for power among nations.
Schleicher: It is „relations among nations‟.
Harold and Marget Sprout: It consists of those aspects of interactions and relations of independent
political communities in which some elements of opposition, resistance of conflict of purpose or interest
is present.
Robert Purnell: It includes those political aspects which are concerned with disagreement,
competition, oval claims and various outcomes.
Charles Reynold: It refers to the process by which conflict arise and are resolved at international level.
Debate on International Politics as independent discipline:
Robert Loring Allen is not willing to accept IP as an independent branch of study. Prof. Quincy Wright
regards IP/IR as an independent discipline.
Palmer and Perkins are of the view that IP lack clear cut conceptual framework and hence is not
independent discipline.
Same is the case with Mortan Kaplan i.e. he is also not willing to accept independent character of IP.
Frederick Dunn regards this controversy of independent discipline as a futile.
George Schwarzenberger --- Power Politics 1941
Hubert Butterfield ---- Christianity, Diplomacy and War 1953
George Kennan ---- American Diplomacy 1952
The term „International‟ was coined by Jeremy Bentham in 1780 when he talks of „international
jurisprudence‟
Feliks Gross and Russell Fifield are of the view that IP is identical to the study of foreign policy.
Harold Sprout and Margaret Sprout call foreign policy as a subcategory of IP.
Charles Schleicher includes all IR in IP but not all IP in IR.
Norman Padelford and George Schleicher define IP as the interaction of state policies within the
changing pattern of power relationship.
John Burton defined IR as a system of peaceful communication.
Richard Rosecrance regards peace and war as the essence of international politics and so does Raymond
Aron.
National Power, National Interest and Foreign Policy
National Power:
Hartmann: „Power lurks in the background of all relations between sovereign states‟.
Kautilya: Power is the „possession of strength‟ derived from three elements i.e. Knowledge, military and
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Morgenthau: „Power is relationship between two political actors in which actor A has the ability to
control the mind and the actions of actor B‟.
„Power is anything that establishes and maintains control of man over man‟.
„A psychological relation between those who exercise it and those over whom power is exercised‟
Schwarzenberger „Capacity to impose one‟s will on the other by reliance on effective sanctions in case
of non-compliance‟. He also makes a distinction between power and influence.
Dahl „ability to shift the probability of outcomes‟
„A has power over B to the extent that he can get B to do something that B would not otherwise‟.
Duchacek „The capacity to produce intended effects to realize one‟s will‟.
Couloumbis and Wolfe define power as an umbrella concept. „It is anything that establishes and
maintains the control of actor A over actor B‟. They gave three ingredients of power i.e. force, influence
and authority.
Padelford and Lincoln „National power is the sum total of the strength and capabilities of state‟.
Hartmann „The strength or capacity that a sovereign state can use to achieve its national interest‟.
Anam Jaitly: „a capacity to influence people domestically and other nations externally towards certain
desired national preferences‟.
Ebenstein: National power is more than the sum total of population, raw material and quantitative
factors.
Organski “Ability to influence the behaviour of others in according with one‟s own ends”.
Mackinder “who rules Eastern Europe commands Heartland, who rules the Heartlands rules the world
islands and who rules the world islands rules the world”.
Spykman “Who controls the Rimland rules Eurasia, who controls Eurasia controls the destiny of the
world” .
Foreign Policy:
Definitions of Foreign Policy:
C. C. Rodee: The formulation and implementations of a group of principles which shape the behaviour
of a state while negotiating with other states to protect or further its vital interest.
Charles Burton Marshall in his book The Exercise of sovereignty 1965 defines foreign policy as “the
course of action undertaken by authority of state and intended to affect situation beyond the span of its
jurisdiction”.
F. S. Northedge wrote The Foreign Policies Powers, 1968
George Madelski (A Theory of Foreign Policy, 1962) The system of activities evolved by
communities for changing the behaviour of other states and for adjusting their own activities to the
international law.
Karl Von Clausewitz „War is the continuation of policy by other means”.
Schleicher “the actions of government officials to influence human behavior beyond the jurisdiction of
their own states”.
Lincoln “Foreign policy is the key element in the process by which a state translates its broadly
conceived goals and interests into concrete courses of action to attain those objectives preserve its
interest”.
Oxford Dictionary – the management of international relations by negotiations
James Rosenau -- Domestic Sources of Foreign Policy
Do The Scientific Study of Foreign Policy
Sir Ernest Satow -- Guide to Diplomacy 1922
Sir Harold Nicolson – The Congress of Vienna
Von Kriegg -- On War
Quincy Wright Study of War
Do Causes of war and conditions of peace 1935
E. H. Carr --- Twenty Years Crisis
Morgenthau The art of Diplomatic Negotiation
Henry Wriston - Executive Agents in American Foreign Policy
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Jayantanuja Bandyopadhyaya -- The Making of India‟s Foreign Policy.
Military Industrial Complex – The whole concept of military-industrial complex includes both labour
unions and politicians whose districts would benefit from military spending.
Holsti gave 4 objectives of states
Security, Autonomy, Welfare in the broadest sense, Status and prestige
Padelford and Lincoln identified 4 aims of states
National Security, Economic Advancement, Safeguarding or augmenting national power to other states
and International prestige
Mohinder Kumar gives 4 components of Foreign Policy
Policy makers, Interest and objectives, Principles of foreign policy and Means of foreign policy
Palmer and Perkins gave 4 functions of diplomacy
Representation, Negotiation, Reporting and Protection
Poullada gave 5 functions of diplomacy
Conflict Management, Problem Solving, Cross Cultural interaction and Programme management
White gave five functions of diplomacy
Information gathering, Policy advice, Representation, Negotiation and Consular services
Policy of peaceful coexistence was adopted in 20th congress of communist party in February 1956
Communist imperialism is known as Red imperialism, Dollar Imperialism is known as USA
imperialism and new imperialism are known as economic imperialism, dollar imperialism, red
imperialism etc.
After congress of Vienna 1815, The Regalement of 1815 and subsequently regulations of Aix-la-
Chappelle established diplomatic services on agreed basis. There are 4 categories of representatives
Ambassadors, Extraordinary envoys, Ministers residents and Charge d‟affairs
Main actors of Concerrt of Europe are England, France, Prussia, Austria and Spain. During
It made peace between 1814 – 1914
Atlantic Charter 1941 Ist Hague Conference 1899
Treaty of Holy 1815 2nd Hague Conference 1907
Alliance
Tehran Meeting 1945 Paris Peace Conference 1918
Potsdam Conference 1945 Disarmament Conference Geneva 1927
Bandung Conference 1955 London Conference 1930
Belgrade Conference 1961 San Francisco Conference 1945
Treaty of Utrecht 1713 Breton Woods Conference 1945
Quadruple Alliance Formed by Britain,
France, Prussia and
Austria in 1815
Cairo Conference 1964
Truman Doctrine: USA helped Greece and Turkey to check Communist expansion.
Marshall Plan: it was a comprehensive economic recovery programme. It was to contain the
communism and growing Soviet influence in Europe.
Point Four Programme: Economic and technical assistance to the Afro-Asian nations.
Camp David Agreement --- Negotiation settlement between Egypt and Israel.
Molotov Plan was a response from USSR to American Marshall Plan.
US called Evil Empire to USSA and Axis of Evil to Libya, Iraq and North Korea. Communists‟
countries called constitutional govt. as capitalist cliques.
Hitler established a National Ministry of Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda headed by Joseph
Goebbles.
Pax Britannica: Pax means peace or stop quarrelling. When a powerful country enforces peace on
other states, the pax is usually prefixed with the name of enforcing country. E.g. Pax Romana, peace
enforced on states in the Roman Empire. Pax Britannica, peace and principles enforced in the Britain
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Empire. Pax America is associated with the dominant role of USA in the period after Second World
War.
The age of Pax Britannixca was over after W W 2 and Pax Sovietia died in 1991 but Pax America is still
intact.
Middle Kingdom Complex was given by Mao. It is also known by name of intermediate zone. He
wanted to make a group other than 1st and second block during cold war. But countries preferred to join
Non-Alignment than Middle Kingdom of Mao.
Till the end of eighteenth century diplomacy was known as traditional or old diplomacy. Nineteenth
century diplomacy was known as Modern Diplomacy. Open Diplomacy was greatly emphasized by
American President Woodrow Wilson.
Elements of National Power: Tangible and Intangible
Morgenthau gives the three ways in which national morale operates to protect human life i.e.
Protect human life in peace, Operates in times of war and Moral condemnation of war
Limitations of National Power
Balance of Power, International Morality, The World Public Opinion, International Law, Disarmament
and International Organizations
Evaluation of National Power
According to Morgenthau nations commits three type errors in evaluating their own power and power of
other nations i.e.
Relativity of Power, The permanency of a certain factors and The fallacy of a single factors
Methods of using power
Organski gave 4 ways to use power
Persuasion, Rewards, Punishment and Force
Dimension of power: Deutsch gave three dimensions of power i.e.
Domain of power, Range of power and Scope of power
Morgenthau divided power into 2 categories i.e.
Permanent and Changing
Organski classified it into 2 categories i.e.
Natural and Social
E. H. Carr divided into 2 categories i.e.
Military power, Economic power and Power over opinion
Mohinder kumar divided it 2 categories i.e.
Natural, Social and Ideational
Palmer and Perkind divided it into 2 categories i.e.
a) Tangible --- geography, raw material, natural resources and population
b) Intangible -- morale and ideology
Lerche and Said, Couloumbis and Wolfe, Adi H. Doctor, Anam Jaitly also classified it into 2
categories i.e. tangible and intangible
Morgenthau divided Ideology into tree types i.e.
Ideologies of status quo, Ideology of imperialism and Ambiguous ideologies
National Interest:
Frankel divided the approaches to national interest into 2 types i.e. Objective and subjective
He defined national interest as “amounts to the sum total of all the national volumes”
Types of national interest:
Robinson divided it into 6 types
Primary interest, Secondary interest, Permanent interest, Variable interest, General interest and Specific
interest
In addition to six types he also gives three more i.e. Identical interest, Complementary interestand
Conflicting interest
Promotion of national interest:

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Diplomacy, Alliance, Propaganda, Psychological and political warfare, Economic methods, Imperialism
and colonialism and Coercive methods and war
Some Points to remember:
 Brazil has rich deposits of Iron
 Japan attacked China in 1937
 Trueman Doctrine 1946
 Monroe Doctrine 1823
US law PL 480 was linked with food supply from US to India.
The Geneva Convention of 1864, 1906, 1929 & 1949 as well as Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907
are related to sick and wounded soldiers in war.
Italy attacked Ethopia in 1936, Iraq‟s annexation of Kuwait in 1990s.
Chapter VII of the UN Charter incorporates the theory of collective security.
Balance of Power-
The traditional relations among independent states are often explained in terms of balance of power.
Contemporary writers have called this theory as „a basic principle of international relations‟. Idealist
have long condemned balance of power because it is related in their view to power politics. On the other
hand realists have defended it on the ground that moral rules cannot be applied in international life and
that the pursuit of balance of power leads to the greatest goods of the greatest number. Winston
Churchill, Kenneth Thompson and Hans Morgenthau treat it as a foreign policy. Martin Wright, A J P
Taylor and Charles Lerche see balance of power as a system. Woodrow Wilson disregards for balance
of power stems from the tendency to treat balance of power as a symbol of the realists philosophy.
Louise Halle, John Morton Blum and Reinhold Neibuhr have all maintained that Wilson denied the
reality of power in IR. Dina Zinnes have discussed seven and Martin Wight have discussed nine
meaning of balance of power.
Balance of Power

A B+C+D
Hitler came to power in 1933 and announced German rearmament in 1935 and remilitarization of the
Rhineland in 1936. Poland was a buffer state between Russia and Germany. USSR intervened in
Afghanistan in 1979.
Herbert Butterfield refers balance of power as „mechanistically self-adjusting and self-rectifying‟. Inis
Claude treat it as „semi-automatics‟. The balance of power of 18th century rested on the existence of five
or six major powers.
John Herz and Ernst Haas would choose the 18th century whereas Gulielmo Ferro and Henry
Kissinger would choose 19th century as the period of greatest success of balance of power. But the
period from end of Napoleon war to the 1st world war i.e. 1815 to 1914 are supposed to the golden days
of balance of power. During the Napoleon era England and France were two powerful countries. After
Napoleon defeat England, Prussia, Russia and Austria together balance France. After the end of 19 th
century France and Russia was together balanced by Germany, Italy and Austria. Some of the scholars
hold that the concept of balance of power is relevant today as well as in future and these are Louis
Halle, Arnold Wolfers and Dewitt Poole. Waltz is of the view that if other countries were allowed to
acquire nuclear weapons, the present bipolar system would be transformed into multipolar system.
Along with him, Karl Deutsch, David Singer and John Stoessinger also hold the same view. Today‟s
world is bi-Multipolarity, which means two bigger power USA and USSR with other multipolar
countries.
Louis Halle, John Morton Blum and Reinhold Niebuhr have all treated balance of power as realist
philosophy.
Morgenthau have used in four different ways [Link] a policy aimed at a certain state of affairs, As an
actual state of affairs, As an approximately equal distribution of power and As any distribution of power

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Haas points its eight meanings.
Schleicher has discussed three, Zinnes seven and Wight nine meanings of balance of power.
David Hume ----- Essays and Treatise on Several Subjects
Period between Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 French Revolution of 1789 is regarded as 1st golden age
of balance of power.
Participation of Poland 1772, 1793, 1795 provides the example of balance of power.
Treaty of Utrecht 1713 is also an example of balance of power in Europe. The Congress of Vienna 1815
also established new balance of power. Triple Entente was found in 1907 by France England and Russia
and Triple Alliance in 1882 by Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.
Morgenthau has criticized balance of power on three counts
On its Uncertainty, Its unreality and its inadequacy
Methods of attaining balance of power
a) Alliance and Counter Alliance: Alliances are formed to make a strong power group. In order
to counter the alliance the opponent countries make another alliance to balance the first alliance.
b) Compensation: Annexation of division of territory e.g. Treaty of Utrecht divided the Spanish
procession in Europe and outside among the Hapsburg and Bourbons. Participation of Germany
under treaty of Versailles.
c) Buffer State: A state which comes between two states is called buffer state. Nepal is a buffer
state between India and China.
d) Armament and Disarmament: Treaty of Versailles 1919, Washington Naval Treaty 1922,
Partial Test Ban Treaty 1963, Strategic Arms Limited Treaty (SALT 1) 1972, SALT 11 1979,
Intermediate Range Nuclear Force (INF) 1987, Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START)
1991. Some other done under UN are Non Proliferation Treaty (NPT), Comprehensive Test Ban
Treaty (CTBT),
e) Intervention and non-intervention: A third country may intervene between two or more states
to balance the power. USSR made her intervention in 1971 Indo-Pak war to balance the power
of USA by Supporting India against Pakistan and USA.
f) Divide and Rule: It is one of the oldest policies and also used by Britishers to make India a
weak state.
Richard Cobden is of the view that “the balance of power is a chimera”.
Others were of the view that there is no balance of power and there is „balance of terror‟.
Concept of Power- Vacuum
Before 2nd world war Britain, France, Germany Spain, Portugal, Holland etc. were very powerful. They
established their colonies. After ww2 these countries become weak and the countries under their
colonial rule got independence. Sine these countries were newly independent and poor and their
governing master countries under colonial rule were not in a position to help them. This opportunity of
helping was captured by USA and USSR commonly known as super power countries after Second
World War. So this Vacuum of power in third world countries was captured by two countries. This is
the concept of vacuum. The term „power vacuum‟ was coined by USA during cold war.
This vacuum theory was rejected by India. Indera Gandhi said if there is any power vacuum, it must be
filled by domestic power and not by outsider. Even the US Congress did not approve it but department
of defence, USA carried it on.
Because of this theory USA has established control over Simonstown at entrance of Atlantic Oceans,
Masirah in Persian Gulf, Diego Garcia in Indian Oceans and Malacca Straits in Pacific oceans.
Palmer and Perkins were of the view that the term „balance of power‟ itself suggests equilibrium but it
is subjected to constant changes i.e. from equilibrium to disequilibrium.
Nicholas J Spykman remarked „the balance of power is not a gift of God‟, it must be achieved by the
active intervention of man.
Hartman identifies 4 types of balance of power process since 1815. .
Collective Security- The basic purpose of international organization is to help in the evolution of
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fulfilled. One such way is collective security. It was the basis of League of Nations as well as United
Nations. UN by its collective security is seeking its goal by providing a deterrent to the aggressor.
The traces of collective security can be found in Treaty of Osnabruck concluded in 17th century and
William Penn‟s Scheme of European Order. The League of Nations made provision from Art 10 to 15
for collective security. Treaty of Mutual assistance 1923 declared aggression as an international crime.
In 1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact was concluded under which the member states condemned recourse to
war for solution of international controversies renounced war as an instrument of national policy.
Hans Morgenthau defines it as “one for all and all for one”.
Realist theory of international politics stresses that war cannot be eliminated from international
society, hence we can only try to control power which is the root cause of power. Collective security is
a device of control of power. Inis Claude calls it as “management of power”. President Woodrow
Wilson of the USA was the key figure beyond the project for collective enforcement of peace. The Art
51 of the UN Charter permits collective defence as an inherent and legal right of nation.
Treaty of Versailles 1919:
Kellogg-Briand Pact
The nine power treaty
The USA, Germany and Japan were not the member of League of Nations.
One experiment of collective security of UN was in 1950 when North Korea attacked South Korea.
This incident is important because it gave birth to Uniting for peace resolution, which gives power to
decide the matter to General Assembly if there is no clear cut decision due to difference between
Security Council. It gives its decision by 2/3rd majority. United Nations Emergency Force was formed
during Suez Canal Crises in 1956. United Nations provides three pillars for maintenance of peace i.e.
peaceful change, pacific settlement of disputes, collective security. Security at a regional level can best
be collective defence and not collective security.
Against the UN Brezhnev, the premier of Russia gave his concept of Asian Collective Security having
three principles
a) The renunciation of the use of force
b) Inviolability of nations frontiers
c) Non-interference in internal affairs
The Chinese were of the view that this concept of Asian Security is against the interest of China.
Tashkent conference of 1966 was to increase soviet influence in Asia. Bilateral treaties with Egypt in
1971, India in 1971 and Iraq in 1972 were also in this interest.
Doctrine of Limited Sovereignty was enunciated in the wake of Czechoslovakian crisis in 1968.
The Functional theory of international organization maintains that we should first of all build habit of
cooperation among nations in the non-political sphere and then transfer these habits of cooperation to
the political sphere.
France withdrew from military activities of NATO in 1963 on some issue with Washington but
continued in Political Activities llatter.
Distinction from Collective Defense: Collaboration policy pursued outside the United Nations is
identified as collective defence, while collaboration policy pursued within the United Nations is
identified as Collective Security.
Collective Security under the UN character, General Evaluation
Franklin Roosevelt was in favour of a global peacekeeping agency and Roosevelt himself coined the
name „United Nations‟. This urge for an international organization led to the signing of the historic
Atlantic Charter on 14 August 1941 by Franklin and Winston Churchill on HMS Prince of Wales.
Next step was the Declaration by United Nations on 1 January 1942. Twenty six allied nations signed
the “Declaration of United Nations” in Washington DC. This document coined the first official use of
the term „United Nations‟. This initiative was boosted by Moscow Declaration on 30 October 1943.
Tehran Declaration 1943, Yalta Conference of 11th February 1945, Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin
declared their resolved to established „a general international organization to maintain peace and
security‟. Finally largest conference for UN was held from 25th April to 26 June 1945 at San Francisco
and it was attended by 280 delegates from 50 invitee countries. This charted came into effect from 24
October 1945. 24 October is celebrated as United Nations Day. This UN document contains more than
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ten thousand words, with 111 Articles divided into 19 Articles. Originally UNO has 51 countries. First
General Assembly opened in the Central Hall, Westminster on 10 January 1946 with representatives
from 51 nations. The Security Council met for the first time in London on 17 January 1946. Trygve Lie
of Norway became the first Secretary General on 1st February 1946.
Structure of the UN document: This document contain more than the thousands words with 111
articles divided into 19 chapters.
Chapter I Purposes and Principles (Art. 1,2)
Chapter II Membership (Art. 3,4,5,6)
Chapter III Organs (7,8)
Chapter IV The General Assembly (9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22
Chapter V The Security Council (23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32)
Chapter VI Pacific Settlement of Disputes (33,34,35,36,37,38)
Chapter VII Action with respect to threats to the peace, breaches of the peace and acts
of Aggression (39,40,41,42,43, 44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51)
Chapter VIII Regional Arrangements (52, 53, 54)
Chapter IX International Economic and Social Cooperation (55, 56, 57,58,59,60)
Chapter X The Economic and Social Council (61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,7071,72,)
Chapter XI Declaration Regarding non-governing territories (73, 74)
Chapter XII International Trusteeship System (75,76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85)
Chapter XIII The Trusteeship Council (86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91)
Chapter XIV International Court of Justice (Art. 92, 93, 94, 95, 96)
Chapter XV The Secretariat (97, 98, 99, 100, 101)
Chapter XVI Miscellaneous (102, 103, 104, 105)
Chapter XVII Transitional Security Arrangements (106, 107)
Chapter XVIII Amendments (108, 109)
Chapter XIX Ratification and Signature (110, 111)
Article 1 Purposes of UN
Article 2(7) UN cannot interfere in domestic matters of a Membership state.
Articles 3,4,5,6 Acquisition and revocation of membership of UN.
Article 4 Membership of UN is open to all peace loving countries.
Article 5 Suspension of exercise rights and privileges of members against who
action is taken by Security Council.
Article 6 Member of UN can be expelled from it on violation of its principles.
Organs of UN
Article 7(1) outlines the principle organ of the UN
 General Assembly
 Security Council
 Economic and Social Council
 Trusteeship Council
 International Court of Justice
 Secretariat
Article 9 states that General Assembly is composed of all the members of UN. Every country can sent
5 representatives but has only one vote. All important matters are decided by two/third majority. The
General Assembly meets once a year in regular session commencing on the third Tuesday in
September. This session lasts for about three months. There is also a session of special as well as
emergency session. In League Assembly there was a provision of three representatives. Article 19
debars a member from voting in UN if it had not given its financial contribution to UN of last two
years. At each session of the General Assembly elects its one president twenty one vice-presidents
(twenty vice-presidents after election of president). These Vice-Presidents are elected on regional basis
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S. No. Region No. of representatives
1. African States 6
2. Asian States 5
3. Permanent member of Security Council 5
4 Latin America 3
5. Western Europe 2
6. Eastern Europe 1
This total becomes 22 and after the election of president, a post of vice-president will be deducted from
the region of elected president. Hence we have a total of 22 - 1=21 vice presidents.
The first session of general assembly was held in the Central Hall of Westminster on 26 th birthday of
League i.e. on 10 January 1946.
Special Session of UN
S. No. Session Year Issue
1. 1st Session 1947 On Palestine
2. 2nd Session 1948 Do
3. 3rd Session 1061 Tunisia
4. Session 2001 AIDS
5. Session 2002 World Summit for Children
Chapter IV of the UN Charter embodies the provisions pertaining to the composition, power and
functions of General Assembly. On the matter of Korea crisis in 1950, USA and USSR were against
each other and hence the Security Council was not able to function properly because of Veto by the
permanent members. This problem was solved by adopting the “The Uniting for Peace Resolution”
which says that if there is lake of unanimity between the permanent members of security council, the
general assembly could solve the matter by 2/3rd majority.
Committee of General Assembly
The 1st Committee: Disarmament & International Security Committee
The 2nd Committee: Economic and Financial Committee
The 3rd Committee: Social, Humanitarian and Cultural Committee
The 4th Committee: Special Political & Decolonization Committee
The 5th Committee: Administrative and Budgetary Committee
The 6th Committee: Legal Committee
In addition to it, there are also Commissions in General Assembly like Disarmament Commission,
International Civil Service Commission and United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine,
United Nations Peace Building Commission (GA Resolution no 60/180 & UN Security Council
Resolutions no 1645, 2005 & 1646, 2005)
It also has an agency called „International Atomic Energy Agency‟ established by (GA Resolution no
347.)
Article 108 deals with amendment in UN adopted by 2/3 majority of General assembly with the
willing i.e. vote of all 5 permanent members of Security Council.
Emergency session of the UN starts within 24 hours. Such request for emergency session should be
supported by either 7 members of Security Council or majority of the members of UN. General
Assembly is the largest gathering of UN and it is also known as the Town meeting of the World.
Security Council
Article 23 of Chapter V deals with the provisions related to membership of the Security Council.
Permanent members of UN are
USA, France, USSR/Russia, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and People‟s
Republic of China in 1971
Before 1971 before it the Nationalist China or Taiwan was the member of UN and People‟s Republic
of China were not added because of Veto by USA.
The non-permanent members in the UN are 10 and these ten are selected based on geographical region
i.e. from Asian, African, Latin American and the Caribbean, East Europe and West Europe states.
These 10 members were increased from 6 to 10 in 1965. Each member of security shall have one
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member. The president of the Security Council is selected for one calendar month from the all
members based on the English Alphabets. The decisions are made based on at least 9 votes out of 15
members. There is also a Peace Building Commission (PCB), 1540 Committee and United Nations
Verification and Inspection Commission (UNMOVIC).
Chapter VI deals with the Pacific Settlement of Disputes
Art. 33: Disputes shall be solved peacefully by negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation,
arbitration and judicial settlement.
Art. 34: Powers Security Council to investigate any dispute or any situation
Art. 35: Any member of the UN may bring the dispute.
Art. 36: recommend the appropriate procedure or methods of adjustment and refer it to ICJ if it is a
legal dispute
Art. 46: It provides for use of Armed forces with assistance of Military Staff Committee. Military Staff
Committee consists of Chiefs of Staff of permanent members of Security Council.
Some incidents from history
Cuban Missile Crisis 1962, Cyprus Question 1964, Arab-Israel War 1967, 1973, Indo-Pak War 1971
Gulf Crisis 1991, 2003.
India, Brazil, Germany and Japan are trying for their entry in Security Council as permanent members.
UN Secretariat and the Secretary General
He is the Chief Executive Officer of UN. He is elected by General Assembly on recommendation of
Security Council. The term of office of president is not fixed by UN charter but General Assembly has
fixed it for five years. He can also be reappointed. The post of Deputy Secretary General was created
in 1997. Ms Louise Chette of Canada was elected as first Deputy Secretary General. The Secretary
General and assistant secretary general enjoy from legal process for all their statements and are
exempted from Taxes for their salaries. UN has about 18 different agencies.
List of UN Secretary General
S. No. Name Country
1. Trygve Le Norway 1946-1953
2. Dag Hammarskjoeld Sweden 1953-1961
3. U Thant Burma 1961-1971
4. Kurt Waldheim Austria 1972-1981
5. Javier Perez de Cuellar Peru 1982-1991
6. Dr. Boutros Boutros Ghali Egypt 1992-1996
7. Kofi Annan Ghana 1997-2007
8. Ban-ki-moon South Korea 2007-2017
9. Antonio Guterres Portugal 2017.
B. B. Ghali gave his report for UN reform named “Agenda for Peace”. Kofi Annan the 7th Secretary
General of UN was accused of corruption related to the Oil for Food Programme.
First UN Peacekeeping mission was established in 1948.
Reports by Kofi Annan for reform in UN
a) Renewing the United Nations: A Programme for Reform 1997
b) Strengthening the United Nations: An Agenda for Further Change 2002
c) In Larger Freedom: Towards Development, Security and Human Rights for all 2005
d) Investing in the United Nations: for a strong organization worldwide of 2006
Rezail Formula also proposed an addition of five new permanent members – two from developed,
three from the developing (one each from Asia, Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean) and four
non-permanent members.
Brahimi Report was submitted by a panel during the tenure of Kofi Annan sought pragmatic and
practical solution to matter related to peacekeeping
a) Shortcomings in the existing system
b) Frank and Realistic recommendations for change
c) Political and Strategic issues
d) Operational and organizational issues
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Zeid Report “A Comprehensive Strategy to Eliminate Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in United
Nations Peacekeeping Operations” made recommendations for remedial measures.
Chapter XVIII deals with revision of UN Charter. Art. 108 states that any amendment shall be passed
by 2/3rd majority of General Assembly & ratified by all the permanent members of UN.
International Court of Justice: It was established in 1945 by UN Charter and began to work in April
1964. The seat of Court is at The Peace Place in the Huge (Netherlands). This court consists of 15
Judges selected on basis of qualification but not on basis of region whoever two judges cannot be from
the same country. They are elected for a period of 9 years with five judges expiring every third year.
These 15 Judges also select their President, Vice-President and Registrar for 3 years. Cases are
decided by majority votes of Judges. 9 Judges constitute a quorum and in case of a tie the president of
the court has a casting vote. Currently Justice Dalveer Bhandari is the one of the 15 Judges in ICJ. He
was Supreme Court of India Judge. He was elected to ICJ in 2012 and re-elected in 2017 till 2027. The
ICJ does not have compulsory jurisdiction.
The Trusteeship Council: Chapter XII of the UN Charter deals with its composition. It consists of
only permanent members. Its function is over since 1994.
The Economic and Social Council
Chapter X, Article 61 specifies guidelines for its composition. Originally it had 18 members, latter
increased to 27 and finally to 54. Today there are 54 members elected for a term of three years. They
are also eligible for re-election. 1/3 i.e. 18 members are elected every year for a term of three years.
Every member has only one vote and all decisions are made on majority of member voting and
present.
Official Languages of UN
Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish.
Head quarter of UN is First Avenue, UN Plazza, New York
NATO
It was formed in 1949. Originally there were twelve members but today there are twenty eight
members.
Founder members are Albonia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherland,
Norway, U.K, USA, Portugal
Other members are Bulgaria, Croatia, Crech Republic, Estonia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Lativa,
Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain and Turkey.
Greece, Turkey and Italy are not geographically a part of North Atlantic region and still they are in
NATO.
Disarmament and and Control: Major efforts within and outside UN since World War-II
The modern times of armed race can be traced back to the late sixties of the nineteenth century when
Bismarck, the Chancellor of Germany started the system of conscription and tried to make Germany a
world power.
Prof Philip Noelbarker “armament produces fear and fear produces more armament with disastrous
results for the national security of all concerned”.
The history of disarmament can be traced back to the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. However the first
systematic proposal for reduction of armaments was mooted by Czar of Russia in 1816. The most
systematic effort was made by Tsar of Russia in 1898. His proposal was received welcome in First
Huge Peace Conference in 1899. This conference was attended by 28 states. The conference appointed
a committee of military and naval experts to study the problem of arm control. The next conference was
held in 1907. Both these conferences were related to arm control.
President Wilson in his one of the 14 points insisted that armaments should be reduced to „lowest point
consistent with domestic safety‟. The Treaty of Versailles was signed after W W 1 and after 1st World
War, League of Nations was formed. In 1920 the Assembly of the League urged the council to appoint a
new commission called „Temporary Mixed Commission‟ this commission tried to secure fixation of
land forces of the various countries. In 1925 League established a Preparatory Commission, this
commission after hard work of six years its documents are drafter and was considered in Geneva
Conference of 1923 attended by 23 states including 5 non-members of the League. In 1933 Germany
formally withdrew from Disarmament Conference.
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Efforts outside the League:
In Washington Conference of 1921-22 five major powers i.e. Britain, USA, France, Japan and Italy
agreed to fix their respective naval strength. In 1930 these nations met at London (London Conference)
to affect Naval Disarmament.
Disarmament after W W 2: There are three articles related to disarmament. These are
a) Article 11(1): Empowers general assembly to make recommendations to the member states
regarding
b) Article 26: Insists that International Peace Order should be promoted with „least diversion for
armaments of the world human and economic resources‟. It entrusted the Security Council with
the responsibility of formulating a plan for the establishment of a system for regulation of
armaments.
c) Article 47(1): It provides for establishment of Military Staff Committee (consisting of Army
Chief of permanent Security Council members) to assist the Security Council on the regulation
of armaments and possible disarmaments.
Atomic Energy Commission: UN General Assembly decided on 26 January, 1946 to establish it
consisting of Permanent Members of Security Council and Canada. Its functions were
a) Extending b/w nations the exchange of basic scientific information for peaceful.
b) Control of atomic energy to the extent to peaceful use only.
c) The elimination from national armaments of atomic weapons.
d) Effective safeguards by way of inspection.
On 14 June 1946, the first meeting of this commission difference emerged between two plans of USA &
USSR. Mr. Baruch of USA presented a plan commonly known as Baruch Plan. This plan insisted on
managerial control or ownership of all atomic energy activities potentially dangerous to the world
security. He also offered to destroy all atomic bombs of USA and stop further production.
On the other hand USSR suggested the prohibition of the production and employment of weapons based
on the use of atomic energy for the purpose of mass destruction. She also suggested two committees
dealing with exchange of scientific information for peaceful purpose.
Commission on Conventional Armaments: It was set up by Security Council on the recommendation
of Security Council. Soviet Union refused to cooperate with commission and withdrew from both
Atomic Energy Commission and Commission for Conventional Armaments.
Atom for Peace Plan: It was proposed in 1953 by Eisenhower the President of USA. He suggested for
creation of an international pool of fissionable material to be used for peaceful purpose. It was also
turned down by Soviet Union.
Anglo-French Plan: This plan was submitted by Britain and France in 1954. It suggested three phases
of disarmament i.e.
a) A Control Organ was to be set up, military expenditure and manpower of member states was to
be frozen at a specific level.
b) First half of the agreed reduction of armed forces, conventional weapons, military expenditure
and manufacturing of nuclear weapon to be stopped.
c) Reduction of the second half of the agreed reduction and total prohibition of nuclear weapons.
Geneva Summit and Open Skies Plan: In July 1955, the chiefs of the states from France, UK, USA
and USSR met at Geneva to discuss the problem of disarmament. At this meeting USA proposed Open
Skies Plan. Under this plan USA & USSR were to exchange military information which could be
verified by mutual aerial reconnaissance. USSR too agreed but was having doubts as how the inspection
could be carried on.
Six Point Plan of USA: In 1957, the US representative Henry Cabbot Lodge presented this plan. The
basic aim of this plan was to check the trend towards large stockpiles of nuclear weapons and reduce the
further nuclear threat.
Nuclear Test Ban: Encouraged by the announcement of Soviet Union in march 1958 regarding
unilateral ban on tests of atom and hydrogen bombs, three countries i.e. USA, USSR & Britain held a
conference at Geneva from October 1958 to April 1961. These powers agreed to suspend forthwith all
tests in the earth‟s atmosphere, in outer space, in ocean and underground. After few time Soviet Union
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violated it by explosion of Megaton Bomb.
Antarctica Treaty: It was signed in 1959 for demilitarization of Antarctica. This treaty was put in
practice of Nuclear Weapon Free Zone. It prohibited in Antarctica region all military manpower,
weapon tests, building of installations or disposal or radioactive wastes produced by military activity.
Ten Nations Disarmament Conference: It was signed in 1960 by ten nations, five from each block i.e.
USA, UK, Canada, France and Italy from Western Bloc whereas Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, Poland,
Rumania and Bulgaria from the Communist Bloc at Geneva. Soviet Union announced that she was
willing to prohibit atomic weapons and even offered to destroy the atomic and hydrogen bomb if
western power reciprocated. She proposed a five year disarmament plan spread over three stages.
Eighteen Nations Disarmament Conference: This Conference was held in Geneva in 1961. Almost all
power except France was present in it. USA & USSR proposed two different plans. USA proposed a 30
% cut in nuclear delivery vehicles and major conventional armaments within three years. USSR
proposed disarmament in three stages. They proposed destruction of all means of delivery of nuclear
weapons and elimination of all foreign bases. This conference was important as neutral nations other
than 2 powers also proposed their respective plans.
Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT): It was signed in Moscow on 5 August 1963 on the advice of
President Kennedy. It prohibited the states from carrying out any nuclear weapon test explosion or any
other nuclear explosion at any place under their jurisdiction or control viz.
a) Atmosphere beyond its limits, outer space, under water including territorial sea and high seas.
b) Any other environment if such explosion causes radioactive debris.
Initially this treaty was concluded by three nuclear powers USA, USSR & UK it was made open to all.
This treaty made no provision for control through posts, spot inspection or international bodies. It made
no effort to reduce nuclear stockpiles. China and France refused to sign it as there was no provision to
check stockpiles of USA & USSR. In 1963 it also put a ban on underground tests which was not
covered under 1963 treaty.
Seven Point Plan: It was presented by President Johnson of USA at Geneva Conference in 1966. This
plan was made to stop the spread of nuclear weapons to non-nuclear states.
Outer Space Treaty: It was signed on 27 January 1967 and came into force on 10 October 1967. It
prohibited nuclear weapons and their landing on the moon. It prohibits to place in orbit around the earth
any objectives carrying nuclear weapons or any kind of weapon of mass destruction. It also forbade the
use of military personnel for scientific research for peaceful purposes.
Treaty of Tlatelolco: It was signed in 1967 by Mexico and El Salavador at Mexico to make Latin
America free from nuclear weapons.
Conference of Non-Nuclear Weapons States: It was signed in 1968. It was attended by 96 states
including nuclear powers USA, USSR, France and UK. This conference adopted fourteen resolutions
and declaration concerning four subjects
a) Security of the non-nuclear weapon states.
b) Establishment of nuclear weapon free zones.
c) Effective measures for prevention of proliferation of nuclear weapons.
d) Peaceful use of non-nuclear weapons states.
Non-Proliferation Treaty: This treaty was simultaneously signed at London, Moscow and Washington
on July 1968 and came into force on 5 March 1970. It prohibited the transfer by nuclear weapon state to
any recipient.
Disarmament Decade: 1970‟s was observed by General Assembly as disarmament decade.
Sea Bed Treaty: It was signed in February 1971. It prohibited the emplacement of nuclear weapons and
other weapons of mass destruction on the seabed and ocean floor. It was signed by UK, USA & USSR.
It came into force on 18 may 1972. It prohibits placing or testing any nuclear weapon beyond the outer
limit of sea bed zone (12 miles)
Biological Weapons Convention: It was signed in on 10 April 1972 at London, Moscow and
Washington. It came into force on 26 March 1975.
Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT): It was signed by USSR & USA on 26 May, 1972. It
includes two separate treaties viz. Treaty on the Limitations of Anti-Ballistic Missile System and
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Interim Agreement on Certain Measures with respect to the limitation of the Strategic Offensive Arms.
While the former was concluded for an unlimited period, the latter was of five years duration. It limited
the two super powers to only two sites for ballistic missile defence, one for the protection of their
national capital area and other for field of Inter Continental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) Each area not to
have more than six ABM Launchers and 100 ABM Interceptors missiles at launching sites. The national
capital area was not to have more than 133 ABM radars each with not exceeding more than 3 Km
diameter.
Both Land and sea based ICBM was fixed at 1618 for USSR 1054 for USA.
US-Soviet Accord on Limitation of Arms: It was signed in 1973 for checking the armament race
between USSR & USA.
The Threshold Test Ban Treaty (TTBT): It was signed by USSR & USA on 3 July 1974 and
proposed a ban on underground nuclear test having a yield of more than 150 Kilotons. But this treaty
could not be enforced because of refusal by senate.
US-Soviet Arms Pact: It was signed by USSR & USA in July 1974 for ten years. It it also banned
underground testing of more than 150 Kilo tons.
The Peaceful Nuclear Explosion Treaty (PNET): It was signed in 1976 by USA & USSR on 28 May
1976 but could not be enforced because of not ratified by Senate.
First Special Session on Disarmament was held from 23 May to 1 July 1978 and General Assembly
declared 1980‟s as second Disarmament Decade.
SALT – II: Salt – I lapsed in October 1977 and they again signed SALT – II on 1 June 1979 up to 31
December 1985.
Reagan Plan: President Reagan of USA proposed a plan on 18 November 1981 suggesting a four point
agenda
a) USA prepared to cancel deployment of Preshing II and Ground launched cruise missile if USSR
dismantles its SS-20, SL-4 & SS-5.
b) USA would seek to negotiate substantial reduction in nuclear arms.
c) The action would be taken to achieve equality in conventional forces in Europe.
d) USA urged the USSR to join with it and many other nations to establish a western proposed
conference on disarmament in Europe.
START: US President suggested this negotiation and were held in Geneva. He proposed two stages
during the first stage the number of ballistic missile war heads was to be reduced by at least 1/3 rd below
current level. During the 2nd phase they were to achieve equal ceiling on ballistic missiles.
Second Special session on Disarmament was held in 1982.
Hotline: In July 1984 USA & USSR agreed to add a facsimile transmission capability to the Direct
Communication Link (DCL) popularly known as hotline. It was first established in 1963.
Intermediate range nuclear force (INF): This treaty was the first to abolish an entire category of
nuclear weapons and was signed by President Reagan and Gorbachev at Washington in 1987.
New Six Nations Disarmament Plan: It was signed by six nations i.e. India, Argentina, Greece,
Mexico, Sweden and Tanzania.
Third special session on this disarmament 1988
Washington Summit: It was held in 1990 between Gorbachev and Bush. Two countries concluded
agreements on nuclear, chemical and conventional arms. Two sides agreed to destroy thousands of
tons of these mass destruction weapons and reduce stockpiles to five thousand tons each. It was decided
that the destruction would began in 1992 and would lost up to 2002.
START: It was signed by Gorbachev and Bush on 31th July 1991. The two super powers agreed to
reduce two equal levels in defined strategic offensive arms over a period of seven years. USSR agreed
to reduce 35% and USA agreed to 25%.
US announced unilateral disarmament: Bush announced unilateral disarmament to make the word a
batter place. He ordered removal of all nuclear artillery shells from overseas bases. In return Gorbachev
announced extensive cuts in nuclear weapons. He offered to reduce armed forces by 700000 as against
500000 offered by USA.
Convention on Chemical Weapon: It was signed in 1993 at Paris by 120 countries.

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Extension of NPT: In May 1995 a global conference on the extension of NPT was held at New York
which decided to extend NPT indefinitely without any condition. This permanent extension of NPT
implies that only five countries USA, Russia, China, UK and France can now legally possess nuclear
weapon capability.
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT): It was held in 1996 and India voted against it.
Chemical Weapon Convention came into force on 29th April 1997.
North Korea conducted nuclear test on 9 October 2006.
Cold war Phase – I:The two major conflict of 2nd half of the twentieth century are the discord between
the East and West and between the rich countries of North and Poor countries of South. The former is
known as Cold War and the latter is known as North South Divide. Sometimes the western democratic
countries are also called Free World and the communist countries as Red Communist.
Meaning of Cold War: Bernard Baruch, an American Statesman in an address in Columbia South
Carolina on April 16, 1947 a month after Truman Doctrine said that “let us not be deceived – today we
are in the midst of the Cold War”. Cold War is also known as Hot War or Propaganda War.
Origin of Cold War: The word „Cold War‟ was coined by Bernard Baruch, a US Statesman. It was
further popularized by Walter Lippmann, a print media person of USA.
Causes of Cold War: There are mainly three branches of thinkers tracing the causes of Cold War i.e.
Orthodox, Revisionist and Objective. Orthodox hold that USSR was responsible for Cold War,
Revisionist hold that USA was responsible for it where as those holding objective view holds that both
USA & USSR were responsible for it.
a) First cause of Cold War was opening of second front against against German Forces. USSR
demanded for it in 1941 but USA opened it in 1944.
b) They both differ on German and Polish govt.
c) USA suspended Lend Lease aid to USSR.
d) Difference at Potsdam Conference. USSR demanded goods & worth 20 billion dollars should be
ceased from Germany and its 50 % should be given to USSR and remaining 50% to USA &
Britain.
e) George F Kenning the than US Ambassador to USSR send a long telegram to USA. He said „in
these circumstances it is clear that the main element of any US policy toward the Soviet Union
must be that of a long term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive
tendencies‟. This article was published and is known as article „X‟. It is also known as „Long
Telegram‟.
f) Truman Doctrine: Truman declared on 12 March 1947 that „I believe that it must be the policy
of the US to support the free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed
minorities or by outside pressure‟. It is known as Truman Doctrine and it comes under The
Policy of Containment which aimed to stop soviet expansion an influence. It was especially for
Turkey and Greece.
g) Marshal Doctrine/Marshal Plan: 5 June 1947, it was for Western European states and it was
the extension of Truman Doctrine.
h) Molotov Plan: It was a plan of USSR in July 1947 in response to US Marshal plan. It was a
series of bilateral agreements linking USSR with East European Countries. This was an
economic response to Marshal Plan. The political response was given in Communist
Information Bureau (COMINFORM) in Sept. 1947 to provide Moscow with the institutional
means to control foreign communist parties.
i) Brussels Pact: It was done in March 1948 by European states. It was a mutual defence treaty,
which directed the signatory to extend military support to any member in case of an attack by
Germany or any third party in Europe.
j) USSR refused to withdraw forces from Iran.
k) Berlin Blockade in 1948 by USSR for 324 days. This resulted in formation of NATO in 1949.
l) USSR became a nuclear power in 1949.
m) Uniting for Peace Resolution was passed in 1950 in the matter of Korean War.
n) After the W W 2 Germany was occupied and governed by Allied Control Council.
o) Formation of NATO 1949.
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p) Korean War; North Korea supported arms by USSR and army by China where South Korea
supported by USA on basis of United Nation.
q) ANZUS: Australia, New Zealand and USA on 1st Sept. 1951.
r) Japan Peace Treaty: Sept. 8 1951.
Between 1953 – 1962
a) Policy of Peaceful co-existence of capitalism and socialism by Khrushchev.
b) In 1953 US did an agreement with South Korea to provide security to it.
c) SEATO: South East Asian Treaty Organization was signed in 24 February 1955. It is also
known as Manila Pack. It has eight members including USA, UK, France, Pakistan,
Australia, New Zealand, Thailand and Philippines.
d) Extension of Truman Doctrine to entire Middle East by the name of Eisenhower Doctrine of
1954.
e) Middle East Defence Organization was signed in 1954.
f) Baghdad pack was signed in 1954 by U.K., Turkey, Pakistan, Iran and Iraq.
g) CENTO: It was signed in 1955 by Iraq, Iran, Turkey, Pakistan and England.
h) Vietnam Crisis 1955.
i) WARSAW Treaty: It was done by USSR with 12 East European communist states on May
14, 1955. It was a response to NATO of USA. It has a total 8 countries i.e. Albania,
Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, West Germany, Romania and Czechoslovakia.
j) Federal Republic of Germany on 5 May, 1955 supported by USA & German Democratic
Republic supported by USSR.
k) American exploded Thermonuclear or hydrogen bomb in 1952 and USSR nine months later.
l) During Suez Crisis of 1956 USA refused to take side of her allied i.e. Britain and France.
When USSR sided with Egypt, USA gave help to Britain and France in the shape of
Eisenhower Doctrine in January 1957. Its aim was the contamination of communism at
international level. It was having same aim as of Truman Doctrine for Greece and Turkey.
m) Khrushchev visited USA in 1959.
n) Domino Theory: It was given by President Eisenhower.
o) U-2 Aircraft incident.
p) 25 Mile Long Berlin Wall was constructed to check the fleeing of refuges from East to West
Berlin.
q) Cuban Missile Crisis 1962 forced the two powers to come close for easing the tension which
ultimately paved the way for Détente.
r) Bay of Pigs: It is related to support of USA to Cuba govt. in exile.
Thaw in the Cold War 1963 -1968
a) Geneva Summit
b) Camp David meeting 1959 is related to Berlin (German) problem.
c) Hotline 1963 between White House & Kremlin.
d) Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT) 1963.
e) Outer Space Treaty 1967.
f) Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty 1968.
Détente, 1969-1978:
President Nixon and his national security advisor Henry A Kissinger were responsible for it. Kissinger
defined it as „an environment in which competitors can regulate and restraint their differences and
ultimately move from competition to cooperation‟. Détente was the official name of US policy toward
USSR.
a) Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) 1972.
b) 35 Nation European Security conferences in Helsinki 1973.
c) ---------------Do----------------------------- in Belgrade 1977.
End of Détente:
Czechoslovakia experienced Prague Spring or Socialism with human face, under Alexander Dubehek
in 1967 who decided to withdraw from the WARSAW Pack. Soon Brezhnev proclaimed that is known
as Brezhnev Doctrine which stipulates in no uncertain terms that a communist state was within its rights
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when it intervenes in the internal affairs of an East European state if such action would prevent the re-
introduction of a capitalist social system.
a) Brezhnev Doctrine 1967
b) Indo-Pak war
c) Liberation of Bangladesh
d) Six day war between Israel and Arab brotherhood.
e) Yom Kippur war between Israel Vs Egypt & Syria.
New Cold War:
a) Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
b) Carter Doctrine: It declared American‟s willingness to use military force to protect its interest in
the Persian Gulf. Any attempt by any outside force to gain control will be regarded as assault on
the vital interest of USA.
c) New cold war began during the tenure of Ronald Reagan and Brezhnev. Brezhnev said „Russia
declares détente with the USA as dead‟.
d) Reagan Doctrine: He pledged US support to anti-communists insurgents to overthrow Soviet
supported governments in Afghanistan, Angola and Nicaragua.
e) President Reagan took the war to space and started his Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI)
dubbed as Star War. It was a research programme to explore opportunities of space based
defence against ballistic missiles.
New Détente started with the announcement of democratic reforms known as Glasnost (openness) and
Perestroika (political and economic restricting).
End of Cold War
a) Geneva Summit 1985
b) Reykjavik Summit 1986
c) Washington Summit 1987
d) INF Treaty
e) Moscow Summit 1988
f) Malta Summit 1989, b/w Bush and Gorbachev.
g) Moscow Summit 1991
h) In Feb 1992 Bush and Yeltsin made a formal declaration regarding the end of Cold War.
i) At London Summit NATO leaders announced formal end of Cold War.
International events Post Cold War
a) The gearing up of NATO during of mini war between Georgia and Russia in 2008.
b) The war on terror, being carried by US initially against Afghanistan and then against Iraq post
9/11.
Neo-Colonization, Meaning and Nature: Modern Imperialism and colonialism started in the fifth
century when the European Countries such as Britain, France, Holland, Portugal and Spain build their
empires. Post 1945 version of Imperialism is known as neo-imperialism. Prof. Organski has noted three
types of imperialism i.e. political, economic independencies and satellites. Decolonization started in
eighteenth century when America, Australia and New Zealand got independence but in real sense it
started after W W 2 when a large number of Asian and African countries got independence. At that time
Asia and Africa was mostly under the 7 European countries i.e. Belgium, France, Britain, Germany,
Italy, Portugal and Spain. By decolonization six new countries were created i.e. Czechoslovakia,
Romania, Yugoslavia, Poland, Austria and Hungary from Austro-Hungarian Empire. Treaty of
Versailles deprived Germany of more than 25000 square miles of territory. A satellite country is one
which is formally independent but controlled by some foreign power both politically and economically.
E.g. Eastern Europe countries were the satellites of USSR.
Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism was written in 1965 by Kwame Nkrumah, the
leader of Ghana. J. A. Hobson wrote „Imperialism: A Study‟.
Bandung Conference of 1955 paved the way for formation of Non-Alignment Movement. First All
African People Conference was held in late 1950s, 2nd was held in 196o at Tunis and 3rd at Cairo in
1961.
Politics of Foreign Aid: The American PL 480 or „Food for Peace‟ was a US plan to give food grain
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to third world countries including India.
Role of Multi-National Corporations: President Nasser of Egypt tries to nationalize the Suez Canal
Company in 1956. Military Industrial Complex is a complicated network of governmental agencies,
industrial corporations and research institutes working together to meet a state‟s military requirements.
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) was established in 1946 as a
permanent intergovernmental body. It is a part of United Nation.
New International Economic Order-need, Nature and Problems: The third world countries are
demanding NIEO since 1970. They have used G-77, UNCTAD, Non-Alignment conferences and
General Assembly. The specific proposal for change in economic system was advanced by Non-
Alignment Summit at Algeria in 1973. Sixth Special Session of the UN General Assembly in April
1974 adopted „Declaration and Programs of Action of the New International Order. In December 1974
General Assembly approved the Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of State. Brandt Commission
was established by UN and it gave report i.e. Our Common Future 1983.
Regional International Organizations: A case study of SAARC:
SAARC: South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation was established on 8 December 1985 by
head of states of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka at Dhaka.
SAPTA: SAARC Preferential Trade Area was suggested first of all by Sri Lanka in Sixth SAARC
summit held in Colombo on 21 December 1991. The 10th Summit in Colombo approved the institutional
framework for SAPTA. The framework agreement on SAPTA was finalized and signed at Seventh
Summit at Dhaka. It entered into force in 1993. So far three rounds of the negotiation had been
concluded under SAPTA covering over 5000 commodities.
Lenin's theory of Imperialism; Theories of dependency and under development: The theory of
Imperialism was devised by a non-Marxist, John A. Hobson, an English Economist V. I. Lenin
influenced from the works of Hobson and the German Social Democrat, Rudolph Hilferding. From
Hobson, Lenin accepted the idea of Imperialism as a result of capitalist competition from foreign
market and colonies caused by under consumption and overproduction. From Hilferding, Lenin took
the notion that imperialism reflected the existence of monopoly and finance capital, or the highest stage
of capitalism. He gave his work „Imperialism: the Highest Stage of Capitalism.
There was a development (Modernization) school first arose in 1950s. Theoretically it was based on the
concepts of American Structural-functional school as exemplified in the work of Almond, Verba,
Easton and their associates. This school of thought usually neglected the external a States‟s or societies‟
external environment particularly international and economic factors. To include the external factors
into account an approach appeared known as the dependency school. The main currents within the
dependency school were Dependencia, Centre-periphery analysis and World System Analysis.
Dependencia: It originated in Latin America in 1950s and 1960s. The key role in formulating
Dependencia was was played by the UN‟s Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA) under the
Argentinean Economist Raul Prebisch and UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).
They were concerned with the problem of explaining that why Latin America and Third World region
were not developed. The ECLA recommended Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI) – the creation
of an industrial base, beyond tariff barrier, which would meet the internal need for manufacturing
products.
In addition to Prebisch, other writers have contributed to this school such as John Gallagher and
Ronald Robinson with their idea of Informal Empire of free trade imperialism Gunnar Myrdal
(author of Asian Drama) with his argument that how duel economies creates „backwash effects‟
systematically disadvantaging the traditional sector.
The dependency theorist or Dependendists such as Dos Santos, Cardoso and Furtado believe that
ECLA approach correctly identifies the root problem but disagrees with their given solution. They reject
ISI and believe that ISI cannot work because the internal market for consumer goods is too limited.
They believe that development is not autonomous and depends upon ups and down of the world
advanced economies.
Centre-Periphery Analysis: The founding father of this theory was Frank who made case studies of
Brazil and Chile to prove a thesis that „chain of exploitation linking centre and peripheries. Latin

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American Countries do not develop, because this chain drains them of the resources they need for
development. Development is achievable only via revolution and breaking of links with the developed
world. Frank did not limit himself to only Latin America and he widened his concept to include third
world. A number of authors such as Amin, Barnet and Muller, Emmanuel, Radice and Rodney
developed the Frankian argument on the same general line. They explained the mechanism of
exploitation of the periphery. Contrary to Marxian concept of Theory of Surplus Value and proposed a
concept of Unequal Exchange.
Smith gives three arguments given by the second generation of the dependency writers
a) Duel economy is not actually as rigid as once believed.
b) Emphasis on the crucial role of the state in the changing order of things.
c) They recognized the diversity of Third World Countries.
World System Analysis: It roots can be traced to the writing of Lenin. He in his work Imperialism:
The Highest Stage of Capitalism mentioned that imperialism creates two-tier structure within the
capitalist world economy. He identified the dominant structure as core and less developed as periphery.
It is the location of state within this capitalist world system which determines the pattern of interaction
and relation of domination and dependence between them.
The third version of the dependency is the World System Analysis. Some thinkers believe that this
theory doesn‟t fits in the dependency theories. The World System Analysis was given by Immanuel
Wallerstein, Director of the Fernand Braudel Centre at the State University of New York. In his work
The Modern World System (MWS) he argued that a world economy emerged in the long sixteenth
century, with the establishment of an international division of labour and core, peripheral and semi-
peripheral regions. The core areas historically emerged in the most advanced economic activities,
banking, manufacturing technologically advanced agriculture and ship building. The periphery has
provided the raw materials such as minerals and timber to fuel the core‟s expansion. The semi-periphery
is involved in a mix of production activities, some associated with core areas and some associated with
peripheral area. He was of the view that this division of labour requires as well as increases inequality
between regions.
Ander Gunder Frank wrote the Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America 1967.
Immanuel Wallenstein wrote Modern World System: Capitalist Agriculture and the Origins of the
European World Economy in the Sixteenth Century.
John Galtung gave following three basic assumptions in his „A Structural Theory of Imperialism‟.
a) Harmony of interest between the centre in the centre nation and the centre in the Periphery
nation.
b) Disharmony of interest within the Periphery nation than within the Centre nations.
c) Disharmony of interest between the periphery in the Centre nation and the periphery of the
periphery nation.
Social Constructivism, Critical International Theory, Feminism, Postmodernism
Social Constructivism:
Social Constructivism or Constructivism is a theory in International Relations which holds that
developments in international relations are being constructed through social processes in accordance
with ideational factors such as identity, norms, rules, etc. Constructivism in the academic discipline of
IR argues that international relations are a social construction. States, alliances, and international
institutions are the products of human interaction in the social world. They are being constructed
through human action imbued with social values, identity, assumptions, rules, language, etc. The term
„Constructivism‟ was coined for International Relations by Nicholas Greenwood in his book, „World of
Our Making: Rules and Rule in Social Theory and International Relations (1989)‟. However, it was
the works of Alexander Wendt especially his 1992 article „Anarchy is what States Make of it: The
Social Construction of Power Politics‟, and his 1999 book, „Social Theory of International Politics‟
which popularized Constructivism in IR. Wendt‟s version of Constructivism, a state-centric and
structural one, helped it to find a place among the mainstream theories of International Relations.
Constructivism came into existence as a response to the „third debate‟ in IR. The third debate, between
Neo-realism and Neo-liberalism, was a synthesis movement to make IR more scientific.

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Alexander Wendt gave his idea in his work Anarchy is what States Make of it: The Social Construction
of Power Politics. Nicholas Onuf, Peter Katzenstein and Friedrich Kratochwil are some of thinkers
related to constructivism.
Types of Constructivism
a) Modernist Constructivism: Modernist constructivism is also known as traditional
constructivism and neoclassical constructivism. It is characterized by „objective hermeneutics‟
with a „conservative interest in understanding and explaining social reality‟. Hermeneutics is a
method of interpretation and the „objective hermeneutics‟ is a method proposed by Neo-
Kantians in accordance with Immanuel Kant‟s understanding of knowledge production.
According to Kant, even though the knowledge is about objective reality, it is filtered through
our consciousness. In other words, our knowledge is highly influenced by our consciousness.
Wendt, Emanuel Adler, Peter Katzenstein, John Ruggie, Thomas Risse-Kappen, Michael
Barnett, Mlada Bukovansky, Jeffrey Checkel, Martha Finnemore and Jeffrey Legro are
considered to be the major proponents of modernist constructivism.
b) Modernist Linguistic or Rule-Oriented Constructivism: They argue that international
relations are regulated by rules and these rules are constituted by the structures of language.
They employ „subjective hermeneutics‟, which is a belief that objective knowledge is
impossible since the „reality is the creation of language‟. The scholars associated with
Modernist Linguistic Constructivism other than Nicholas Onuf are Friedrich Kratochwil, Karen
Litfin, Neta Crawford, Christian Reus-Smit, Jutta Weldes, and Ted Hopf.
c) Radical Constructivism: It is highly influenced by the works of German philosophers such as
Martin Heidegger, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and French philosophers Michel Foucault and Jacques
Derrida. Heidegger and Wittgenstein held that social facts are constituted by structures of
language; therefore, both of them challenged positivism and objectivity in the study of social
facts. At the same time, the focus of the postmodernism suggested by Foucault was to expose
the relations between power and knowledge. Post-structuralism proposed by Derrida tried to
deconstruct the dominant readings of reality. Due to the influence of these philosophers, the
Radical Constructivists adopted a subjective hermeneutics to interpret social reality, and
unmask relationship between truth and power
d) Critical Constructivism: Critical Constructivism combines the emancipator mission with a
pragmatist approach and objective hermeneutics. This approach believes in the active role of
our mind in interpreting our experiences and observations and it holds that we revise our beliefs
according to our experience. Andrew Linklater, Robert Cox, Heather Rae, and Paul Keal belong
to Critical Constructivism.
Critical International Theory:
Critical theory incorporates a wide range of approaches all focused on the idea of freeing people from
the modern state and economic system – a concept known to critical theorists as emancipation. The idea
originates from the work of authors such as Immanuel Kant and Karl Marx who, in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries, advanced different revolutionary ideas of how the world could be reordered and
transformed. Both Kant and Marx held a strong attachment to the Enlightenment theme of universalism
– the view that there are social and political principles that are apparent to all people everywhere.
Of course, neither Marx nor Kant was IR theorists in the contemporary sense. Both were philosophers.
We must therefore identify two more recent sources for how critical theory developed within the
modern discipline of IR. The first is Antonio Gramsci and his influence over Robert Cox and the
paradigm of production. The second is the Frankfurt school – Jürgen Habermas in particular – and the
influence of Habermas over Andrew Linklater.
Richard K. Ashley‟s famous essay „The Poverty of Neo-Realism‟ led to the development of critical
approach to IR. He pointed out that neo-realism which tried to replace subjectivism of realism by a
scientific approach tried to identify the objective structures of social power behind or constitutive of
states and their interest. Critical scholars were dissatisfied with the way realism and neo-realism
remained dominant even in the face of global transformation.

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Feminism
Feminism is a movement which demands equality of women as per with men. Plato had given equal
status for women with men in his writings. He was also known as feminist thinker. Same was the case
with J. S. Mill as he was much more influenced by his wife Harriet Taylor Mill. It is believed that
International Relation has remained a discipline dominated by men. Women have always remained
hidden in international relations. Some of the main feminist thinkers are Jean Bethke Elshtain, Cynthia
Enloe, J Ann Tickner, V Spike Peterson, Sisson Runyan and Christine Sylvesters.
Major works on Feminism
Author Book Year
Jean Bethke Elshtan Women and War 1987
Cynthia Enloe Banana, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist sense of 1989
International Politics
J A Tickner Gender and International Relations: Feminist prospective 1992
in achieving Global Security
Peterson Spike and Anne Global Gender Issues 1993
Sisson Runyan
Ruddick Material Thinking toward a Politics of Peace 1993
Christine Sylvester Feminist Theory and International Relations in a Post 1994
Modern Era
Joshua S. Goldstein War and Gender 2001
Ann Tickner Gendering World Politics 2001
The major work for feminism in International Politics has done by Tickner. Tickner in her work „Hans
Morgenthau‟s principles of political realism: A Feminist Reformation‟ 1988 has presented a reformed
version of Morgenthau‟s principles of realism as discussed below
a) Objectivity is culturally defined and is associated with masculinity. So objectivity is partial.
b) National interest is multi dimensional. So not one set of interest should define it.
c) Power as domination and control privilege masculinity.
d) All political actions have moral significance and should not separate them.
e) Perhaps look for common moral elements
f) Feminist deny the autonomy of the political realism
Following are some of UN Conferences on women are;
 First UN Conference on Women: It was held in Mexico in 1975
 Second UN Conference on Women: It was held in Copenhagen in 1980
 Third UN Conference on Women: It was held in Naiobi in 1985
 Fourth UN Conference on Women: It was held in China in 1995
The 1975 year was declared as International Women Year. 1976 - 1985 was declared as international
decade for women.
Convention on Political Rights of women was held in New York in 1953. It came into force in 1954.
Criticism of Feminism
Robert Keohane and Francis Fukuyama have criticised the feminism in international relations. For
Keohane feminism in International relations needs to develop scientific, testified theories. Fukuyama
also doubts the claim of feminist that if the women will run the world, we will live in a peaceful world.
He stressed that such claims needs to developed scientific basis to meet the current challenges.
Post Modernism
Post-Modernism or Post-structuralism has widely come to be recognised as an influential theoretical
development throughout all the social sciences in the last two decades or so and these terms often used
inter changeably in the literature of international relations. In the context of international Relations, it is
said to have made its entry in the mid-1980s. However, it could make its mark only in the last few years.
Today, it is perhaps as popular a theoretical approach as any other dominant theory.
It is not easy to define Post Modernism as various theories claim to be post modernist. Richard Devetak
was of the view that „part of the problem is defining precisely what post-modernism is‟. Jean-Francois
Lyotard says “I define postmodern as incredulity towards meta-narratives". Meta-narrative or Grand

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theory is believed to possess clear foundation for making knowledge claims, or what in technical terms
is called foundational epistemology. Post-modernism theories are a distrust of any account of human life
which claims to have direct access to the truth. They believe that there is no objective reality in the
world, everything involving human being is subjective in nature.
Two most important themes of post-modernism: as discussed by Devetak relate to the power knowledge
relationship, and the textual strategies used by post-modernist international theorist.
The theme of power-knowledge relationship in post-modernism was deeply influenced by the works of
Michel Foucault. This is so because power-knowledge relationship, for Foucault, constitutes a core
concern of his work. In contrast to the rationalist theorists, Foucault believes that there is a close
relationship between power and knowledge. Unlike the positivists, he does not believe that knowledge
is immune from the workings of power. Instead, Foucault's main argument is that power in fact
produces knowledge. For him, "all power requires knowledge and all knowledge relies on and
reinforces existing power relations". Thus there is no such thing as "truth", existing outside of power.
According to post-modernists, truth is not something external to social settings, but is instead part of
them.
Post-modernists are primarily interested in knowing which types of "truths" and knowledge practices
support what kinds of power relations. In the context of international relations, post-modern
international theorists have used this insight to examine the "truths" of international relations theory to
see how the concepts aid knowledge claims that dominate the discipline in fact are highly contingent on
specific power relations.
The second important theme of post-modernism as discussed by Devetak: relates to the use of textual
strategies. From the point of view of post-modernism, the construction of the social world is equated
with that of a text. The insight of Jacques Derridn, an Algerian-born French post-structuralist in this
contest throws significant light on the arbitrariness of the construction of the social world. Derrida's
central argument is that the world is like a text in the sense that "it cannot simply be grasped, but has to
be interpreted". Such interpretations of the world, for Derrida, reflect tile concepts and structures of
language, what he terms "the textual interplay at work". He proposes two main tools to enable us to see
how arbitrary is the seemingly „natural‟ oppositions of language. These are deconstruction and double
rending.
Some characteristics of post-modernism
a) There is on subjective reality
b) There is no scientific or historic truth i.e. objective truth
c) Science, technology, reason and logic are not vehicles of human progress
d) Reason and logic are not universally valid
e) There is no such thing as human nature
f) Language does not refer to a reality outside itself
g) There is no certain knowledge
h) No general theory of the natural or social world can be valid or true.
Famous Post-Modernist Thinkers
Jean Baudrillard, Gilles Deleuze, Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, Pierre-Felix Guattari, Fredric
Jameson, Emmanuel Levinas, Jean Francois Lyotard, Richard Rorty and Slavoj Zizek.
Conflict and Peace: Changing Nature of Warfare; Weapons of mass destruction; deterrence
Conflict resolution & conflict transformation
a) Negotiation: It means the solution of any dispute by discussion among the parties to dispute. It
is the oldest method of conflict solving.
b) Conciliation: It implies settlement of dispute by referring them to a conciliator or commission.
This most important thing in it is that the judgement of the commission is not binding on the
parties to dispute.
c) Mediation/Good offence: It implies efforts by a 3rd state to resolve the dispute between two
states. Article 4 of Huge Conference (1988) deals with Mediation/Good offence. If the third
state joins the matter itself then it is known as mediation and if invited by the disputed states
than it is known as good offence. E.g. in 1965 Indo Pak war Russia with mediation solved the
dispute.
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d) Enquiry: It implies investigation by a third party but the here the judgement is binding on
them.
e) Arbitration: It refers to settlement of a dispute by an empire, a commission or a tribunal other
than International Court of Justice. Its decisions are also binding on parties to dispute. E.g.
Runn of Kutch dispute 1968 between India and Pakistan.
f) Judicial Settlement or Adjudication: It refers to a process of settlement of disputes by
International Court of Justice. Its decisions are also binding on parties to dispute. E.g. Britain
and Palestine conflict (1929) & Germany and Poland conflict (1927)
Chapter VII of UN: The existence of any threat to peace, breaches of the peace or act of aggression
(power of Security Council to maintain peace)
a) Art. 39: Security Council can enquiry questions related to international peace and security
b) Art. 40, 41: Security Council can import economic sanctions and recommend means for
severing diplomatic relations.
c) Art. 42: It authorises the use of Armed Forces in setting of disputes. Whereas Art 2 of UN
states that every disputes shall be resolved by peaceful means.
Changing Nature of Warfare: Approaches to understanding warfare in the immediate years after the
Second World War had a residual impact of the experiences of the two Great Wars. These wars were
total war. Karl Von Clausewitz (1780-1831) was an untypical Prussian military officer because he was a
scholar in uniform. He proved to be a philosopher in his own right. Modern scholars have placed him on
the same pedestal as Karl Marx, Adam Smith etc. Clausewitz fought against Napoleonic France and
then distilled his experience in writing. His philosophical treatise titled Vom Kriege (On War) was
published in 1832 by his widow Maria Von Clausewitz. Clausewitz‟s analysis of warfare turned out to
be one of the best ever produced in history. For Clausewitz, war is organized violence unleashed by the
state. He divided war into Limited War and Real or Absolute War. For him, eighteenth century
European warfare as practised by Louis XIV and Frederick the Great represented Limited War. In
contrast, Napoleon Bonaparte, whom he admiringly called the „God of War‟, tried to break out of the
paradigm of Limited Warfare. For Clausewitz, Napoleonic Warfare exhibited seeds of Absolute War
that would reach fruition in near future. Clausewitz‟s prophecy proved true but he did not live to witness
Absolute Wars of 1914-18 and 1939-45. So, what we mean by Modern War is Clausewitz‟s early forms
of Real or Absolute War. Thus, Modern War is the stage between Limited War of the eighteenth
century.
The French Revolution ushered in the idea of destruction of the enemy‟s government. Hence, the
beginning of French Revolution i.e. 1789 could be taken as the beginning of Modern War. This process
reached its logical culmination under Adolf Hitler‟s Total War when the objective was complete
destruction of enemy‟s society by wholesale mobilization of the common people.
The concept of limited war as it originally developed focussed on the conflicts between the two
superpowers that were fought, not on their soil or directly fought in other areas of the world. Therefore,
when one tries to understand the 'limited' nature of limited war, the focus is on of the abundant military
power that both the superpowers have but do not actually use in such a war.
Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) was a research programme that was to investigate the feasibility of
new defensive technologies based in space. The new technologies aimed to detect, track and destroy the
Soviet missiles. The detection would be done from the point of its takeoff; the tracking would continue
throughout its flight path and the destruction of the attacking missile would be done any time from its
take off until its last stage of zeroing onto the target. Some works on are given below;
War is the father of all things Heraklitos
God is on the side of heavier battalions Napoleon Bonaparte
Defence of the West 1950 Liddell Hart
Introduction to Strategy Andre Beaufre
Weapons of mass destruction:
WMD is a term used to describe a weapon with the capacity to indiscriminately kill a large numbers of
living beings. It includes nuclear, biological, chemical and radiological weapons which are increasingly
becoming threat to international peace and stability.

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WMD is a term used to describe a weapon with the capacity to indiscriminately kill a large numbers of
living beings. It includes nuclear, biological, chemical and radiological weapons which are increasingly
becoming threat to international peace and stability. Britannica Encyclopedia defined WMD as it as a
weapon with the capacity to inflict death and destruction on such a massive scale and so
indiscriminately that its very presence in the hands of a hostile power can be considered a grievous
threat. Modern weapons of mass destruction are nuclear, biological, or chemical weapons.
The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) was adopted by the Conference on Disarmament in Geneva
on 3 September 1992. The CWC allows for the stringent verification of compliance by State Parties.
The CWC entered into force on 29 April 1997 and the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical
Weapons (OPCW) was formally established as a permanent implementing agency.
The term „weapon of mass destruction‟ has been in use since at least 1937, when it was used to describe
massed formations of bomber aircrafts. It was used in reference to the mass destruction of Guernica,
Spain by aerial bombardment. Later the dropping of the atomic bombs on Japanese cities of Hiroshima
and Nagasaki, killing thousands of people, showed the disastrous effects such weapons can have for the
humanity. The arms race during the Cold War resulted in the US, the Soviet Union, and other major
powers building up enormous stockpiles containing tens of thousands of nuclear bombs, missile
warheads and others. At the same time both superpowers also acquired stockpiles of chemical and
biological weapons - the two other principal types of modern WMDs. In fact, the military and
diplomatic standoff of that era was sometimes described as a “balance of terror.” In the post Cold War
period major concern around all WMDs has been proliferation, that is, the potential for lesser powers,
“rogue states,” or international terrorist groups to acquire the means to produce and deliver such
weapons. The phrase entered popular usage in relation to the US led invasion of Iraq in 2003.
Political Economy of IR; Globalisation; Global governance and Breton Woods system, North-
South Dialogue, WTO, G-20, BRICS
Globalisation: The term "globalisation" primarily refers to economic activities like trade, movement of
capital, goods, labour and communication system across boundaries facilitating higher levels of
interconnectedness in the world. These economic activities have greater impact on socio-political
sectors nationally and internationally. The increasing strong presence of non-state actors like MNCs, the
NGOs and IGOs has questioned the supremacy of state sovereignty. The rich states are benefited due to
their superior control over the flow of capital, technology and communication system.
Globalisation means internationalization of economy. Globalisation has benefited the countries of
Europe and America. Globalisation has induced greater Urbanisation. Partha Chatterjee has commented
that the latest phase of the globalization of capital will witness an emerging opposition between
modernity and democracy. India adopted Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization (LPG) in 1991
during this time P. V. Narasimha Rao was Prime Minister and Dr. Manmohan Singh was Finance
Minister.
Work Thinker
India: Globalization and change Pamela Shurmer Smith
Globalisation and its discontent Nobel Laureate
Free Trade Today (2002) Jagdish Bhagwati
In defence of Globalisation (2004) Jagdish Bhagwati
Why Growth Matters: How Economic Growth In India Reduced Poverty and Lessons for other
Developing Countries. (2013) Jagdish Bhagwati
Global Governance: When two or more than two countries come on a single plate form to form to
some rules to maintain peace in the world, it is known as Global Governance Following are the some of
the initiatives for Global Governance in history;
a) The Holy Alliance: It was formed in the wake of Napoleonic war through three treaties i.e.
Treaty of Chaumont (1814), The Quadruple Alliance (1815) and Treaty of Holy Alliance (1815).
The Treaty of Chaumont was concluded by Austria, Great Britain, Prussia and Russia made
provision for an alliance for 20 years and its main aim was to prevent the return of Napoleon in
France. The Holy Alliance was first major step in the direction of international governance in
1815 and it was formed by Austria, Prussia and Russia. After its formation a number of European
countries were added to it. This grouping of countries lasted only for a decade.
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b) Concert of Europe: After the demise of the Holy Alliance, the great power of Europe continued
to hold ad-hoc conferences and continued to work through a system popularly known as Concert
of Europe. Its meetings were not held at any fixed intervals but as and when a concerted action
was called for. The Concert of Europe remained in operation for almost 90 years. Despite lack of
any institutional it worked well for almost 90 years.
c) League of Nation: After the First World War great powers of the world felt the need of an
organisation which could stop such destructive war in future. The League of Nations was formed
after Paris Peace Conference in 1919 to prevent another global conflict like World War 1st and
maintain peace. It was founded on 10th of January, 1920 and ceased to operation on 20th April
1946. Its headquarter was in Geneva. Unlike the Concert of Europe, the League of Nation had an
organisation and legal personality. It worked through the Assembly, the council contained
representatives of all the member states and took decision by Unanimity. It was also having a
permanent Secretariat with its headquarter in Geneva Switzerland. It was the first
intergovernmental organisation whose principle mission was to maintain peace. Permanent Court
of International Justice and International Labour Organisation were its two essential wings. Its
founding members were 42. Soviet Union joined it in 1934. USA was not able to join because of
the refusal of Senate. As India was a signatory of Treaty of Versailles in 1919, India was granted
automatic entry to the League of Nation. The idea of such an organisation was given by
Immanuel Kant in his work „Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch‟ in 1795.
d) United Nations: Explained in previous pages.
Breton Woods System
Bretton Woods system of monetary management established the rules for commercial and financial
relations among the United States, Canada, Australia, Western European countries and Japan after the
1944 Bretton Woods Agreement. The Bretton Woods system was the first example of a fully negotiated
monetary order intended to govern monetary relations among independent states. The chief features of
the Bretton Woods system were an obligation for each country to adopt a monetary policy that
maintained its external exchange rates within 1 percent by tying its currency to gold and the ability of
the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to bridge temporary imbalances of payments. Preparing to
rebuild the international economic system while World War II was still being fought, 730 delegates
from all 44 Allied nations gathered at Bretton Woods in United States, for the United Nations Monetary
and Financial Conference, also known as the Bretton Woods Conference. This conference established
the IMF and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which today is part of
the World Bank Group.
On 15 August 1971, the United States unilaterally terminated convertibility of the US dollar to gold,
effectively bringing the Bretton Woods system to an end and rendering the dollar a fiat currency but the
institutions established under the Bretton Woods conference are still the dominant financial institutions
of the world.
International Monetary Fund (IMF): It was established by 45 Nations in the United Nations
Monetary and Fiscal Conference held after 2nd World War at Breton Woods, New Hampshire in 1944. It
is also known as a product of Breton Woods Conference or simply Breton Woods Institution. As a part
of Breton Woods Agreement IMF a long with International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(IBRD) were established. IMF was established on 27 December, 1945 with 26 signing the agreement. It
is headquartered in Washington DC. Its managing director is Kristalina Georgieva of Bulgaria.
Functions of IMF
a) To promote international economic cooperation
b) To facilitate the expansion and balanced growth of international trade
c) To create more employment opportunities
d) To promote exchange rate stability
e) To assist in the establishment of a multilateral system of payment t
f) To solve the problem of international liquidity
North-South Dialogue: Northern counts are the developed countries in the northern part of the World.
They include USA, Canada, Britain and other elite countries. These are also also known as first world
countries. These countries have developed mostly by polluting environment as well as the grabbing
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wealth from the poor countries in the form of colonialism. After the Second World War they have
established the main financial institutions such as IMF, World Bank etc. to meet their own demands and
benefit them more.
Russia along with other European countries is mostly known as second world countries. After the World
War Second they have adopted an alienated economic system. They blame the colonialism and
imperialism of capitalist countries of the first world responsible for the poverty condition of many
countries. The remaining countries of the world particularly residing in the southern part of the world
are known as the North Countries or Under-developed Countries or third world countries or simply least
developed countries (LDC). The condition of these countries is very bad as the developed countries
have looted them by making them their colonies. Now these third world countries are demanding their
share by transforming the present economic system by New International Economic Order (NIEO). This
demand of the third world countries from the developed countries of first world is called North-South
Dialogue. NIEO is basically a set of proposals advocated by developing countries to end economic
colonialism and dependency through a new interdependent economic system. The demand for NIEO
was first time highlighted by LDC in 1970s. NIEO was adopted by United Nations General Assembly in
1974 but till date nothing has been done to reform IMF, World Bank or UN.
WTO: The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), signed on October 30, 1947, by 23
countries, was a legal agreement minimizing barriers to international trade by eliminating or reducing
quotas, tariffs, and subsidies while preserving significant regulations. Although it was signed in 1947, it
became a law on 8 July 1948. Indian is the founding member of GATT. The GATT was intended to
boost economic recovery after World War II through reconstructing and liberalizing global trade. The
GATT went into effect on January 1st, 1948. The first GATT summit was held in Geneva in 1947. In
1995 GATT summit was held in Uruguay was held from 1986 to 1993 and it came into effect in 1995 in
the shape of GATT was converted into World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global
international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations. At its heart are the WTO
agreements, negotiated and signed by the bulk of the world‟s trading nations and ratified in their
parliaments. The goal is to ensure that trade flows as smoothly, predictably and freely as possible. There
are 164 members of WTO. China joined WTO in 2001 and Russia joined it in 2012 and became the
156th member of WTO.
Functions of WTO;
a) Multi-Fibre Agreement (MFA)
b) Agreements on Agriculture (AOA)
c) Trade Related Investment Measures (TRIMs)
d) Trade related Intellectual Property Rights
e) General Agreement on Trade and Services (GATS)
G-20
The G20 or Group of Twenty is an intergovernmental forum comprising 19 countries and the European
Union (EU). It works to address major issues related to the global economy, such as international
financial stability, climate change mitigation, and sustainable development. The G20 was founded in
1999 in response to several world economic crises. Since 2008, it has convened at least once a year,
with summits involving each member's head of government or state, finance minister, foreign minister,
and other high-ranking officials; the EU is represented by the European Commission and the European
Central Bank. Other countries, international organizations, and nongovernmental organizations are
invited to attend the summits, some on a permanent basis. The G20 operates without a permanent
secretariat or staff. The group's chair rotates annually among the members and is selected from a
different regional grouping of countries as shown in below table. The incumbent chair establishes a
temporary secretariat for the duration of its term, which coordinates the group's work and organizes its
meetings. The 2019 chair was Japan, which hosted the 2019 summit in Osaka. The current chair is held
by Italy. The 2021 summit is planned to be held in Italy. The 2022, 2023 and 2024 summits will be
hosted by Indonesia, India and Brazil respectively.
Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5
Australia India Argentina France China

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Canada Russia Brazil Germany Indonesia
USA South Africa Mexico Italy Japan
Saudi Arabia Turkey UK South Korea
The G20 countries account for almost 75% of the global carbon emissions.
As of 2021 there are 20 members of the group: Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, the
European Union, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South
Africa, South Korea, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
Spain, the United Nations, the World Bank, the African Union, and other organizations are permanent
guest invitees
G 20 Summits: First summit was held in 1999 in Germany. 2nd and
Summit Year Host Country
1st 1999 Germany
2nd 2000 Canada
rd
3 2001 Canada
4th 2002 India
BRICS:
BRICS is an organisation formed by five major emerging economies i.e. Brazil, Russia, India, China,
and South Africa. Originally the first four were grouped as „BRIC‟ the induction of South Africa in
2010 led this BRIC to BRICS. The BRICS members are known for their significant influence on
regional affairs. Since 2009, the governments of the BRICS states have met annually at formal summits.
India hosted the most recent 13th BRICS summit on 9 September 2021 virtually and it was the third
term India held it after 2012 and 2016. Next BRICS summit will be held in China and will be chaired by
China. The BRICS have a combined area of 26.7% of the world land surface and 41.5% of the world
population. Four out of five members are among the world's ten largest countries by population and by
area, except for South Africa which is twenty-fourth in both.
On 15 July, in the BRICS 6th summit in Fortaleza, Brazil, the group of emerging economies signed the
long-anticipated document to create the US$100 billion New Development Bank (formerly known as
the BRICS Development Bank) and a reserve currency pool worth over another US$100 billion.
International law
Convention on the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone was held in Geneva in 1958 and came
into force in 1964.
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties was held in 1969 and came into force in 1980.
Convention on registration of objects launched into outer space was held in New York in 1974 and
came into force in 1976.
International Criminal Court
The International Criminal Court is an intergovernmental organization and international tribunal that
has it seat in The Hague, Netherlands. The ICC is the first and only permanent international court with
jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for the international crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity,
war crimes and the crime of aggression. It is intended to complement existing national judicial systems,
and it may, therefore, exercise its jurisdiction only when national courts are unwilling or unable to
prosecute criminals. The ICC lacks universal territorial jurisdiction and may only investigate and
prosecute crimes committed within member states, crimes committed by nationals of member states, or
crimes in situations referred to the Court by the United Nations Security Council.
The ICC began operations on 1 July 2002, upon the entry into force of the Rome Statute, a multilateral
treaty that serves as the court's foundational and governing document. States which become party to the
Rome Statute become members of the ICC, serving on the Assembly of States Parties, which
administers the court. As of December 2020, there are 123 ICC member states.
Structure of ICC: The ICC has four principal organs: the Presidency, the Judicial Divisions, the Office
of the Prosecutor and the Registry. It has 18 judges which are elected by the Assembly of the States
Parties for nor renewable term of 9 years. India, China, Russia are not signatory to it.

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Regionalism:
Palmer and Perkins defined religion as a invariably an area embracing the territories of three or more
states. Regionalism is a process of integrating on regional basis for some specific issues such as trade,
social development or even security. Russett, Cantori, Spiegel, Falk, Mendlovitz, Nye, Myrdal,
Lindberg and Scheingold are some of the chief exponents of regional approach. These states are bound
together by ties of common interest as well as geography. Regionalism includes three theories as
discussed below;
a) Functionalism: This theory is also known as liberal institutionalism. This theory applied the
concept of national interest as the uniting elements of various nations. For the realization of
their interest many nations take the help of institution. It arose as a philosophy which visualized
a gradual evolution of a peaceful, unified and cooperative world. Its main thinker is David
Mitrany and his celebrated work is “A Working Peace System”. He is also known as father of
functionalism. Other thinkers related to this theory are Leonard Woolf, Norman Angel, Robert
Cecil and G.D.H Cole. The functionalism does not aim at creating world federation structure
rather they seek to build „peace by piece‟ through transnational organizations that emphasis the
„sharing of sovereignty instead of its total surrender. They are of the view that none of the govt.
will surrender its sovereignty therefore they suggest a peaceful slow process. They lay emphasis
on socio-economic and welfare needs than the political needs. They believe that men go to work
not for political but socio-economic needs. They treat economic, technical, scientific, social and
cultural fields as functional sectors. Mitrany thinks of „one solid international block of flats‟
instead of „detached national houses‟. Karl Popper have criticised this concept by saying that
„piecemeal social engineering not for the architects or purveyors of blueprints.
b) Neo-Functionalism: This theory is an improvement upon functionalism and redefines the same
by analysing the impact of functionalism on national states. In order to solve their disputes,
national states might mingle together to such an extent that they put their own sovereignty at
stake. They may step further toward a federal structure of peaceful coexistence, mutual
understanding and cooperation in socio-economic sphere. Their basic concept is based on
concept of „spillover‟ which means co-operation in one field results in the cooperation in other
related fields. It arose as a critique of functionalism along with the most celebrated works of
Ernest B. Hass. Leon N. Lindberg, J P Sewell, Laurence Scheinman, Karl Kaiser and
Scheingold are some other exponents of neo-functionalism.
Beyond the national state: Functionalism and international organization Ernest B. Hass
The uniting of Europe: Political, Social and Economic Forces, 1950 – Ernest B. Hass
1957
Political Community and the North American Area Karl Deutsch
France Germany and The Western Alliance: A Study of Elite Attitude on Karl Deutsch
European Integration and World Politics
c) Inter-governmentalism: It is a reaction to neo-functionalism. It was put forward by Putnam.
According to this theory, the sovereignty and the national interest of a state do not vanish
because of regional integration, rather it maximises the power of the states for more regional,
intergovernmental accords, bargains, trade agreement and so on.
Regional Organisations: European Union, African Union, Shanghai Cooperation Organisation,
ASEAN
Regional Organisations: When an organisation is formed on basis of region for a particular motive it is
known as regional Organisation. It is very important to boost the region as regional organisation helps in
solving disputes and increasing the inter-regional trade. The development of the regional organisation
depends upon the region of organisation and countries involved it it. Following are the some of the
important regional organisation
European Union: Among all the regional organisations it is the most successful one in terms of trade
and development in the region. Following are the important points about it
 Union of 27 states
 4233255.3km2

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 447 Million Population (5.8 % of world population)
 Founded on 1st Nov. 1993, Maastricht, Netherland
 Its slogan is „United in Diversity‟
 71 % population is christen & 45 Catholic
 GDP is 17.1 trillion which is about the 18 % of World GDP.
 1n 2012 EU was awarded Nobel Prize.
 In 1979 first general elections to the European Union was held.
 In 1986 the EU flag begin to be used.
 It has 24 official languages.
Members of EU
Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria,
Croatia, Cyprus, Czech
Republic, Demark, Estonia,
Finland, France, Germany,
Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy,
Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg,
Malta, Netherlands, Poland,
Portugal, Romania, Slovakia,
Slovenia, Spain and Sweden.
These countries are also shown
in map below.
EU common Currency:
Following 8 countries have
established their common
currency
Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Croatia, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Sweden
History of Formation of EU
 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) formed in 1951 by Treaty of Paris
 European Economic Community (EEC) formed in 1957 by Treaty of Rome
 European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) was established in 1958
 ECC was renamed as European Community by Maastricht treaty in 1993.
 Its original members were 6 i.e. Belgium, France, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherland and West
Germany.
 UK, Denmark and Ireland were added in 1973.
 Greece joined in 1981, Portugal and Spain joined in 1986
 Schengen Agreement in 1985 paved the movement in majority of EU member without passport.
 Lisbon treaty was signed in 2007 and came into force in 2009.
 Croatia was the last state to be admitted in EU.
 In 2016 a referendum was held to exit EU in which 51% participants voted for its withdrawal
from EU.
 In 2020 UK became the only member to left this group.
European Union consists of following parts
a) European Council: It comprises the head of states of all the member states. This council meets
twice a year. It elects a president who holds the office for six months. The council take all
decisions on the basis of unanimity.
b) Council of Ministers: It consists of the Foreign Ministers of the member states. These
members represent the interest of their countries rather than the interest of EU. This council
meets at least once a month and take all decisions.
c) European Parliament: It is a large body consisting representatives of all the member states.
These are elected by the legislatives of the respective states.
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d) European Commission: It consists of 20 members appointed for a term of five years. It takes
all decisions on the basis of majority votes.
e) European Court of Justice: Its members are appointed for a term of 6 years.
Important Treaties in European Union:
a) Treaty of Paris: This treaty was signed in 1951 by France, Italy, West Germany, Belgium,
Luxemburg and Netherland establishing the European Coal and Steel Community. This treaty
came into force in 1952 and expired in 2002.
b) Treaty of Rome: This treaty was signed in 1957 by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxemburg,
Netherland and West Germany. It came into effect in 1958. This treaty led to the creation of
European Economic Community best known as the European Community.
c) Euratom Treaty: This treaty was signed in Rome in 1957 and led to formation European
Atomic Energy Community. It came into effect in 1958. This treaty is also known as Treaty of
Rome.
d) Merger Treaty: This treaty was signed in 1965 and came into force in in 1967. This treaty was
signed in Brussels and is also known as treaty of Brussels. It merged three institutions i.e.
European Coal and Steel Community, European Atomic Energy Community and the European
Economic Community.
e) Single European Act: It was signed in 1986. It was first major revision of 1957 Treaty of
Rome. It set a target of setting single EU market by 1992.
f) Maastricht Treaty: It was signed in 1992 and came into effect in 1993. It laid the foundation
of European Union.
g) Treaty of Amsterdam: It was signed in 1997 and was made effective from 1999. It also
amended the treaties which made the European Community. Under this treaty member states
agreed to transfer certain powers from national governments to European Parliament.
h) Treaty of Nice: It was signed in 2000 and came into effect in 2003. It amended the treaty of
Rome and Treaty of Maastricht. Its main aim was to reform the institutional structure of EU to
face the contemporary challenges.
i) Treaty of Lisbon: Signed in 2007 and came to force in 2009. It amended two important treaties
which form constitutional basis of EU.
Indian & European Union:
 India is EU‟s 9th largest trading partner with 2.4% of EU‟s overall trade.
 First Indo-EU Summit was held in 2000 at Lisbon.
African Union: Organization of African Union was created in 1963 by 32 countries in Addis Ababa. It
was finally disbanded in
2002 with the creation of
African Union. It is one of
the largest continental
unions of the world. It was
in Sirte Declaration held in
Libya in 1999 that the
countries first initiated to
create it. It was finally
created in 2002 in Durban
South Africa. It is a union
of 55 states to promote the
unity and solidarity of
African States. Its theme is
„let us all unite and
celebrate together‟.

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Shanghai Cooperation Organisation: Following
are some of important point point about SCO
 This organisation is a successor to
Shanghai Five, a mutual security
agreement formed in 1996 between China,
Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Russia and
Tajikistan.
 In 2001 the representatives of these
countries met in Shanghai and announced
to form SCO.
 SCO charter was signed in 2002 and
entered to force in 2003.
 It represents 40% of world population.
 Its GDP is 20% that of global GDP.
 In 2017 its membership was extended to
eight when India and Pakistan joined it.
 India attended this organisation first time in 2005 at Nur-Sultan Kazakhstan.
 SCO established relation with UN in 2004, ASEAN in 2005, CIS in 2005 and African Union in
2018.
 The Secretariat is the executive organ of SCO and Zhang Ming is its current Secretary General.
 The official languages of SCO are Russian and Chinese.
 Its members are China, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Russia and Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, India and
Pakistan.
 First five are founding members and Uzbekistan become member in 2001.
 Whereas India and Pakistan and Iran become dialogue partner in 2006 and India and Pakistan
became members in 2017.
 Mongolia, Iran, Afghanistan and Belarus are observer. Sri Lanka, Turkey, Cambodia,
Azerbaijan, Nepal and Armenia are Dialogue Partner.
List of Summits
1st 2001 China Shanghai
2nd 2002 Russia Saint Petersburg
20th 2020 Russia Videoconference
st
21 2021 Tajikistan Dushanbe
22nd 2022 Uzbekistan Samarkand
ASEAN: It was created on 8th August 1967
through Bangkok Declaration by Indonesia,
Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand.
The leaders of these countries felt its need
because of Vietnam War with USA and various
other political problems. Brunei joined it in 1984,
Vietnam in 1995, Laos and Myanmar in 997 and
Cambodia in 1999. Its total members are 10.
These countries are shown below in map.
Dialogue Partners
a) Australia
b) Canada
c) European Union
d) Japan
e) New Zealand
f) United States
g) China
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h) India (1996)
i) Republic of Korea (1991)
j) Russia (1996)
k) United Nations Development Programme (1997)
Pakistan is sectoral dialogue partner (dialogue partner in few sectors such as environment education
etc.)
Some of its aims are
a) To accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region
b) To promote regional peace and stability
c) To promote active collaboration and mutual assistance on matter of common interest.
d) To provide assistance to each other in the matter of training and research
e) To promote South East Asian studies
f) To collaborate for greater utilisation of their agriculture and industry
g) To maintain close and beneficial cooperation with existing international and regional
organisations.
ASEAN consists of following bodies
a) Ministerial Conference: It is highest body of ASEAN and its summits are held annually.
b) Standing Committee
c) Secretariat
d) Permanent Committees
e) Ad-hoc Committees
Secretary General of ASEAN was appointed on merit for five years.
ASEAN plus three include China, Japan and South Korea.
East Asian Summit (EAS) was formed in 2005 and it includes 18 countries. It has formed with
inspiration from ASEAN plus three. It includes Australia, China, India, Japan, New Zealand, Republic
of Korea, Russian Federation and USA.
Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality (ZOPFAN) was declared it in 1971.
ASEAN members have signed The Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in South Asia (TAC) was signed
in 1976.
ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF): It was Formed in 1994 and focuses on three factors i.e. Promotion of
confidence building, development of preventive diplomacy and elaboration of approaches to conflict. It
includes 10 members including dialogue partners, North Korea, South Korea and Mongolia. India
became its member in 1996.
Treaty on South East Asia Nuclear Weapons Free Zone (SEANWFZ): all the ten members signed this
treaty on 15th December 1997.
First Indian ASEAN summit was held in 2008.
India became sectoral dialogue partner in 1992
and then became full dialogue partner in 1995.
SAARC: South Asian Association for regional
cooperation was established in 1985 by head of
states of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives,
Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka in their first
summit in Dhaka. Afghanistan was added to the
group in 2005 on behest of India and became a
full member in 2007. The idea of this association
was given by by Zia-ul-Rehman President of
Bangladesh.
Observer Countries: Australia, China, EU, Iran,
Japan, Mauritius, Myanmar, South Korea and
USA. The declaration of the SAARC was
adopted in its meeting in New Delhi in 1983. All
its decisions are taken unanimously.
Summit of SAARC
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Some important points to remember
1st Summit: It was held in Dhaka in 1985. It is famous for formulating objective and principles of
SAARC.
2nd Summit: It was held in Bangalore in 1986. It is important as it institutionalised a permanent
secretariat for it. Secretariat started functioning from 1987.
3rd Summit: It was held in Kathmandu in 1987. It made scope of SAARC more precise with its main
focus for welfare of people of South Asia.
4th Summit: It was held in Islamabad in 1988. 1990 was declared as SAARC year. It launched SAARC
2000: A Basic Need for Prospective.
5th Summit: It was held in Male. Observed 1992 as year of shelter, 1992 as year of Environment, 1993
as year of Disabilities and also issued a special SAARC Travel Document.
6th Summit: It was held in 1991 in Colombo. Sri Lanka proposed a SAARC preferential Trade
Arrangement (SAPTA).
14Tth Summit: It was held in 2005 in New Delhi. Its main function was to improve regional
connectivity. An agreement was made for South Asian University, a Food Bank and a South Asian
Development Fund.
16th Summit: It was held in Thimphu in 2010. Its theme was „Towards a green and happy South Asia‟.
17th Summit: It was held in 2011 in Maldives. Its main theme was „Building Bridges‟ and it released a
declaration known as „Addu Declaration‟.
18th Summit: It was held in 2014 in Nepal. Its theme was „Deeper Integration for Peace and
Prosperity‟.
Quad: Quadrilateral Security Dialogue is a strategic
dialogue between the United States, India, Japan and
Australia. This dialogue was initiated in 2007 by
Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe with the support
of US Vice President Dick Cheney, Australian PM
John Howard and Indian PM Dr. Manmohan Singh.
This dialogue was paralleled with joint military
exercise call „Malabar Exercise‟. It is also
known as Asian NATO. In 2021 they
shared a joint statement called „The Spirit
of the Quad‟. In 2020 Quad members held
a meeting with Quad Plus members which
include New Zealand and Vietnam.
NAFTA: It came into existence in 11993.
It includes of USA, Canada and Mexico.
It was formed primarily to gain
comparative advantages against the
enlarged European Union.
OPEC: It was created in 1960 at Baghdad
by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and
Venezuela. Later Qatar joined in 1961,
Indonesia in 1962, Libya in 1962, UAE in
1967, Algeria in 1969, Nigeria in 1971,
Ecuador in 1973 Angola 2007 and Gabon 1975. Republic of Congo joined in 2018. Out of these
Indonesia was suspended in 2009, Ecuador left in 2020. The main aim of this organisation is to
safeguard the interest of individual as well as combined countries including stabilizing oil prices in
International market.
OPEC Conference is its highest body & below it is the OPEC Secretariat which is situated in Vienna
Austria although Austria is not a member of OPEC.. The Secretary General is legally the chief
executive of the secretariat. Official language of OPEC is English.

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Members of OPEC
Algeria, Angola, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia,
UAE and Venezuela, these are also shown in map.
Diplomacy: It is an instrument of foreign policy. It is a chariot to reach the destination set by states. The
political dimension of diplomacy is associated with state policies toward other states on political issues.
The origin of diplomacy can be traced back to ancient Greece. Romans also did a little to develop the art
of Diplomacy. Modern Diplomacy as an organized profession arose in Italy in the late middle age. The
first known permanent mission was established in Genoa in 1455 by the Duke of Milan. During this
time it was known as Diplomacy of Court. After treaty of Westphalia in 1648, the court diplomacy
reached its golden stage and diplomats from all countries represented in the court of Louis XIV. The
congress of Vienna 1819 made a further contribution in it. This congress gave more freedom to
diplomats and divided the hierarchy of diplomats in four ranks i.e.
a) Ambassadors
b) Papal Representatives
c) Envoys extra-ordinary and minister plenipotentiary
d) Minister resident and charge d‟affairs.
Till the end of 18th century diplomacy was known as traditional diplomacy and the diplomacy of 19th
century was known as modern diplomacy. The present day diplomacy is known as new diplomacy.
There were three methods on which traditional diplomacy was based i.e. Italian, French and German
although the French method of diplomacy is usually known as traditional diplomacy. Traditional
diplomacy was confined to Europe with five main powers i.e. England, France, Austria and Spain and
even USA remained away until 1897. Old diplomacy believes that great powers have the special
responsibility of maintaining world peace.
Nicholson was of the view that while the old diplomacy was oligarchic, maleficent and obscure and new
diplomacy is democratic, beneficent and limpid.
Chapter IV of UN deals with peaceful settlement of disputes i.e. from Art. 33 to Art 38. Art 33(1) The
parties to any disputes which can disturb the peace of world shall seek a solution by negotiation,
enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, resort to regional agencies or
arrangements or other peaceful means of their own choice.
Vienna Convention, 1961 defined a framework for diplomatic relations between independent countries.
This convention was held on 4th of June and India ratified it on 15th October, 1965. This convention
gives freedom to diplomats such as their bags are not opened or detained at the airport.
The application of intelligence and tact to the conduct of official relations between governments of
independent states Sir Earnest Satow
Diplomacy in the popular sense means the employment of tact, shrewdness and skill in any negotiation
or transition. Quincy Wright
Diplomacy thrives in Public view rather than in private international understanding. Woodrow Wilson
Diplomacy is management of international relations by negotiations Oxford Dictionary

Important International Conferences

Congress of Westphalia 1648 1st Hague Conference 1899
Congress of Utrecht 1713 2nd Hague Conference 1907
Congress of Vienna 1815 Paris Peace Conference 1919
Panama Conference of American States 1826 Yalta Conference 1945
St. Petersburg Conference 1868 Cairo Conference 1941
Conference of Berlin 1884-5 Tehran Conference 1943
Quadruple Alliance Postsdam Conference 1945
(Britan, France, Prussia and Austria) 1815 – 1822

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Books
The guide to Diplomatic Practice Sir Ernest Satow
The Evolution of Diplomacy Harold Nicholson
Diplomacy Harold Nicholson
Summit Diplomacy Plischke
On Diplomacy1987 James Der Derian
Imperialism: A Study Palmer and Perkins
American Foreign Policy in the Making Charles A Beard
Imperialism and Social Classes Joseph A Schumpeter
The Background of International Relations Charles Hodges
Neo-Colonialism: The Last Stage of imperialism Kwame Nkrumah
Kinds of Diplomacy: Broadly speaking there are two types of diplomacy one is closed diplomacy and
other is open diplomacy. Closed diplomacy is also known as secret diplomacy or classical diplomacy
and is used before the formation of league of nation and also before the formation of UN. The credit of
open diplomacy goes to Woodrow Wilson who pleaded for open diplomacy in his famous 14 points. In
addition to these two types there are various types of diplomacy as mentioned below;
a) Multilateral diplomacy/conference diplomacy: It became popular after world war 1st. It has
been criticised by Harold Nicholson as „perhaps the most unfortunate diplomatic method ever
conceived‟.
b) Big Stick diplomacy: It is a type of diplomacy used by USA and it was codified by the
Theodore Roosevelt President of USA. Other forms of Diplomacy are also given below
c) Personal/summit Diplomacy: It involves direct participation of foreign ministers, head of
states, Head of Govt. in diplomatic negotiation.
d) Political Diplomacy: This form of diplomacy focuses on solution of conflict by dialogue and
negociation.
e) Military Diplomacy: It focuses on military actions in achieving national interest and dealing
with other nations. USA uses NATO as its military diplomacy on the basis of saving human
right and democracy.
f) Economic Diplomacy/Diplomacy of Development: It is based on carrot and stick theory. It
focuses on Trade and Aid.
g) Nuclear Diplomacy: It uses the power of a particular country mostly nuclear power in
diplomatic negciation. It is one of most dangerious as a single conflict can led this whole world
to destruction.
h) Cultural Diplomacy: It mostly focuses on spreading their own culture in other regions. Due to
this type of diplomacy Britishers have made English language as one of the most important
language in the world.
i) Oil Diplomacy: It is one of the most important type of diplomacy. Middle East countries have
used this diplomacy to control their relations with other countries of world. Due to this USA
and India are having good relations with Isreal and gulf countries particularly with Saudi
Arabia. Moreover as the world is moving toward green fuel such as battery operated vechiles so
the middle east oil countries are going to loose their this dominance in the world.
j) Coercive Diplomacy: It is used by strong countries on the basis of their armed as well as
nuclear power to acieve their national interest. Currently China is practicing it by extending her
boundry disputes with neighbouring countries. USA also uses this for international trade of
crude oil in dollar.
k) Dollar Diplomacy: USA also uses this for international trade of crude oil in dollar. With this
diplomacy USA applies economic senctions on various countries.
l) Vaccine Diplomacy: It is one of the form of medical diolomacy which became popular during
COVID-19 period. In this process a country tries her best to improve the relation with other
country by supplying COVID 19 vaccine to that country. India used this type of diplomacy
during COVID 19 period.
m) Shopkeeper Diplomacy: It is characterized as practical open minded, compromising and
candid
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n) Wolf Warrior Diplomacy: Used by China to criticise and threaten those countries which
criticise Chinese aggressive policies. It is aggressive style of coercive diplomacy adopted by
Chinese diplomats in the 21st century under Chinese leader Xi Jinping‟s administration. This
term was coined from the Chinese action film „Wolf Warrior
o) Coalition Diplomacy: Became famous after 2nd World War. In this anarchical world the
coalition is a strategy to increase power of a country by making alliance with other country in
order to survive.
UN under the Chairmanship of B. B Ghali published a report in 1995 known as „An Agenda for Peace‟.
This report gives sequence of the Process in Diplomacy i.e. Preventive Diplomacy, Peace Making,
Peace Keeping and Peace Building.
International terrorism:
a) Al-Qaida: Established by Osama bin-Laden in 1980s.
b) Abu Nidal Organization: It is a Palestine Terrorist organisation formed after split in Palestine
Liberation Organisation (PLO) in 1774.
c) HAMAS: Formed in late 1987 and its main motive is to make Islamic State of Palestine in
place of Israel.
d) Hizbullah: It is a terrorist organisation of Lebanon.
e) Abbu Sayyaf Group: It is a terrorist organisation of of Philippines.
f) Basque Fatherhood and Liberty: It is a terrorist organisation of Spain.
g) Al-Gama Al-Islamiyya: It is a terrorist organisation of Egypt.
h) Markat-ul-Mujahideen It is also known as Harkat-ul-Ansar and is is a Pakistan based terrorist
group and operates in Kashmir
i) Jaish-e-Mohammad: It is a terrorist organisation of Pakistan and Operates in Kashmir
j) Lashkar-e-Taiba: It is a terrorist organisation of Pakistan formed in 1989 and operates in
Kashmir.
k) Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK): It is a terrorist organisation of Turkey.
l) Irish Republic Army: It is a terrorist organisation of Ireland formed in 1969.
m) LTTE: It is a terrorist organization of Sri Lanka.
n) Hizbullah: It is a terrorist organization of Iran.
o) Bako Haram: It is a terrorist organization of Nigeria.
p) Shining Path: It is a terrorist organization of Peru.
q) Black widows (women): It is a terrorist organization of Chechenya.
Conventions on Terrorism
a) Convention on offences and certain other acts committed on Board Aircraft (Tokyo) was held in
1963
b) Convention for suppression of unlawful acts against the safety of Civil Aviation (Montreal) in
1971
c) International Convention for suppression of Terrorist Bombing: It was held in 1997 and entered
into force in 2001.
d) International Convention for Suppression of Financing of Terrorism: It was held in 1999 in
New York. It entered into force in 2002. Afghanistan, China and India are signatory of it but
Pakistan has not signed it. This convention was done under United Nations through General
Assembly.
FATF: Financial Action Task Force is an inter-government organisation founded in 1989 on the
initiative of the G7 to develop policies to combat money laundering. In 2001, its mandate was expanded
to include terrorism financing.
FATF Black list countries: It has been issued by FATF since 2000.
North Korea and Iran are the two countries presently in FATF Blacklist.
Climate change and Environmental Concerns: Following are some of the conventions in climate
change
a) Ramsar Convention: It was held in 1971. It created Kyota Protocol.
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c) Stockholm Convention: 184 countries are the parties to the Stockholm convention. Its main
result was the creation of United Nations Environment Programme (UNDP). On ratifying it in
2006 India became a part of this convention. It is a convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
(POPs). It was held in 2001 in Geneva Switzerland and came to force in 2004.
d) CITES: It was a convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora. It was adopted in 1963 and came into force in 1975.
e) Rio Summit/Earth Summit: It is a United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development. It was held in 1992 at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
f) Convention on Biological Diversity 1992
g) Bonn Convention: It was held in 1979. It is related to conservation of Migratory Species and
Wild Animals.
h) Vienna Convention: It was held in 1985 and came to force in 1988. It is related to protection of
Ozone Layer.
i) Montreal Convention: It is an international environment protocol on substances that deplete
the Ozone Layer. It was held in 1987 and came into force in 1989.
j) Kyoto Protocol: It was held in 1997
k) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): It aims to control
the emission of Green House Gases (GHGs) that cause global warming. It was held in 1992
l) UNCCD: It is a United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. It was held in 1994
m) Cartagena Protocol on Bio-safety: It is an international environment protocol on Bio-safety to
the Convention on Biological Diversity. It was adopted in 2000 and came into force in 2003.
n) UN-REDD: It is a United Nations Programme on Reducing Emission from Deforestation and
Forest Degradation. It was held in 2008
o) Nagoya Protocol: It is a Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). It was adopted in 2010
and came into force in 2014.
p) COP21: It is the 21st meeting of the conference of parties (COP) to the UNFCCC. It took place
in 2018.
q) COP24: It is the 24st meeting of the conference of parties (COP) to the UNFCCC. It took place
in 2018
r) COP25: It is the 25th meeting of Conference of Parties (COP) to the UNFCCC. It was held in
2019.
s) COP 26: It was the 26th United Nations Climate Change Conference (UNCCC) held in SEC
Centre in Glasgow, Scotland, UK from 31 Oct. to Nov. 2021. It was presided over by UK
Cabinet Minister Alok Sharma.
t) Kigali Amendment: It is an amendment to the Montreal Protocol. It was adopted in 2016 and
came into force in 2019.
u) Minamata Convention: It is an international environment treaty intended to protect health and
environment from the adverse effects of mercury. It was held in 2013
v) Rotterdam Convention: It is an international environment convention on Prior Informed
Consent (PIC). It was held in 1998 and came into force in 2004.
w) The concept of Environment Impact Assessment emerged in USA.
x) Carbon Footprint is the emission of carbon dioxide from daily human activities
y) United Nations Development Programme: It is a United Nations agency formed in 1965
which has its headquarters in United States. Officially there are 170 countries are members of it.
India is the world‟s fourth biggest emitter of carbon dioxide after China, US and the European Union
(China, USA, EU, India, Russia are top 5). India presently emits 1.9 tonnes of CO2 per head of
population and this figure is 15.5 tonnes for US and 12.5 for Russia (as these two are highest in the
world).
India promised in COP 26 meeting that India will get 50% of its energy from Renewable resources from
renewable resources by 2030 and by the same year to reduce total projected carbon emission by one
billion tonnes. He also announced that India will achieve a net zero target by 2070.
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India is the 3rd largest consumer of electricity and also 3rd largest renewable energy producer with 38%
of energy capacity installed in 2020 (136G W of 373 GW). Renewable Energy Country Attractiveness
Index (RECAI) releases the list of renewable energy producing countries ad it has designated USA,
China and India as top three renewable energy producing countries. India had set a target of 175 GW of
renewable energy by 2022 and 500 GW by 2030. Bhadla Solar park of Rajisthan with capacity of 2255
MW is largest solar park in world followed by Pavgada solar park of Karnatka (2000 MW) as the
second largest in world. Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI) is a public sector undertaking
responsible for solar energy in India.
International Solar Alliance (ISA) is an alliance of 101 countries was an initiative of India. It was
founded in Paris, France and its headquarters in is Gurugram Haryana. Recently USA joined it as 101
member of ISA. Antigua and Barbuda became 102nd member of ISA.
Human Rights, Migration and Refugees:
Human Rights:
Evolution of Human Rights
Civil Disobedience Thoreau
On Liberty J S Mill
The Right of Man Thomas Paine
Leviathan Hobbes
Two Treatises on Government Locke
Magna Karta King John 1215
American Declaration of Independence 1776
Bill of Rights (First ten amendments of US Constitution)
French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens 1789
Universal Declaration of Human Rights 10 December, 1948
International Convention on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966
International Convention on Civil and Political Rights 1966
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crime and Genocide 1948
Convention related to the status of stateless persons 1954
Convention on elimination of Radical Discrimination 1965
Convention on Elimination of Discrimination against Women 1979
Vienna World Conference on Human Rights 1993
High Commissioner for Human Rights 1993
United Nations Human Rights for Refugees 1949
10th December is celebrated as World Human Right Day
Important Convention
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide was held in Paris in 1948, it
came into force in 1951
Constitution of the International Refugee Organisation was held in New York in 1946 and came into
force in 1948
Convention on the International Maritime Organisation was held in Geneva in 1948
Convention on the Political Rights of Women was held in 1953 and came into force in 1954
The protection of Human Rights Act in India came into force on 28th Sept. 1993
Generations of Human Rights
a) Fist Generation of Human Rights: It includes civil and political rights such as Right to Vote,
freedom of assembly, freedom of speech, freedom of religion, right to be treated with dignity.
b) 2nd Generation of Human Rights: It includes Economic, social and cultural rights such as
right to employment, housing, food, health, clean drinking water etc.
c) 3rd Generation of Human Rights: It includes demand of right for collective level, for
population, societies or nations. Karel Vasak was the first scholar to introduce the concept of 3rd
generation of Human Rights.
United Declaration of Human Rights has 30 Articles. Its Art 3 says that „everyone has right to life,
liberty and security of person‟. National Human Right Commission of India was constituted on 12 th of
Oct. 1993.
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Refugees: Poverty and Development:
 Convention Relating to the status of Issue/Reports Person/Country
Refugees 1951
Millennium Development Goals Kofi Annan
 Convention Relating to the status of
stateless person 1954 Af-Pak Policy Obama
 Convention on the Reduction of
Responsibility to protect Government of
Stateless Person 1961
 International Convention on the Canada
Elimination of all forms of Racial
Agenda for Peace Boutros Boutros
Discrimination 1966
Ghali
Millennium Development Goals (MDG): These are the eight international development goals for the
year 2015 that has been established in Millennium Summit of the UN in 2000. These rights are given
below
1) To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
2) To achieve universal primary education
3) To promote Gender Equality and empower women
4) To reduce child morality
5) To improve maternal health
6) To combat HIV/AIDS and other diseases
7) To ensure environment sustainability
8) To develop a global partnership for development
Sustainable Development Goals
After the expiry of 2015 deadline for Millennium Development Goals, Sustainable Development Goals
were set in 2015 by UN to be achieved by the year 2030 and these are also known as post 2015 goals.
The summit for post 2015 development agenda was held from 25 – 27 Sept. 2015. These are also known
as Agenda 2030. These goals are given below
1. No Poverty 10. Reduce inequality
2. Zero Hunger 11. Sustainable cities and communities
3. Good health and well being 12. Responsible Consumption and Production
4. Quality education 13. Climate Change
5. Gender Equality 14. Life below water
6. Clean water and Sanitation 15. Life on Land
7. Decent work and Economic 16 Peace, Justice and Strong Institution
growth
8. Industry Innovation and 17. Partnership for Goals
infrastructure
9.
International Labour Organisation (ILO): It was the first specialised agency of UN. It has 187
members.
Colonialism: According to English oxford dictionary colonialism is derived from the Roman word
Colonia which means form or settlement. Some writers trace the origin of the word colonialism from the
Latin word „colonus‟ meaning farmers. Colony is a people detached from a large entity and settled in a
distinct place. Thus colonialism may be defined as an extension of political and economic control over
an area by states whose nationals have occupied the area and usually possess organizational or
technological superiority over the native population.
Imperialism: The word imperialism has been derived from the Latin word „imperium‟ meaning to
control. Thus the term imperialism draws attention to the way one country exercise power over another,
weather through settlement, sovereignty or indirect mechanism of control. is the exercise of command
or domination of one people by a stronger people. Therefore imperialism means pacification and
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Definitions
Imperialism is a policy which aims at creating, organising and maintaining an empire
Moritz Julius Bonn
Imperialism means the domination of non-European native races by totally dissimilar European nations.
Parker T. Moon
Imperialism is the expansion of state‟s power beyond its boundaries Morgenthau
Imperialism is purely economic term and it is the highest form of capitalism Lenin
Imperialism is the imposition by force and violence of alien rule upon subject people Schuman
Neo-colonialism: It was popularised in the wake of de-colonisation largely through the activities of
scholars and leaders of newly independent states of Africa and the Pan-African Movement. Many of
these came forward against it in Bandung Conference of 1955 which lead to formation of Non-
Alignment Movement. In Tunis Conference of 1960 and Cairo Conference of 1961 they also reflected
their opposition toward neo-colonialism. The US imperialism has been called neo-colonialism because
of its sort of colonialism i.e. economic domination.
Neo-imperialism: It is process in which powerful countries offer financial aid, technology etc to the
developing countries so as to control the country and with this exploiting the resources of that country
for personal use. Threat as well as military use is its important indicator. Just as Great Britain was
among the top countries in case of colonialism in the same sense USA is holding its top position in case
of neo-imperialism by its financial aid, economic sanctions as well as military actions.
MISCELLENIOUS
Brezhnev Doctrine 1968: It states that USSR will intervene including military action in any country
where socialist rule is under threat.
The ruler of a country which depended on agents for foreign policy
President Wilson of USA Colonel House
President Roosevelt Hopkins
Nikson Henry Kissinger
American Law PL 480 also known as „Food for peace‟ was for a food program for third world countries
including India.

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PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION

Public Administration: meaning and evolution; public and private administration Approaches:
System Theory, Decision Making, Ecological Approach Public administration theories and
concepts: Scientific Management Theory, Rational Choice theory, New Public Administration,
Development Administration, Comparative Public Administration, New Public Management,
changing nature of Public Administration in the era of liberalisation and Globalization Theories
and Principles of Organization: Scientific Management Theory, Bureaucratic Theory, Human
Relations Theory Managing the organization: Theories of leadership and motivation.
Organizational Communication: Theories and Principles, Chester Bernard Principles of
Communication, Information Management in the organization Managing Conflict in the
Organization: Mary Parker Follett Management by Objectives- Peter Drucker

Dr Woodrow Wilson is known as father of Public Administration. Goodnow is known as father of

American Public Administration. M P Sharma is known as father of Indian Public Administration.
Important works
 Study of Administration - 1887 Woodrow Wilson
 Politics of Administration – 1900 Goodnow
 Introduction to study of Public Administration
(First book on Public Administration)- 1926 L. D. White
 Principles of Public Administration - 1927 W. F. Willoughly
 Onward Industry - 1931 Mooney and Really
 Paper on science of Public Administration - 1937 Gurwick and Urwick
 Principles of Organization - 1939 Mooney and Relay
 Study of New Public Administration: A Minnobroke prospective – 1971 Frank Marine
 Reinventing Government - 1992 David Obstrum and
Ted Gabriel
 Public Administration - Avasthi & Maheshwari
 New Public Administration - 1980 George Fredrickson
Phases of Public Administration
i. First Phase (1887-1926)
 Study of Administration 1887 Dr Woodrow Wilson
 Politics of Administration 1900 Goodnow
 Introduction to study of Public Administration 1926 L. D. White
ii. Second Phase (1926-1937) ( it Stress on Principles
& is also known as golden stage)
 Principles of Administration 1927 W. F. Willoughly
 General and Industrial Management 1917 Henry Foyal
 Principles of Organization 1939 Mooney and Reiley
 Paper on science of Administration 1937 Gurwick and Urwick
 Creative experience Marry Parker Fullet
 POSDCORB Gurwick and Urwick
iii. Third Phase (1937-1947)
(Criticism began hence k/s Critical phase)
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 Function of Executive 1938 Chester-I-Bernard
 Proverbs of Administration 1946 Herbert Simmon
 Administrative Behaviour 1947 Herbert Simmon
Robert Dhal also criticized it as Science is value free but administration not. There is human
personality difference and social framework difference between science and administration.
iv. Fourth Phase (1947-70) (Scholars starting rolling back from Public Administration to
political science).
 Comparative Public Administration 1952
 Development Public Administration 1953
v. Fifth Phase (1970-90) (Scientific & logical approaches knocked Public Administration).
 Honey Report on Higher Education 1967
 Conference on Theory and Practice of Public Administration 1967
 Minnowbrook Conference 1968
 Towards a new Public Administration: Minnow-broke Prospective 1971 Frank
Marine
 Public Administration in the time of turbulence. 1971 D. Waldo
Chief features of Public Administration- Relevance, Value, Equity and Change.
 New Public Administration 1980 George Fredrickson
vi. Sixth Phase (1990-till date)
 Boston Conference 1987
 Minnow-brook Conference 1985
 Calculus of Concept Concept by J. V. Ostrum
Theories of Public Administration
Scientific Theory: This theory was first systematic theory of organization and was given by F W
Taylor. He is also known as father of Scientific Theory. The world Scientific Management was first
of all coined by Louis Braudies.
Works of F W Taylor
 Piece Rate System 1895
 Shop Management 1900
 Art of Cutting Metal 1906
 Principles of Management 1911
 Philosophy of Management
 Development of True Science of Work
 Scientific Selection of Workers
 Scientific Education and Development
 Friendly and Mutual Cooperation between Management and Workers.
 Method of Research
Time and Speed, Functional Foremanship, Piece Rate System, Standardization of Machines
and work procedure
 Mental Revolution
 Divert attention of Workers from Surplus Value and go on increasing the profit.
 Decision should be taken on scientific conclusion rather than individual idea.
 Friendly co-operation between management and workers.
 Qualities of a good Foreman
Education, Special and Technical Knowledge, Manual Dexterity and strength, Tact, Grit (courage),
Honesty, Good Health, Energy and Judgment
This theory was adopted by various industrialist countries of that time such as Japan, UK, and
Germany etc.
Criticism of Scientific Theory
 Herbert Simmon criticized it in his work „Organization‟.
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 Karl Mark criticized this theory. He said tailor has treated man as a „cog in a wheel.‟
1. Formal Theory: This theory was given by Henry Foyal. This theory is also known as
mechanical theory or structural theory. He started his carrier as a French Mining Engineer in
1927. He was awarded Nobel Prize for his famous work „General and Industrial Management‟
in 1917. He gave following concepts.
 Elements of Organization
Technical, Commercial, Finance, Security, Accounts and Management
Principal of Organization Qualities of a good Manager
 Division of Work
 Physical fitness
 Authority and Responsibility
 Discipline  Mental Alertness
 Unity of Command
 Moral part of Character
 Unity of Direction
 Subordination of Works  General education
 Remuneration of Persons
 Technical knowledge
 Centralization
 Scale Chain  Experience
 Order
 Equity
 Stability
 E-Spirit de corps
 Inivitives

2. Human Relation Theory: this theory is also known as classical theory. Scientific theory
emphases the aspect of efficiency, economy and productivity but lacks human aspects which
were later emphases by human relation theory. This theory was given by Elto Mayo. He was an
Australian by birth, studied medicines and went to Scotland. Then further returned to Australia
and died in England in 1949. He took a job as associate professor in Harvard business school in
USA in 1926. In 1927 he took an experimental research commonly known as Harvard Research.
Works of Mayo
 Human problems of Industrial civilization 1933
 Social problems of Industrial civilization 1945
 Political problems of Industrial civilization 1947
Mayo was influenced by P. Jannet and Sigmund Freud
Harward experiment: This is a famous experiment given after a various series of experiment at
Harward plant of Western Electronics Company in Chicago by Mayo, Fritz Roethlisberg and
Dikson. They stressed on the behaviour of workers and their production keeping in view
physiological, economics, physical and psychological factors. He called this approach as
„Clinical Method‟. The outcomes of these experiments were published in Frietz Roethlisberg and
Dickson‟s work „Management and Workers‟ in 1939. Some of them are listed below:
 Productivity is affected not by physical force or stamina but by social and
psychological factors.
 Non economic regards and sanction are significant determinant of the employer‟s
motivation and job satisfaction.
 Basing division of work too stringently on specialized is not necessarily the most
efficient approach.
 Employ may react to management and work itself as member of the formal
organization rather than individuals, with this the employees will socialize with one
another and form growth with Mayo called informal Organization.
Criticism:

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 „Anti Union and pro Management‟ Loren Bartta
 „Lack of economic dimension‟ Peter Druker
 „They displace lack of awareness of a large social and technical system‟. Daniel Shell
 „Encouraged employees to interfere in private lives of industrial workers‟. W H Whyte
3. Bureaucratic theory of Organization:
The world „Bureaucracy‟ was first coined by Vincent-de-Gourney in 1746 but a systematic
treatment was done by Gatene Mosca. Further it was developed by Karl Mark, Robert K. Micheal.
The term is widened by Max Weber. He defined it as “A Sociological concept meant for rationalistic
organization of collective life”. “In this growing complexity of modern life there is one and only
organization known as Bureaucracy and there is no escape from it”.
Characteristics of Bureaucracy by Max Weber
Impersonality, Hierarchy, Permanence, Expertise, Money salary, Rules, Exclusiveness, Carrier
system, Discipline and Control
Criticism
 „Rules most important than game‟ Robert K. Merton
 „An association which cannot correct its behavior from its errors‟ Michael Crozier
 „Max Webers‟s theory is nothing more than technical instrument‟ David Bentham
 „Treated it as alien product not suitable for developing societies. Robert Presthus
 „Treated it as a something autonomous, not suitable for development societies‟. F. W. Riggs
 „Treated his ideal type as mental construction‟. Carl Fridrick
Some important definition:
 „It gives rise to Rigidity, Favourism and ritualism‟. R K Merton
 „Officials make work for each others‟. C N Parkinson
 „New form of despotism‟ Lord Hewert
 „A new middle class bourgeois affair‟ Hegel
 „Bureaucracy is a link between state and society‟ Hegel
 „Bureaucracy is the price of Parliamentary democracy‟ Herbert Marrison
 „A body of professional, permanent, paid & skilled‟ Hermin Finer
 „Bureaucracy is an instrument of exploitation‟ Mark
 „Modern is based on legal rational authority‟ Max Weber
 „Dominant Bureaucracy‟ J S Mill
 „The Continental Nuisance‟ Carlyle
 Representative Bureaucracy (concept) Jawarlal Nehru
 Committed Bureaucracy (Concept) Indera Gandhi
 Neutral Bureaucracy (Concept) Marorji Desai
 Social Justice Based Bureaucracy (Concept) V P Singh
 Reformist View of Bureaucracy (Concept) Balow
 Bureaucratic Phenomenon (Concept) Michael Crozier
 Prismatic Bureaucracy (Concept) F W Riggs
 Bureaucracy is the „govt. by officials‟. Gladden
 A system of Govt. the control of which is so completely in the hands
of officials that jeopardize the liberty of individual citizens. Lasaki
 „Bureaucracy is a sociological concept meant for
the realistic organization of collective life‟ Max Weber
 „Bureaucracy is a system of administration characterized by the lack of
expertise, impartiality & humanism‟. Maclver
 Bureaucracy is the „iron law of oligarchy‟ Robert Michael
 Bureaucracy is „ professional body of officials permanent, paid and skilled‟ Finer
Definition of Public Administration:
 Public Administration is related to the operation of government
weather center or state. P McQueen
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 It is defined as art and science of management as applied to affairs of state. D. Waldo

 It is defined as what and who of government. M. E. Dimock

 It is defined as systematic executive of law. Woodrow Wilson
 It is primary concerned with executive branch where work of government
is done. Luther Gulick
 The science of administration is an enquiry as how policies many best
be carried into operation. Merson
 It is common usage of executive branch at national, state and local. Herbert Simmon
 Any policy whose aim is the execution of public policy is called administration. L.D. White
 Public administration is the work done by the govt. to give effect to law. H Walker
 It denotes the operation of Administrative branch only. F Willoughby
Principles of Organization
Definitions
 Organization is a system of consciously co-ordination activities or forces
of two or more persons. Chester Bernard
 Organization consists of relationship from individual to individual, from group
to group which are so related to bring an orderly division of labor. Piffner &
Presthus
 Organization is the form of every human association for attainment of
common purpose. Mooney
 Principles are nothing but proverb of administration. Simmon
 They are only the working rules. L D White
 Co-ordination is the first principle of organization. Mooney
 There are some principles which can be taken as more or less proved. Gurwick, Urwick,
Henry Foyal, Willoughly.
Koontz and O Donell has given following reason for importance of Principles of Organization
 To increase efficiency of organization
 To crystallize the nature of organization job
 To achieve social goal
Principles of Organization: There are four principles of organization i.e.
a) Hierarchy
“Superior subordinate relationship from top to bottom” L. D. White
“Scalar principle of organization” Mooney
b) Unity of Command
“Every member in an organization should report to one and only one superior”
Piffner & Presthus
“Every member of organization should receive order from one superior only” Henry Foyal
Taylor favoured duel supervision i.e. by 8 persons
The Gang boss, The speed boss, The inspector, The repair boss, The order of work and route
clerk, The instruction card clerk, The time and cost clerk and The shop disciplinarian
John D Millet favoured duel supervision i.e. by 2 persons
Technical supervisor and Administrative supervisor
Seckler Hudson favored duel supervision i.e. by four persons
Policy order supervisor, Personal supervisor, Budget supervisor, Supplier and equipment
supervisor
c) Spain of Control
“The number and the range of direct habitual communication between chief executive of an
enterprise and his fellow officials” Dimock
Various thinkers offered control by different numbers e.g.
Urvey 5
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Hamilton 6
J C Worthy 20
Dale 16
Gauconas n (2n+1 + n-1) for him ideal was 6
d) Integration and disintegration
The transfer of administrative authority from lower to higher level of govt. is called
centralization and converse is decentralization L D White
Donald C Stone wrote „New horizons in Public Administration‟ in which he gave following
suggestion to chief executive as under:
 To create an environment conductive to convert efforts in pursuing the objective of
organization.
 No interference of higher at lower stage decision
 Act in economic terms
 He should be aware about work in organization
 To act predominately catalyst in working process
 To have sufficient knowledge about programe
L. D. Lipset wrote „Being an Executive‟ in which he gave qualities of executive.
Being objective & broad minded, Keeping the lives of authority straight, Having people smarter than
him, Avoid handling detail by himself
R. S. Dawar wrote „Creative Leadership‟ in which he gave qualities of leadership
Courage, Will power, Emotional stability, Independent, Knowledge, Decisiveness and initiative.
Max Weber gave three Types of authority i.e. Chrismatic Authority, Traditional Authority and
Legal-Rational Authority. He describes Legal-Rational as ideal one.
Line and Staff and Auxiliary agencies: The concept of line and staff originated in realm of military
services. Line is directly linked with Administrative command. The staf provides specialized advice
but does not command. Auxiliary provides help to both line and staff where as staff and auxiliary are
for complex organization. Staffs help chief executive in an office.
Line: In „Introduction to the study of Public Administration‟ L. D. White has given following
function of line agency
 Making Decision
 Taking Responsibility
 Interesting and depending policy operation
 Planning
 Maintaining production while seeking both efficiency and economy.
Types of line agency;
 The department: An homogenous unit where work is concentrated
USA = 13 departments headed by a secretary
UK not fixed
 Public Corporation: A Statutory body. Marshal E. Dimock defines it as “a public owned
enterprise that has been charted under federal, state or local law for a particular business or
financial purpose”. However in this there is a problem of Autonomy and control.
 Independent regulatory commission: it is a peculiar concept in USA. This commission
enjoys somewhat autonomy and is created to help head administration. They quasi-Judicial
and quasi-legislative functions.
Staff: Provides support to the line agencies but don‟t take decision
Types of staff agencies;
 General staff
 Technical staff
 Auxiliary staff

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Willoughly calls staff agencies as “Housekeeping services”
Some views about Public Administration
 Wider view of Public Administration was given by M. E. Dimock.
 Narrow view of Public Administration was given by L. Gulick.
 Integral view of Public Administration was given by L. D. White.
 Managerial view of Public Administration Herbert A Simmon.

Major functions of Chief Functions of executive as Maslow gave concept

Executive as given by L D given by Luther Gulick of „Hierarchy of needs‟
White (POSDCORB) as followings
 Formulation of policies  Planning  Physiological needs
 Create organization  Organizing  Safety needs
 Personal administration  Staffing  Social needs
 Command administration  Directing  Esteem needs
 Investigation and enquiries  Coordinating  Self-actualization
 Budgeting and responsibility  Reporting needs
 Co-ordination  Budgeting

Max Weber is known as St. Paul of concept of Bureaucracy.

According to Urwick „every organization must have its scalar chain just as every house must have its
drain‟.
Nehru said „Administration not only has to be good but also to be felt to be good by the people‟.
Accountability and Control
 Royal commission on Finance, Management & Accountability was set up in Canada in 1976.
 White said „Power in a democracy requires control and greater the power the more need for
control‟.
 Internal Emergency in India 26 June 1975 to 23 March 1977.
 Mundhra Case; question raised by Dr Ram Shabang Singh (first leader of opposition in
Lok Sabha) in Parliament. Chagla Commission inquired & T T Krishnamachari (Minister)
resigned. This is first case corruption in India.
 Pondicherry License Case 1974
 K D Malviya-Sirajuddin affair 1963.
 V K Krishna Menon resigned because he was held responsible for debar in border war with
China.
 No confidence motion was first time discussed in 1963 in Parliament of India.
Various Administrative Reform committee in India
 N. Gopal Swamy Lyenger committee – 1949 (Recommended re-organisation of post offices)
 A W Gorewala committee – 1950 (to review the working of Pub Adm. In the task of
development.)
 P H Appleby committee – 1952 (to do a survey of Administration in India)
 P H Appleby committee – 1956 (to review the working of Indian Enterprises)
 J B Kripalni committee – 1955 (to examine the issue of corruption in Indian Railway)
 A Ramaswamy muddalair committee - 1956 (to outline the criteria of merit for civil service)
 K santhanam committee – (to examine the working of Indian administration In total)
 First administrative reform commission – 1966 (under Marorji Desai & then K
Hanumanthaiah)
 D S Kothari committee – 1976 (concerned with the process of recruitment in Civil Services)
 Satish Chandra committee – 1989 (Recommended broad changes in Civil Services)
 N N Vohra committee – 1997 (to examine the issue of corruption)
 P C Jain committee – 1998 ( to examine the operational aspect of administrative law)
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 Y K Alagh committee – 2000 (to examine civil services examination)
 P C Hota committee – 2004 (changes in civil services exam)
 Second Administrative reform – 2005 Verapa Moli was its chairman, RTI was its first
demand.
Modern theories of Motivation Traditional theories of Motivation
Hierarchy of needs Maslow  Fear and punishment theory
Theory X and Theory Y Mc Gregor  Reward theory (given by Taylor)
Theory Z Ouchi  Carrot and stick theory
Two Factor Theory Herzberg
Expectation Theory Vroom
George R Terry in his work „Principle of
Ordward Tead gave following „qualities of Management‟ gave following qualities of
leadership‟ Leadership
 Physical and nervous energy  Energy
 Enthusiasm  Emotional Stability
 Sense of purpose and direction  Knowledge of human relation
 Technical mastery  Empathy
 Friendliness and affection  Objectivity
 Decisiveness  Communication skill
 Integrity  Teaching ability
 Intelligence  Teaching skill
 Faith  Technical competence

Chester Bernar: He gave 4 qualities of leadership

Vitality and endurance, Decisiveness, Persuasiveness, Responsibility and intellectual capacity
M P Follet gave three types of leadership
Leadership of position, Leadership of personality and Leadership of Function
Chester Bernard gave concept of „Zone of Indifference‟. He divided the acceptance of authority
into three types
 Those who will clearly be unacceptable
 Those which are neutral line
 Those which are unquestionable accepted, according to him order falling under this third
category came under zone of Indifference.
Management: Following are some of work on Management.
 Need Hierarchy Maslow
 Motivation Hygiene theory Herzberg
 Job Enrichment Herzberg
 Theory X, Theory Y Mc Gregor
 Theory Z 1978 William Ouchi & Alford Jaegar
 Management System Likert
System 1 Exploitive Authority
System 2 Autocratic
System 3 Consultative
System 4 Participative group, by this fourth system we can get greater efficiency.
 Maturity and Immaturity theory Argyris
 Integration of Individual and Organizational goals Argyris
 Pattern of AB Analysis Argyris
 Management Grid Blake & Mounton
 Impersonal Behaviour Sayles
 Organizational Development Bennis

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 Contingency model of leadership style Fiedler
 Human Group Homasan
 Fusion Process Bakke
 Group Dynamics Lewin
Important works in Public Administration:
 Achievement Motivation Theory 1953 David Mc Clelland
 Positive reinforcement theory/Behaviour modification theory
/operation conditioning theory 1953 B F Skinner
 Management by objective theory (MBO) 1955 Peter Drucker
 Maturity-Immaturity Theory 1957 Charis Argyris
 Expectancy theory or VIE theory
(Valence Instrumentality & Expectancy) 1964 Victor Vroom
 Equity Theory 1965 J Stacy Adams
 Performance-Satisfaction Theory 1968 Porter & Lawler.
 Goal Setting Theory 1968 Edwin Locke
 Attribution Theory 1973 Harold Kelley
 Bowling Alone: America‟s decline social capital 1995 Robert Putnam
 Financial Administration in India M J K Thavaraj
 Human Side of Enterprise Mc Gregor
 Temporal Dimensions of Development Administration 1970 D Waldo
 The intellectual crisis in American Public Administration 1974 Vincent Ostrum
 The State 1889 Woodrow Wilson
 Congressional Govt. 1885 Woodrow Wilson
 The New State 1920 M P Follett
 Management of Tomorrow 1933 Urwick
 The Idea of India S Khilnanai
 Sustainable History and Dignity of Man Nayef Al Rodhan
 The Ecology of Administration F. W. Riggs
 The problem of Science of Public Administration Robert A. Dahl
 The Developmental Administration J. L. Plambara
 Clinical approach to counseling therapy Cart Rogers
 Studies of inter-personal relation J L Moreno
Herbert A Simmon
He was born in 1916 in USA, Awarded Nobel Prize in 1978. Nobel committee conferred his work as
Epoch Making. He belonged to social system school. He said „before a science can develop
principles, it must possess concept. Decision making is most important activity of Administration‟.
The socio-psychological approach is also known as behavior approach. Some important works of
Simmon are as following;
Work Year Work Year
Proverb of Administration 1946 The new science of Management Decision 1960
Administrative Behavior 1947 Shape of automation 1960
Fundamental research in 1953 Science of artificial 1969
Administration
Organization 1958 Human Problem solving 1972
Simmon coined the terms Bounded rationality. He gave three stages of decision making i.e.
Intelligence activity, Design Activity, Choice Activity.
Administrative System of USA
 Constitution adopted on September 17, 1782 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and later ratified
by conventions in each state in the name of „the people‟.
 So far only 27 Amendments have done. First ten amendments known as bill of Rights. It is
world oldest federal constitution.

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 The hand written or engrossed, original document is on display at National Archives and
Record Administration in Washington DC.
 It consists of 7 Articles & 27 Amendments.
 It is based on „Separation of power‟ and „check and balance‟.
 President does not attend session of congress, nor initiate legislation directly, nor answer
question.
 Congress cannot remove him nor does he can dissolve congress.
 Father of US constitution provided indirect election for president but today elected directly.
 USA was originally a federal of 13 states but today 50.
 Federation in practice has become strong because of application of doctrine of Implied Power
as propounded by the Supreme Court of USA.
 Major amendment of USA constitution
 13th Amendment 1865 Abolished Slavery in America.
 19th - 1920 Granted suffrage to women.
 22 nd
- 1951 Regulated re-eligibility president
 25th - 1971 if president cannot perform duties, vice president will be acting
President.
 26th - Voting right to all citizens of 18 yrs old age.
 27th - 1992
 Lower house is known as „House of Representatives‟ 435 member elected for 2 years.
 Upper house called „Senate‟ consists of 100 members elected for 6 years.
 Article 1 gives power to congress
 Article 2 Gives power to President
 Article 3 Gives power to Supreme Court
 USA don‟t possess concurrent list.
 Justice Huge said “We are under a constitution but constitution is what the judge says”.
 In USA Constitution bill from state cannot reserved for present‟s assent.
 In USA Judicial review became famous by the case of Marbury Vs Maidison under Chief
Justice Marshal.
 Hoover Commission: 1st Hoover Commission was appointed by president of USA, David
Truman in 1947 for Administrative changes in federal govt. of USA. It gave 273
recommendations. It was named after Hebert Hoover, former president of USA. 2nd Hoover
Commission was appointed in 1953
Right to Information Act
 USA granted the RTI to its citizens by RTI Act 1966.
 Sweden is the only state which has conferred RTI through direct constitutional provision.
 Fulton Committee (1996-98) in Britain found too much secrecy in Pub. Adm. & hence
recommended to inquiry into office secret Act 1911.
 In 1972 Frank Report also made some recommendations.
 On July 25, 2000 govt. introduced RTI bill in Lok Sabha.
 On Oct. 12, 2005, RTI was made a const. Act. It is under Art 19(a) i.e. Right to freedom of
speech and expression.
 Central Information Commission (CIC) at Union Govt. it include one Chief Information
Commissioner (CIC) and not more than ten Information Commissioners (ICs). This is RTI is
kept under it.
 All of them appointed by president on recommendation of high powered committee
constituting PM, Leader of opp. Lok Sabha, One Union Minister.
 Tenure of appointment is 65 years age or 5 years term, no further employment.
 Can fine 250/day up to 25000 if information delayed beyond 30 days.
Financial Administration: the word „Budget‟ has been derived from a French word „Bougette‟
which means a „leather bag or wallet‟.
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Wildasky defined budget as „a series of goals with price tags attached‟.
Harold D Smith gave five principles of Budget
Executive Programe, Executive Responsibility, Reporting, Adequate tools and Multiple Procedures
Budget is prepared by following in different countries:
 Finance Ministry - India
 Bureau of Budget - USA
 Treasury - UK
Performance Budget: it is a concept of recent origin & is different from traditional budget. A
performance budget shows what wise & programe-wise. It fixes responsibility very precisely. It was
in 1860 that Sir James Wilson, the first finance member of the Governor-General‟s council
introduced the Budget in the Government of India.
Preparation of Budget in India: Finance Ministry, The Administrative Ministry, Niti Ayog & CAG.
Article 112 -117 deals with the enactment of Budget.
Zero Base Budget (ZEB):
 ZEB was first developed at Texas Instruments Inc. during 1969 by Peter A Phyrr.
 This process was first adopted by Gimmy Carter (Who later became US president) of
Georgia for the preparation of fiscal 1973 budget.
 V P Singh PM of India said that Govt. would be introducing ZEB at first in a small way in
1986-87 & then in full in Budget from 1987-88.
 ZEB technique involves a critical review of every scheme before a budget provision is made
in its favour.
Planning Programming Budget (PPB):
 IT has its roots in Industry.
 It was first practiced by USA Company General Motors in 1924.
Budgeting is known by various names. Earlier it was called as „Functional Budgeting‟ or
„Authoritative Budgeting‟. The term „Performance Budget‟ was first used by Hoover Commission
1949. Another term „Programme Budget‟ is also used. A performance Budget focuses on work and
activities of an organization where as Programe Budget treats them as but intermediate aspect &
concentrate on output analysis. A Performance Budget strives for an improvement of internal
Management of Organization by using techniques.
First Administrative Reform defines a Performance Budget as „a technique for presenting govt.
operations in terms of functions, programs, activities and objects‟.
Vote on Account: according to Art 116(a), the Lok Sabha can grant a limited sum from thr
Consolidated Fund of India to the executive to spend till the appropriate act is passed by Parliament.
It is taken for two months and is limited to 1/6 of the total expenditure of the year.
Railway and defence accounts are not audited by CAG. In 1976, Audit and Accounts department was
separated.
Jeep purchase case was a corruption case in 1918 and Whisky deal in 1948 and these are important.
Brownlow Commission: It was established in 1937 for changes in executive branch of USA Govt. Its
members were Luther Gulick, Louis Brownlow, Charles Marine. It resulted in creation of executive
office of president.
Personal Administration:
 The credit of developing scientific system of recruitment for the first time goes to China in
2nd century BC.
 Prussia was first modern time to introduce a system from 1857 onwards.
 In USA Spoil system was replaced by merit principle.
 In India as well as in Britain Merit system came to existence in 1853.
 The first use of interview in recruitment was made in England in 1909.
 Civil Service Commission is the recruitment agency in Britain.
 National Bureau of Administration is the main recruitment agency in France.

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Civil Service in India:
 Before independence, ICS exam was held in England India.
 A combined exam was held for all services except Indian Police.
 Prior to 1922, it was held in Britain only.
 In 1937 Public Service Commission (India) was converted into Federal Public Commission
under Act 1935.
 After 1943, recruitment to ICS as well as IP was suspended.
 After independence ICS, IP were not resumed and new one IAS, IPS were established.
 In 1975 Kothari Committee under D S Kothari submitted its report & said that a preliminary
screening exam should be held for IAS, other Class 1 exams.
 In 1978 Central Govt. accepted its recommendations.
 Today exam is based on Kothari committee.
 Fort William College was established in 1800 by East India Company in India.
Classification of Employees;
Classification before Independence

Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4

Classification by East India Company

Covenanted /Superior Type initially Non-Covenanted, Subordinate Type

only European were taken into Royal Indians were also taken into

Sir Charles Aitchison Commission 1886

Imperial Civil Provincial Civil Subordinate

Services Services Services

Lee Commission 1923

All India Services Central Services Provincial Services

British Administrative Services

 Oldest administrative system & oldest democratic system.
 British constitution is known as mother of constitution.
 Representative govt. first developed in Britain.
 It is mixture of Monarchy, Aristocracy and democracy.
 Great Charter is also known as constitution Charter and is a Constitutional landmark. They
are historical documents which define power of crown and liberties of citizens.
 Magna Carta 1215

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 Petition of Rights 1628
 Bill of Rights 1789
 Statues: These are the law made by British Parliament from time to time.
 Habeas Corpus Act 1679
 The status of west Minister 1931
 Minister of Crown Act 1937
 People‟s Representation Act 1948
 Privy Council
 Came into existence in 15th century.
 Presently it consists of 330 members & includes all cabinet ministers.
 It presides over by Lord President of the Council.
 Shadow Cabinet
 Unique institution of British Cabinet system.
 Formed by opposition party to balance ruling party.
British Civil Services:
 Till 19th century Britain had Patronage system of civil services.
 Civil services originated on recommendation of North Cottrevelyan Report of 1854.
 Later changes introduced on recommendation of Play-fair Commission.
 Major Committees
Name of Committee Year Name of Committe Year
Radley Commission 1986 Masterman Committee 1948
MacDonald Committee 1912 Priestley Committee 1953
Maldone Committee 1918 Plowden Committee 1961
Haldone Committee 1918 Morton Committee 1963
Assletion Committee 1944 Fulton Committee 1968
 House of Common: All the members have 5 yrs. Term and house meet once a year. Total
members of the house are 635
Country Seats Country Seats
England 516 Wales 36
Scotland 71 Northern Bee land 12
 Speaker is selected for life as long as he/she wish. In 2009, John Bercow was elected as
speaker. In 2015 re-elected for same post.
Administrative System of France:
 French Revolution (1789-1799)
 Since revolution, constitution has changed on an average of every 12 years.
 It adopted three Monarchies, two dictatorships, three imperial & four republic Constitutions.
 Present is fifth Republic constitution came into force in 1958.
 It was prepared under the instructions of General deGauthe.
 It is a written Constitution. It consists of a preamble, 92 articles, divided into 15 chapters.
 It declared Liberty, Equality and Fraternity, as motto of 5th Republic.
 Art. 2 states that France is a Republic, Indivisible, Secular, Democratic &Social.
 French constitution provides neither presidential nor Parliamentary govt. rather it provides
Quasi-presidential & Quasi-Parliamentary govt.
 President is elected directly for seven years.
 Nominated council of ministers under PM responsible to Parliament.
 It has bicameral house.
 National Assembly (Lower House) (Directly elected for 5 years) 577 members.
 The Senate (Upper House) (Indirectly elected for 9 years) 321 members.
 It has unitary govt. i.e. only Central Govt.

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 It has a constitutional Council consisting of 9 members appointed for 9 years. It works as
judicial watch dog.
 Originally in constitution president was elected indirectly, but in 1962 the const. amended to
make it direct election.
Case study method: This method was first developed in 1980 by Christopher Longdell at Harvard
Law School.
Peter Drucker said „Satisfaction with monetary rewards is not a sufficient motivation‟
Abraham Maslow gave concept Vroom gave „Expectancy Theory‟. He gave
„Hierarchy of Need‟ & mentioned following factors of an equation to calculate
following need in it motivation.
 Self Actualization  Expectancy
 Esteem  Instrumentality
 Social  Valence
 Safety
M=E×I×V
 Psychological
Michael Nash opened that Maslow‟s theory is interesting but not valid. Nash too characterized the
theories of Herzberg and Maslow as „Major wrong theories‟.
The term „Self Actualization‟ was coined by Kurt Goldstein
Administrative System of Japan:
 Renunciation of War- Art 9 of the constitution states that Japanese people forever renounce
war as a sovereign right of nation.
 Judicial Review – Art 98
 Constitution has never been amended since its enactment in 1947.
 Need special majority for amendment.
 Parliament is called Diet & it consists of two houses
 House of Representatives of Japan - 480 directly elected members
 House of Councilors - 242 directly elected members
 Prime Minister is powerful. He is commander-in-chief of Japan defense forces.
 Its constitution is also known as Pacific Constitution.
Communication (definitions)
Shared understanding of shared purpose Millet
The underlying aim of communication is a meeting of minds on common issue Tead
Good communication is the foundation for sound administration Peter
It is the heart of management Piffner
It is a process in which decisional premises are transmitted from one member of
the organization to another. Simmon
Simmon‟s work Administrative behavior laid the foundation for the economic movement known as
„Carnegic School‟.
Types of decision making
S. No. Thinker Types of Decision Making
1. Simmon Programmed and Non-Programed
2. P Drucker Generic and Unique
3. Chester Bernard Organizational and Personal
Model of Decision making
There are four model of decision making
 Bounded Rationality Model/Behavioral Model Simmon
 Model of Public Policy/Lindblom‟s Incremental Model Lindblom
 Mixed Scanning Model Etzioni‟s Model
 Dror‟s Optional Model Dror

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Types of Leadership
 Lawa University Leadership Kurt Lewin Lippit & Ralph White
 Ohio State University Leadership E A Fleishman, E F Horris, H E Burtt
 Michigian University Leadership Rensis Likert
 Great man theory of leadership: This theory states that some men possess great quality of
leadership by birth e.g. Nelson, Nepolian, Charchill, Mao, Gandhi etc.
 Management Grid Robert Blake & June Mouton.
 In managerial grid they gave following figures.
a. Impoverished 1.1
b. Country club 1.9
c. Task 9.1
d. Middle of Road 5.5
e. Team 9.9
Minnow Brooke Conferences:
 First Minnow Brooke Conference was held in 1968 at Syracuse University, USA.
 It was organized against to US govt. and Philadelphia Conference.
 Its participants were from field of Political Science only.
 Its focus was Change, Relevance, Social Equity and Value.
 It gave rise to concept of Public Administration.
 Its Chairman was Dwight Waldo.
 Its proceedings were published in report by Frank Marini in 1971 names as
“Towards a New Public Administration: The Minnow Brook Prospective”.
 2nd Minnow Brooke Conference was held in 1988 in USA at Syracuse University.
 It was organized for the support and expansion of US Administration.
 Its participants from field of Public Administration, Political Science, law,
Management Administration etc.
 Its focus was LPG – Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization.
 It gave rise to concept of New Public Administration.
 Its Chairman was H George Fredrickson.
 All its proceedings were published in work edited by Richard T Mayor and
published by Timmy Bailey named as “Public Management in the inter-connected
World: Essay in Minnow Brooke Tradition.”
 3rd Minnow Brooke Conference was held in Sept. 2008 at Syracuse University.
 It was organized at the time when US was facing global terrorism, economic and
ecological imbalances.
 It focused upon structural and functional reforms or second generation reforms.
 It gave origin to concept of 3‟E – Economy, Efficiency and Effectiveness.
 It was chaired by Rosemary O‟ Leary.
Father in Public Administration
Father of Public Administration Woodrow Wilson
Father of American Public Administration Frank Goodnow
Father of Indian Public Administration M P Sharma
Father of Development Administration George Gantt
Father of Comparative Public Administration F W Riggs
Father of New Public Administration Dwight Waldo

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Bilateral Relations NOTES

India – China
1. Doklam Dispute
 The 71-day standoff between India and China at Doklam was successfully
resolved.
 Doklam, also called
Donglang is located at a
tri-junction of India,
Tibet and Bhutan and is
close to the Nathu La
pass, through which
China had blocked in
2017 the Kailash
Mansoravar yatra.
 Doklam is recognised as a
Bhutanese territory by

m
India and Bhutan. But, China claims some parts of the Doklam Plateau as part

co
of its “ancient” frontier.

.
 The reason behind the stand-off was the Chinese attempt to build a road in
the strategically located Doklam. da
ad
 Indian troops intervened to block the path of Chinese People’s Liberation
m

Army soldiers engaged in building road-works on the Doklam plateau.

aa

 This was the first time that India used troops to protect Bhutan’s territorial
interests.
.x


w

This raised concerns between Bhutan and China.


w

Bhutan has a written agreement with China that pending the final resolution
w

of the boundary issue, peace and tranquility should be maintained in the

area.
 India and Bhutan have a Friendship Treaty signed in 2007 according to
which, India serves as a virtual security guarantor to Bhutan.
o Under the agreement, neither Government shall allow the use of its
territory for activities harmful to the national security and interest of
the other.

2. India, China ‘clash’ near high-altitude Pangong Lake

 The Indian and Chinese armies clashed recently along the Pangong lake in
Ladakh when the People’s Liberation Army tried to penetrate into the Indian
side.
 Pangon lake or Pangong Tso, a 135-km long
lake, located in the Himalayas at the height of
approximately 4,350 m, stretches out from
India to China.
 One-third of water body, its 45 km stretch, is in
Indian control while the rest of the 90 km is under Chinese control.
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 There has been constant strife between the two countries over the region as NOTES
both assert territorial possession.
 The region has been a bone of contention between India and China for long.
 In the 1990s, when the Indian side laid claims over the area, the Chinese army
built a metal-top road contending that it was part of the Aksai Chin, which is
another disputed border area between the two.
 The Aksai Chin area falls under Chinese control and is governed as part of
Hotan County. However, India also claims it to be a part of the Ladakh
region of Jammu and Kashmir.

3. India – China Trade Deficit

 India’s trade deficit with China rose to $46.56 billion in 2016.
 China’s exports to India totalled $58.33 billion, registering a meagre increase
of 0.2% compared to $58.25 billion in 2015.
 India’s exports to China dropped 12% from 2015 to $11.76 billion.
 India exports less to China (mainly raw materials) and imports more (mainly
electronics and other manufactured goods which are in high demand).
 China’s exports to India account for only 2% of its total exports. So even if

m
Indians boycott all the goods imported from China, it will not make as big an

co
impact on China.


.
India imports telecom gear worth over Rs 70,000 crore annually, much of it
from Chinese firms like Huawei and ZTE. da
ad
 Chinese companies dominate the telecom sector in India. India’s pharma
m

sector has critical dependence on Chinese imports used in drugs

aa

manufacturing.
 Power is another sector where India depends on Chinese imports. In the 12th
.x

Plan alone, almost 30% of the generating capacity was imported from China.
w

 Between April 2016 and January 2017, solar equipment from China had a
w
w

share of 87% in a market pegged at $1.9 billion.

India – U.S
1. India major defence partner: U.S.
 the US recognised India as a “major defence partner” in June 2016, which
means that for defence related trade and technology transfer the country
would now be treated at par with America’s closest allies.
 This status is bestowed upon the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
countries and the US treaty allies such as Japan, South Korea, Australia, New
Zealand and Philippines.
 The designation of this status is unique to India, a non-NATO ally of US.
 India’s Major Defence Partner status has been made a part of the India
Amendment in the National Defence Authorization Act (NDAA), 2017 of US.
 It will facilitate US to transfer of advanced defence technology to India.
 It will also strengthen institutional effectiveness of US-India Defence Trade
and Technology Initiative (DTII) and the durability of the India Rapid
Reaction Cell in Pentagon.
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2. US House passes Bill for strengthening defence ties with India NOTES
 The US House of Representatives has passed a $621.5 billion defence policy
bill that proposes to advance defence cooperation with India.
 An amendment in this regard was adopted by the House as part of the
National Defense Authorisation Act (NDAA) 2018.
 NDAA-2018 asks the State Department and the Pentagon to develop a
strategy that addresses common security challenges, the role of American
partners and allies in India-US defence relationship, and role of the defence
technology and trade initiative.

3. US rolls out expedited entry for ‘low-risk’ Indian travellers

 The US has started rolling out for India its Global Entry programme which
allows for expedited clearance of pre-approved, low-risk travellers.
 Global Entry Programme:
o On landing at select airports, the programme members enter the
United States through automatic kiosks, instead of queueing up to
clear the immigration by meeting an immigration officer.
o At these airports, the members proceed to the Global Entry kiosks,

m
present their machine-readable passport or US permanent resident

co
card, place their fingerprints on the scanner for fingerprint verification

.
and complete a customs declaration.
da
o Travellers must be pre-approved for the Global Entry programme. All
ad
applicants undergo a rigorous background check and in-person
m

interview before enrolment.

aa

o With this India has becomes only the 11th country whose citizens are
eligible to enroll in the Customs and Border Protection (CBP) initiative.
.x
w

4. US- India Strategic Partnership Forum (USISPF)

w
w

 A new representative body — US- India Strategic Partnership Forum

(USISPF) — is set up to further enhance business relations between the two
countries.
 The non-profit corporation aims to promote bilateral trade and work on
creating “meaningful opportunities that have the power to change the lives
of citizens.
 The body will work closely together with businesses and government
leaders to achieve its goals of driving economic growth, job creation,
innovation, inclusion and entrepreneurship.

5. India, US establish new ministerial dialogue

 India and US have established new 2-by-2 ministerial dialogue to enhance
strategic coordination between them and maintaining peace and stability in
the Indo-Pacific region.
 The India-US Strategic and Commercial Dialogue, once described by the US
State Department as the “signature mechanism for advancing the United
States’ and India’s shared priorities,” will now be replaced by the new
dialogue.
 Downloaded
Composition: from- [Link]
The new dialogue format will involve the External Affairs
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Minister and Defence Minister from India and their American counterparts NOTES
Secretary of State and Defence Secretary.
 The shared priorities include job creation, improving the business and
investment climate and sustaining a rules-based global order.
 The US has strategic consultations in this format with key partners and allies
including Australia, Japan and the Philippines. India has had a dialogue in the
two-plus-two format with Japan with secretaries or senior-most bureaucrats
from the foreign and defence ministries engaging each other.

6. ‘Merit-based’ immigration plan may benefit Indian professionals

 President Donald Trump has announced his support for the Reforming
American Immigration for Strong Employment (RAISE) Act that would cut in
half the number legal immigrants allowed into the US while moving to a
“merit-based” system favouring English-speaking skilled workers for residency
cards.
 RAISE Act:
o The RAISE Act would scrap the current lottery system to get into the
US and instead institute a points-based system for earning a green

m
card. Factors that would be taken into account include English

co
language skills, education, high- paying job offers and age.
o The RAISE Act ends chain migration, and replaces the low-skilled

.
da
system with a new points-based system for receiving a Green Card.
ad
o If passed by the Congress and signed into law, the legislation titled the
Reforming American Immigration for Strong Employment (RAISE) Act
m

could benefit highly-educated and technology professionals from

aa

countries like India.

.x
w

India – Myanmar
w
w

1. India awards road contract to complete Kaladan project in Myanmar

 The contract for building 109-km road connecting Paletwa river terminal to
Zorinpui in Mizoram border has been awarded by the Indian government.
 Background:
o Mooted in 2003, India entered a framework agreement with Myanmar
for Kaladan project in 2008.
o Construction began in 2010 with a deadline in June 2015.
o But, no headway was achieved on the road project.
o Inadequate
fund allocation
and planning
failure were
seen as major
reasons for the
delay.
 Kaladan project:
o Kaladan multi-
modal
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transport projects was the first major project taken up by India in NOTES
Myanmar.
o The Kaladan project connects Sittwe Port in Myanmar to the India-
Myanmar border.
o The project was jointly initiated by India and Myanmar to create a
multi-modal platform for cargo shipments from the eastern ports to
Myanmar and to the North-eastern parts of India through Myanmar.
o It is expected to open up sea routes and promote economic
development in the North-eastern states.
o This project will reduce distance from Kolkata to Sittwe by
approximately 1328 km and will reduce the need to transport good
through the narrow Siliguri corridor, also known as Chicken’s Neck.

2. Conservation of Pagodas at Bagan

 The Union Cabinet has approved the Memorandum
of Understanding (MoU) between India and
Myanmar for the conservation of earthquake-
damaged pagodas at Bagan, Myanmar.


m
Pagodas:

co
o A pagoda is a tiered tower with multiple
diminishing roofs rise above the other, built

.
da
in traditions originating as stupa in South Asia and further developed
ad
in East Asia.
o It is commonly found into Nepal, India, China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam,
m

Myanmar, Sri Lanka and other parts of Asia.

aa

o They became prominent as Buddhist monuments and are used for

.x

enshrining sacred relics.

w

o In India, it is mostly found in Mandi, Kullu, Shimla hills and Kinnaur

w

regions of Himachal Pradesh.

w

 Bagan:
o Bagan in central Burma is one of the world’s greatest archaeological
sites.
o The Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) River drifts past its northern and western
sides.
o From the 9th to 13th centuries, the city was the capital of the Pagan
Kingdom, the first kingdom that unified the regions that would later
constitute modern Myanmar.
o During the kingdom’s height between the 11th and 13th centuries,
over 10,000 Buddhist temples, pagodas and monasteries were
constructed in the Bagan plains alone.

India – Russia
1. 18th Annual India Russia Summit
 18th Annual India Russia Summit was held at St. Petersburg, Russia.
 Marking 70 years of diplomatic ties, India and Russia signed the St Petersburg
Declaration.
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 The Declaration is an action plan for deepening not only political and NOTES
economic development of the two countries but also to ensure a benchmark
of stability in times of global instability.

India – Afghanistan
1. India - Afghanistan dedicated air freight corridor
 India and Afghanistan inaugurated a dedicated air freight corridor service in
june 2017.
 The corridor passes through the airspace of Pakistan.
 The connectivity will provide Afghanistan, a landlocked country, greater
access to markets in India, and will allow Afghan businessmen to leverage
India’s economic growth and trade networks for its benefit.
 It would enable Afghan farmers quick and direct access to the Indian markets

@GURU_UPSC
for their perishable produce.

India – Bangladesh
1. Interpretative notes between India and Bangladesh

m


co
The Union Cabinet has given its approval for the Joint Interpretative Notes
(JIN) on the agreement between India and Bangladesh

.
 da
The objective is for the promotion and protection of investments between
ad
the two countries.
 The JIN includes interpretative notes to be jointly adopted for many clauses,
m

including,
aa

o The definition of investor and investment,

.x

o exclusion of taxation measures,

w

o Fair and Equitable Treatment (FET),

w

o National Treatment (NT) and Most Favoured Nation (MFN) treatment,

w

o expropriation, essential security interests and

o Settlement of disputes between an investor and a contracting party.
 Joint Interpretative Statements play an important supplementary role in
strengthening the investment treaty regime.
 With increasing Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) disputes, issuance of such
statements is likely to have strong persuasive value before tribunals.
 The JIN would impart clarity to the interpretation of the existing agreement
between India and Bangladesh for the Promotion and Protection of BIPA
(Bilateral Promotion and Protection of Investments).

2. Operation Insaaniyat
 Operation Insaaniyat was launched by the government of India to assist
Bangladesh in managing crisis caused due to heavy influx of refugees from
neighbouring Myanmar.
 As part of this programme, the Indian government sent relief material.
 The Indian Air Force has been tasked to airlift the relief material from India to
Bangladesh.
 Downloaded
This aircraft from-
will be loaded with [Link]
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necessities viz., rice, pulses, sugar, salt, cooking oil, ready to eat meals, NOTES
mosquito nets etc.
 India has always responded readily and swiftly to any crisis in Bangladesh, in
keeping with the close ties of friendship between the peoples of India and
Bangladesh.

India – Japan
1. India - Japan civil nuclear deal
 The India-Japan Agreement for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear
Energy entered into force on July 20, 2017.
 The pact was signed in Tokyo during the visit of Prime Minister Narendra
Modi to Japan on November 11, 2016.
 India is the first non-member of the non-proliferation treaty (NPT) to have
signed such a deal with Japan.
 The deal will help India access Japan’s nuclear market.
 The deal includes the option that Japan can give a year’s notice before
terminating it in case India breaks the nuclear testing moratorium that it had

m
extended to the Nuclear Suppliers Group in 2008.


co
The deal is significant as it will help guarantee Japan’s continued support to
India’s civil nuclear programme.

.
 da
The deal will bring Japan into the Indian nuclear market where France and
ad
Russia have already have a strong presence.
m

2. Asia Africa Growth Corridor

aa

 The Asia-Africa Growth Corridor or AAGC is an economic cooperation

.x

agreement between the governments of India and Japan with the active
w

support of the African Development Bank and several African countries

w
w

including South Africa who wish to reduce their dependence on Beijing.

 The idea is to create a ‘free and open Indo-Pacific region’ by rediscovering
ancient sea-routes and creating new sea corridors by integrating the
economies of South, Southeast, and East Asia with Oceania and Africa.
 It primarily focuses on
o Development Cooperation Projects,
o Quality Infrastructure and Institutional Connectivity,
o Enhancing Skills, and
o People-to-People Partnership.
 It was launched in May 2017. Its detailed roadmap has been prepared by
three agencies viz.
o Research and Information System for Developing Countries (RIS) New
Delhi,
o The Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia (ERIA)
Jakarta, and
o Institute of Developing Economies (IDE-JETRO) of Tokyo.

3. India-Japan sign open sky agreement

 India andDownloaded from-
Japan have agreed to [Link]
an open sky arrangement under which the

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airlines of both countries can operate an unlimited number of flights. NOTES

 The agreement will not only encourage connectivity and passenger travel
between the two countries, but will also result in reduction in airfares on
these routes.
 Open sky agreement:
o The agreement was signed in accordance with the National Civil
Aviation Policy (NACP), 2016.
o The NACP permits the government to enter into an ‘open sky’ air
services agreement on a reciprocal basis with SAARC nations as well as
countries with territory located entirely beyond a 5,000 kilometre
radius from New Delhi.
o In 2016 India signed an open sky agreement with Greece, Jamaica,
Guyana, Czech Republic, Finland, Spain and Sri Lanka.
o India also signed a bilateral open sky agreement with the US in 2005.
o In 2003, India had signed an open sky agreement with the 10-member
Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN).

4. India Japan Act East Forum



m
A memorandum of understanding to set up India Japan Act East Forum with

co
an aim to marry India’s Act East Policy with Japan’s Free and Open Asia-
Pacific strategy is among the major agreements signed during Japanese Prime

.

da
Minister Shinzo Abe’s visit to India for the 12th Indo-Japan annual summit.
ad
The forum will enhance connectivity and promote developmental projects in
India’s Northeast region in an efficient and effective manner.
m

 Japan’s investments in the North East:

aa

o Japan has cooperated with a variety of development projects in the

.x

Northeast, ranging from connectivity infrastructure such as roads and

w

electricity, water supply and sewage, to forest resource management

w

and biodiversity.
w

o Recently, India and Japan signed a document on Japanese loan and

aid for highway development in the Northeast.
o Japan will extend a loan of Rs 2,239 crore to India for ‘North East Road
Network Connectivity Improvement Project’ to improve the National
Highway 40 (NH-40) and construct a bypass on NH-54 in the
Northeast.
o Japan has a historic connection to the Northeast and is among the few
countries that India has allowed a presence in the region.

India – Pakistan
1. Indus Waters Treaty
 The World Bank has said that India is allowed to construct hydroelectric
power plants on the Jhelum and Chenab Rivers after secretary-level
discussions between India and Pakistan on the technical issues over the Indus
Waters Treaty concluded recently.
 What the disagreement is about:
o India and Pakistanfrom-
Downloaded disagree about the construction of the Kishenganga
[Link]
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(330 megawatts) and Ratle (850 megawatts) hydroelectric power NOTES

plants being built by India (the World Bank is not financing either
project).
o The two countries disagree over whether the technical design features
of the two hydroelectric plants contravene the Treaty.
o The plants are on respectively a tributary of the Jhelum and the
Chenab Rivers.
o The Treaty designates these two rivers as well as the Indus as the
“Western Rivers” to which Pakistan has unrestricted use.
o India is permitted to construct hydroelectric power facilities on these
rivers subject to constraints specified in Annexures to the Treaty.
 Indus Water Treaty (IWT):
o The treaty was signed in 1960 by then Prime Minister Jawaharlal
Nehru and then Pakistan President Ayub Khan.
o The six rivers of the Indus basin originate in Tibet and flow across the
Himalayan ranges to end in the Arabian Sea south of Karachi.
o The three western rivers (Jhelum, Chenab and Indus) were allocated
to Pakistan while India was given control over the three eastern
rivers (Ravi, Beas and Sutlej).

m
o While India could use the western rivers for consumption purpose,

co
restrictions were placed on building of storage systems.

.
da
o The treaty states that aside of certain specific cases, no storage and
irrigation systems can be built by India on the western rivers.
ad
o It was brokered by the World Bank. The Treaty also provides
m

arbitration mechanism to solve disputes amicably.

aa

o A Permanent Indus Commission was set up as a bilateral commission

.x

to implement and manage the Treaty. The Commission solves disputes

w

arising over water sharing.

w
w

India – Iran
1. Chabahar Port
 The first phase of the Chabahar port on the Gulf of Oman was inaugurated
recently.
 Background:
o India and Iran had signed a pact
for the development of Chabahar
port in May 2016.
o India Ports Global, a port project
investment arm of the shipping
ministry and a joint venture
between the Jawaharlal Nehru
Port Trust and the Kandla port,
will invest $85 million in
developing two container berths
and three multi-cargo berths.
 Chabahar port:
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o Iran’s Chabahar port is located on the Gulf of Oman and is the only NOTES
oceanic port of the country.
o It is located on the Makran coast, Chabahar in southeastern Iran.
 For India, Chabahar is of strategic importance for the following reasons:
o India can bypass Pakistan in transporting goods to Afghanistan.
o It is located 76 nautical miles (less than 150km) west of the Pakistani
port of Gwadar, being developed by China. This makes it ideal for
keeping track of Chinese or Pakistani military activity based out of
Gwadar.
o Also, Chabahar port acts as link with International North-South
Transport Corridor (INSTC) to which India is one of the initial
signatories.
o The port will cut transport costs/time for Indian goods by a third.
o The Zaranj-Delaram road constructed by India in 2009 can give access
to Afghanistan’s Garland Highway, setting up road access to four
major cities in Afghanistan — Herat, Kandahar, Kabul and Mazar-e-
Sharif.

India – Nepal

m
co
1. A new Bridge over Mechi River at Indo-Nepal border

.
 da
The Union Cabinet has approved a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU)
ad
between India and Nepal for starting construction of a new Bridge over
Mechi River at Indo-Nepal border.
m

 The estimated cost of construction of the bridge is Rs. 158.65 crore, which
aa

would be funded by Government of India through Asian Development Bank

.x

(ADB) loan.
w

 The new bridge is part of up-gradation of the Kakarvitta (Nepal) to Panitanki

w

Bypass (India) on NH 327B.

w

 Mechi Bridge is the ending point of Asian Highway 02 in India leading to

Nepal and provides critical connectivity to Nepal.
 National Highway and Infrastructure Development Corporation (NHIDCL)
under Ministry of Road Transport & Highways has been designated as the
implementing agency for this project.
 Importance of the bridge:
o The construction of the bridge will improve regional connectivity and
has potential to strengthen cross border trade between both the
countries and cementing ties by strengthening industrial, social and
cultural exchanges.
 About Mechi river:
o The Mechi River is a trans-boundary river flowing through Nepal and
India.
o It is a tributary of the Mahananda River. The Mechi originates in the
Mahabharat Range in Nepal.

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NOTES
India – Brazil
1. MoU between India and Brazil for cooperation in the fields of Zebu
Cattle Genomics and Assisted Reproductive Technologies
 The Union Cabinet has apprised Memorandum of Understanding (MoU)
signed between India and Brazil for cooperation in the fields of Zebu Cattle
Genomics and Assisted Reproductive Technologies. The MoU was signed in
October, 2016.
 The MoU would promote and facilitate scientific cooperation and setting up
of genomic selection programme in Zebu Cattle through:
o Application of genomic in Zebu Cattle and their crosses and buffaloes.
o Application of assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) in cattle and
buffaloes.
o Capacity building in genomic and assisted reproductive technology.
o Related research and development in Genomics and ART in
accordance with the respective laws and regulations of the two
countries and is covered.
 Zebu cattle:

m
o Zebu, sometimes known as indicine cattle or

co
humped cattle, is a species or subspecies of

.
domestic cattle originating in the Indian
subcontinent.
da
ad
o Zebu are characterised by a fatty hump on
m

their shoulders, a large dewlap, and

aa

sometimes drooping ears.

o They are well adapted to withstanding high temperatures, and are
.x
w

farmed throughout the tropical countries.

w

o Zebu are used as draught oxen, dairy cattle, and beef cattle, as well as
w

for byproducts such as hides and dung for fuel and manure.
o In 1999, researchers at Texas A&M University successfully cloned a
zebu.

India – Israel
1. India-Israel Industrial R&D and Technological Innovation Fund
 The Union Cabinet has approved a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU)
between India and Israel on “India-Israel Industrial R&D and Technological
Innovation Fund (I4F)”. The MoU was concluded in July, 2017.
 The MoU envisages promotion of bilateral Industrial R&D and Innovation
cooperation in the fields of science and technology by extending support to
joint projects for innovative or technology-driven new or improved products,
services or processes.
 Such projects will lead to affordable technological innovations in focus areas
of mutual interest such as water, agriculture, energy and digital technologies.
 Institutional support in building up consortia including private industry,
enterprises and R&D institutions from India and Israel will be enabled through
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these collaborative projects. NOTES

 India and Israel will make contribution of four million US Dollars each for
the Fund, both equivalent amount, annually for five years.
 The Innovation Fund will be governed by a joint Board which will consist of
four members from each country.
 The activities supported by the Joint Fund would increase the techno-
economic collaboration between the two countries.

India – South Korea

1. Korea Plus
 “Korea Plus” operationalised on June 18, 2016 is a strategic initiative between
the Governments of India and South Korea “to promote, facilitate and retain
Korean investments in India.”
 The government is planning to facilitate greater investments from South
Korea and would strengthen the ‘Korea Plus” cell in this regard.
 The mandate of Korea Plus covers the entire investment spectrum including:
o Supporting Korean enterprises entering the Indian market for the first

m
time,

co
o Looking into issues faced by Korean companies doing business in India

.
and
o Policy advocacy to the Indian government on their behalf. da
ad
 Korea Plus will act as a mediator in arranging meetings, assisting in public
m

relations and research, evaluation and provide information and counselling in

aa

regard to Korean companies’ investing in India.

 Korea Plus comprises of a representative each from the Korean ministry of
.x

industry, trade and energy, Korea Trade Investment and Promotion Agency as
w

well as three representatives from Invest India — the national investment

w

promotion and facilitation agency of India.

w

India – Sri Lanka

1. Bottom Trawling
 During the recently held meeting of the Joint Working Group, India informed
Sri Lanka that it has taken measures to stop bottom trawling by its fishermen
in the waters near the Sri Lankan coastline.
 Bottom trawling by Indian fishermen had emerged as a major issue because
of the disruptive impact it left on the coastal communities of Sri Lanka.
 Bottom trawling:
o Bottom trawling is a destructive fishing practice which affects the
marine ecosystem.
o The practice, which involves trawlers dragging weighted nets along the
sea floor, is known to cause great depletion of fishery resources, and
curbing it is in the interest of sustainable fishing.
 Measures taken by India:
o The launch of a programme on diversification of bottom trawlers into
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Scheme. NOTES
o Construction of Mookaiyur and Poompuhar fishing harbours, and
capacity-building programmes for fishermen of the Palk Bay area in
deep sea tuna long lining.
o Fresh registration for bottom trawlers in the Palk Bay area has been
banned by the Government of Tamil Nadu.

2. India, Sri Lanka ink housing project deal in Hambantota

 Sri Lanka signed an agreement with India to build 1,200 houses in the
southern port city- Hambantota.
 Of the 1,200 houses to be built, 600 will be constructed in the Southern
Province, while the remaining would be built across Sri Lanka, through one
model village in each of the country’s 25 districts.
 Significance:
o Hambantota is right in the middle of vital energy supply lines in the
Indian Ocean, connecting the Middle East and East Asia
o The signing of the MoU in Hambantota assumes significance not only
in its timing, but also in taking India’s housing project to the Sinhala-

m
majority Southern Province.
o Earlier India had constructed as many as 46,000 homes in Tamil-

co
majority north and east, and 4,000 houses are being built in hill

.
country in Central and Uva provinces. da
o India has been taking steps to protect itself in the Indian Ocean by
ad
allying itself with the United States and
m

Japan in a clear bid to counter growing

aa

Chinese influence.
.x

 Hambantota:
w

o Hambantota is the main town in Hambantota

w

District, Southern Province, Sri Lanka.

w

o This underdeveloped area was hit hard by

the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami and is
underwent a number of major development
projects including the construction of a new
sea port and international airport.

@UPSC_IAS_GURU

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NOTES
Protocols / Conventions / Treaties / Agreements
1. India ratifies two key ILO conventions on child labour
 India has ratified two key ILO conventions on child labour concerning the
elimination of child labour, the Minimum Age Convention (No 138) and the
Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention (No 182).
 Minimum Age Convention:
o The Convention concerning Minimum Age for Admission to
Employment, is a Convention adopted in 1973 by the International
Labour Organization.
o It requires ratifying states to pursue a national policy designed to
ensure the effective abolition of child labour and to raise
progressively the minimum age for admission to employment.
o Countries are free to specify a minimum age for labour, with a
minimum of 15 years.
o A declaration of 14 years is also possible when for a specified period of
time.
o Laws may also permit light work for children aged 13–15 (not harming

m
their health or school work).

co
o The minimum age of 18 years is specified for work which “is likely to

.
jeopardise the health, safety or morals of young persons”.
da
o Definitions of the type of work and derogations are only possible after
ad
tripartite consultations (if such a system exists in the ratifying
country).
m


aa

Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention:

o The Convention concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for
.x

the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour, known in short as

w

the Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, was adopted by ILO in

w

1999.
w

o By ratifying this Convention, a country commits itself to taking

immediate action to prohibit and eliminate the worst forms of child
labour.
o The ILO’s International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour
(IPEC) is responsible for assisting countries in this regard as well as
monitoring compliance.
o The convention includes forms of child labour, which are predefined
worst forms of child labour. They are also sometimes referred to as
automatic worst forms of child labour.
 Background:
o India is a founder member of the International Labour Organization
(ILO), which came into existence in 1919.
o As of April 2016, the ILO has 187 members.
o The principal means of action in the ILO is the setting up of
International standards in the form of Conventions, Recommendations
and Protocol.
o India had so far ratified 45 Conventions, out of which 42 are in force.
Out of these 4 arefrom-
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NOTES
2. Social Security Agreement
 The Union Cabinet has approved Amendment of the bilateral Social Security
Agreement (SSA) between India and the Netherlands by incorporating the
“Country of Residence” Principle.
 The circumstances where the “country of residence” principle will apply to a
few instances of Indian nationals include:
o An Indian worker who dies in the Netherlands and has his/her spouse
and children living in India.
o An Indian worker who gets disabled while working in the Netherlands
and returns to India.
 Background:
o A bilateral Social Security Agreement, (SSA) was signed between India
and the Netherlands on 22nd October 2009 and came into force on
15th June 2010.
o The SSA allows exemption from double contribution to the social
security system in both jurisdictions, exportability of accumulated
social security benefits across jurisdictions (applicable even to the

m
self-employed), and totalization of serving periods.
o As on date, India has signed and operationalized SSAs with 18

co
countries – Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic,

.
da
Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Japan, Luxembourg,
ad
Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland and South Korea.
m

3. Antarctica Treaty
aa

 India is drafting a dedicated Antarctica policy.

.x

 The new policy is expected to come up with clear policy objectives regarding
w

infrastructure, research, tourism, etc. in Antarctica.

w

 The new law will be drafted in concurrence with the Antarctica Treaty to
w

which India has acceded.

 Background:
o The government is rebuilding its station, Maitri, to make it bigger and
last for at least 30 years.
o Dakshin Gangotri, the first Indian base established in 1984, has
weakened and become just a supply base.
 Antarctic Treaty:
o The treaty entered into force in 1961. As of now, the total number of
parties to the treaty stands at 53.
o The treaty is framed to ensure ‘in the interests of all mankind that
Antarctica shall continue forever to be used exclusively for peaceful
purposes and shall not become the scene or object of international
discord.’
o It prohibits military activity, except in support of science; prohibits
nuclear explosions and the disposal of nuclear waste; promotes
scientific research and the exchange of data; and holds all territorial
claims in abeyance.
o Several related conventions, such as the Conservation of Antarctic
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Seals (1972) and the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living NOTES

Resources (1980), are appended to this treaty for protection.

4. Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons

 The Nuclear Weapon Prohibition Treaty was initiated by the United Nations
in its session in July 2017.
 The treaty was adopted by a vote of 122 in favour with one country — NATO
member The Netherlands voting against —while Singapore abstained.
 In order to come into effect, signature and ratification by at least 50
countries is required.
 The treaty prohibits a full range of nuclear-weapon related activities, such
as undertaking to develop, test, produce, manufacture, acquire, possess or
stockpile nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices, as well as the
use or threat of use of these weapons.
 This is the most significant multilateral development on nuclear arms control
since the adoption of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in 1968.
 None of the nine countries that possess nuclear weapons — the United
States, Russia, Britain, China, France, India, Pakistan, North Korea and Israel

m
— took part in the negotiations or the vote.


co
Even Japan — the only country to have suffered atomic attacks, in 1945 —
boycotted the talks as did most NATO countries.

.
 Why is it being opposed? da
ad
o Nuclear powers argue their arsenals serve as a deterrent against a
nuclear attack and say they remain committed to the nuclear Non-
m

Proliferation Treaty (NPT).

aa

 50 nations ink UN nuclear ban treaty:

.x

o Fifty countries recently signed a treaty to ban nuclear weapons, a pact

w

that the world’s nuclear powers spurned but supporters hailed as a

w

historic agreement nonetheless.

w

5. Indian Community Welfare Fund

 The Union Cabinet has approved revision of the Indian Community Welfare
Fund (ICWF) guidelines.
 The revised guidelines seek to expand the scope of welfare measures that
can be extended through the Fund.
 The guidelines would cover three key areas namely Assisting Overseas Indian
nationals in distress situations, Community Welfare activities and
Improvement in Consular services.
 They are expected to provide Indian Missions and Posts abroad greater
flexibility in swiftly addressing to requests for assistance by Overseas Indian
nationals.
 ICWF, set up in 2009, is aimed at assisting Overseas Indian nationals in times
of distress and emergency in the most deserving cases on a means tested
basis.
 The ICWF would be funded through budgetary support, funds raised by the
Indian Missions by levying a nominal service charge on consular services and
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NOTES
6. Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child
Abduction
 The Hague Convention on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction or
Hague Abduction Convention is a multilateral treaty developed by the Hague
Conference on Private International Law (HCCH) that provides an expeditious
method to return a child internationally abducted by a parent from one
member country to another.
 The Convention entered into force between the signatories on 1 December
1983.
 The Convention was drafted to ensure the prompt return of children who
have been abducted from their country of habitual residence or wrongfully
retained in a contracting state not their country of habitual residence.
 The primary intention of the Convention is to preserve whatever status quo
child custody arrangement existed immediately before an alleged wrongful
removal or retention thereby deterring a parent from crossing international
boundaries in search of a more sympathetic court.
 The Convention applies only to children under the age of 16.


m
As of September 2017, 98 states are party to the convention. In 2016,

co
Philippines and Pakistan acceded to the convention.
 What is Inter-country parental child abduction?

.
da
o Inter-country parental child abduction is a situation that is attained
ad
when one parent takes a child or children to a foreign country to
prevent the other parent from seeking custody of the child.
m

 Centre rethinks joining Hague child custody pact:

aa

o An “inter-ministerial process” is under way to discuss the

.x

repercussions of the Hague convention on India.

w

o The government had in November 2016 announced that it would not

w

sign the convention.

w

o The Ministry of Women and Child Development has reservations

about the treaty because they believe it could trample on women’s
rights.
o However, America says India should sign this convention to create a
more effective response to deal with abduction cases and prevent
inter-country parental child abduction.
 Indian scenario:
o India’s case-load (regarding IPCA) is second largest in the United States
which is followed by Mexico.
o At least 90 children from 80 Indian-American families were affected by
separating parents and the legal problems involved.
o As more and more Indians are studying and working in the U.S, such
cases are growing in number and it is necessary to get a better
mechanism to deal with this.

7. Extradition Treaty
 The Union Cabinet has given its approval for the signing and ratification of the
Extradition Treaty between India and Lithuania.
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 Benefits of this treaty: NOTES

o The Treaty would provide a legal framework for seeking extradition of
terrorists, economic offenders and other criminals from and to
Lithuania.
o It will bring the criminals to justice, with a view to ensure peace and
tranquility to public at large.
 What is extradition?
o Extradition is the surrender of a criminal to one country by another.
o It also helps in maintaining the territoriality of the penal code which
says that a country should not apply its criminal law to a person who
committed an offence outside its territories except when the crime is
related the countries national interest.
o The process is regulated by treaties between the two countries.
 What are the internationally accepted conditions for extradition?
o There is a general consensus about few conditions of extradition.
o The crime should fulfil the criterion of dual criminality, i.e. it is a
punishable offence in both the countries.
o For instance homosexuality might be a crime in country A while it is
accepted in B. The country A can not request B to extradite a person

m
who is charged with a homosexuality related offence.

co
o Persons charged for political reasons are generally not extradited.

.
da
o Some countries refuse to extradite if the kind of expected punishment
ad
is abolished or is not administered in their own territories.
o For instance Australia, Canada, Macao, Mexico, and most of the
m

European nations refuse to extradite a criminal if the person in

aa

question might get capital punishment after his extradition.

.x

 What are the extradition laws of India?

w

o In India the Extradition Act, 1962 regulates the surrender of a person

w

to another country or the request for arrest of a person in a foreign

w

land.
o The act specifies that any conduct of a person in India or in a foreign
state that is mentioned in the list of extradition offence and is
punishable with minimum one year of imprisonment qualifies for
extradition request.
o The process has to be initiated by the central government.
o In the case of countries with which India does not have such a treaty,
the central government can by notified order treat any convention to
which India and the foreign country is a party as the extradition treaty
providing for extradition with respect to the offences specified in that
convention.
o If the extradition request has come from two or more countries then
the government has the rights to decide which of them is the fittest
for the request.
 In what conditions can the government deny extradition?
o If the government finds the case trivial and if it thinks that the
surrendering of the person is not being made in good faith or in the
interests of justice or for political reasons, it can deny the request.
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o If the surrender according to the requesting countrys own law is NOTES

barred by time then also the person cannot be extradited from India.
o The government can also stop the process if it feels that the person
will be charged with an offence not mentioned in the extradition
treaty.
o The government can put the extradition on hold if it feels that the
person will be charged for a lesser offence, which is disclosed by the
requesting authorities so that they can have the possession of the
person.
o Apart from this, if the person is serving a jail term or he/she is accused
of an offence in Indian soil, which is different from the offence for
which the person is wanted abroad, then also the extradition process
can be stopped.
o Similarly if a fugitive criminal has committed an offence which is
punishable with death in India while the laws of foreign state do not
provide death for the same offence then criminal will get life
imprisonment in India also.

8. Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT)

m
 It is an international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of

co
nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the

.
da
peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of achieving nuclear
disarmament and general and complete disarmament.
ad
 The Treaty entered into force in 1970.
m

 Four UN member states have never joined the NPT: India, Israel, Pakistan
aa

and South Sudan. North Korea, which acceded to the NPT in 1985 but never
.x

came into compliance, announced its withdrawal in 2003.

w

 The treaty recognizes five states as nuclear-weapon states: the United

w

States, Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and China.

w

 The NPT is interpreted as a three-pillar system, with an implicit balance

among them: the three pillars are:
o Non-proliferation.
o Disarmament
o The right to peacefully use nuclear technology.
 India has denounced a call to give up its nuclear weapons and sign the
Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) while it “remains committed to
universal, non-discriminatory and verifiable nuclear disarmament”.
o This was in response to a call by a group calling itself the New Agenda
Coalition that India – along with Israel and Pakistan – sign the NPT as
NNWS (non-nuclear weapon states), which would effectively mean
giving up its nuclear arsenal.
o However, India has reiterated its commitment “as a responsible
nuclear power” to “a policy of credible minimum deterrence based on
a No First Use posture and non-use of nuclear weapons against non-
nuclear weapon states”.

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NOTES
9. Wassenaar Arrangement
 India became the 42nd member of Wassenaar Arrangement (WA), which is
expected to raise New Delhi’s stature in the field of non-proliferation besides
helping it acquire critical technologies.
 The Wassenaar Arrangement is one of the world’s four major export control
regimes, the other three being the Nuclear Suppliers Group, the Missile
Technology Control Regime and the Australia Group.
 The Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and
Dual-Use Goods and Technologies, commonly known as the Wassenaar
Arrangement, is a multilateral export control regime established to ensure
regional and international security and stability promoting transparency in
transfer of arms and dual-use goods and technologies.
 What do the participating nations do?
o The participating nations make sure that the export of ammunition
does not contribute to the development or enhancement of military
capabilities undermining regional security.
o In order to achieve the aim of stable defence deals, the participatory

m
nations apply export controls to all items listed in the List of Dual-Use

co
Goods and Technologies and the Munitions List.
 How will this membership help India?

.
da
o It would enhance its credentials in the field of non-proliferation
ad
despite not being a signatory to the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
o The WA membership is also expected to build up a strong case for
m

India’s entry into Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).

aa

o Further, since India has low reserves of uranium required for its civil
.x

nuclear energy programmes, it will help secure the supply of nuclear

w

@GURU_UPSC
fuel more easily.
w
w

[Link] Group
 India was recently admitted as the 43rd member of the Australia Group, an
informal bloc of countries that keeps a tight control over exports of
substances used in the making of chemical weapons.
 The Australia Group works to counter the spread of materials, equipment and
technologies that could contribute to the development or acquisition of
chemical and biological weapons (CBW) by states or terrorist groups. It was
established in 1985.
 China, Pakistan, Iran, North Korea are not its members.
 With its admission into the Australia Group, India is now part of three of the
four key export control groups in the world.
 The only export control group that India is not a part of is the elite Nuclear
Suppliers Group (NSG).

[Link] Framework for Education in Emergencies in the Arab

Region
 UNESCO has launched a Strategic Framework for Education in Emergencies in
the Arab Downloaded from- [Link]
Region (2018-2021).
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 It aims to respond to the Education crisis in the region through supporting Member States in
meeting their educational needs, and helping them meet the commitments set out in SDG4 which
aims to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all by 2030.
 Why Arab region? Education has been deeply affected by the scale of crisis in the Arab Region, with
over 13 million children and youth not going to school due to conflict.
 Goals: The Strategic Framework consists of four strategic goals anchored in the three pillars of
education: Access, Quality and System Strengthening.
 Significance of the framework: The Framework aims to increase access to quality learning
opportunities for children and youth, to empower them with values, knowledge and skills for life
and work, to support teachers and enhance the resilience of education systems.

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. co
[Link] Convention against Torture
da NOTES
ad
 India has signed the UN Convention against torture way back in 1997. But, it
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has still not ratified it.

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 The Convention defines torture as a criminal offence.

.x

 The Convention requires states to take effective measures to prevent torture

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in any territory under their jurisdiction, and forbids states to transport people
w

to any country where there is reason to believe they will be tortured.

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 Background:
o The Supreme Court recently disposed of a PIL seeking to put in place a
statutory framework to curb torture and custodial violence as it said
that it can’t direct the government to make an anti-torture law or ratify
the UN convention against Torture.
o The Law Commission has recommended that the Centre ratify the
United Nations Convention against Torture and frame a standalone
anti-torture law, making the state responsible for any injury inflicted
by its agents on citizens.
o The National Human Rights Commission has been urging the
government to recognise torture as a separate crime and codify the
punishment in a separate penal law.
o The centre contends some States were not in favour of such a law and
the Indian Penal Code and the Criminal Procedure Code were more
than sufficient.

[Link] Convention
 India was reconsidering its position on becoming a member of the Budapest
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Convention. NOTES
 This was because of the surge in cybercrime, especially after a push for digital
India.
 The Ministry of Home Affairs has flagged the need for international
cooperation to check cyber crime, radicalization and boost data security
 The move is being opposed by the Intelligence Bureau (IB).
 IB argues that sharing data with foreign law enforcement agencies infringes
on national sovereignty and may jeopardize the rights of individuals
 The Convention on Cybercrime, also known as the Budapest Convention, is
the first international treaty seeking to address Internet and computer crime
by harmonizing national laws, improving investigative techniques, and
increasing cooperation among nations.
 It was drawn up by the Council of Europe in Strasbourg, France, with the
active participation of the Council of Europe’s observer states Canada, Japan,
South Africa and the United States.
 The Convention has 56 members, including the US and the UK.
 The Budapest Convention provides for the criminalisation of conduct,
ranging from illegal access, data and systems interference to computer-

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related fraud and child pornography, procedural law tools to make

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investigation of cybercrime and securing of e-evidence in relation to any
crime more effective, and international police and judicial cooperation on

.
cybercrime and e-evidence. da
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International Organisations / Groupings

1. BRICS
 BRICS is the acronym for an association of five major emerging national economies: Brazil, Russia,
India, China and South Africa.
 Originally the first four were grouped as "BRIC" before the induction of South Africa in 2010.
 The BRICS members are all leading developing or newly industrialized countries. All five are G-20
members.
Summits Year Location Importance
st
1 June 2009 Russia
2nd April 2010 Brazil
rd
3 April 2011 China First summit to include South Africa alongside the
original BRIC countries.
th
4 March 2012 India The BRICS Cable announced an optical fibre submarine
communications cable system that carries
telecommunications between the BRICS countries.
th
5 March 2013 South Africa
th
6 July 2014 Brazil BRICS New Development Bank and BRICS Contingent Reserve

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Arrangement agreements signed.

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th
7 July 2015 Russia Joint summit with Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) -

.
8 th
October 2016 India Joint summit with BIMSTEC
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Eurasian Economic Union (EEU)
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th
9 September China Joint summit with Emerging Markets and Developing
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2017 Countries Dialogue (EMDCD)

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2. BRICS Media Forum

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 China’s state-run news agency Xinhua has announced a USD one million fund to institutionalise
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media cooperation among the BRICS countries including awards for journalists from the five
member states.
 The BRICS media forum is a joint initiative of Xinhua News Agency, Brazils CMA Group, Russia’s
Sputnik News Agency and Radio, the Hindu Group of India and South Africa’s Independent Media.
 The plan will promote six objectives, including “balanced reporting”.
 It aims to create an alternative media narrative distinct from the media of western nations.
 It would also focus on joint development of BRICS digital media, financial information services and
promoting people- to-people contacts.

3. BRICS ‘Beijing Declaration On Education’

 BRICS ministers of education and assigned representatives have adopted ‘Beijing Declaration on
Education’ in the 5th meeting of BRICS Ministers of education at Beijing.
 The Indian delegation was led by Prakash Javadekar, the Union Minister of Human Resource
Development (HRD).
 According to the declaration, members states are committed to the UN Sustainable Development
Goal 4 (SDG4)-Education 2030 which aims to “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and
promote life-long learning opportunities for all”.
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 The declaration reiterated support for the BRICS Network University (NU) to NOTES
collaborate in the fields of education, research and innovation.
 It also encouraged universities to participate in the BRICS University League.
 BRICS member states also decided to increase cultural cooperation through
language education and multilingualism.

4. BRICS Labour & Employment Ministers’ Meet

 China was the chair for the BRICS Labour & Employment Ministers’ Meet for
the year 2017. The meeting was held in Chonqging, China.
 The meeting concluded with the adoption of the BRICS Labour and
Employment Ministerial Declaration by the BRICS Labour and Employment
Ministers.
 The Declaration covered a variety of areas that are of critical importance to
all BRICS countries including India and called upon strengthening
collaboration and cooperation on these through appropriate
institutionalisation. These areas consisted of:
o “Governance in the Future of Work”,
o “Skills for development in BRICS”,

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o “Universal and sustainable social security systems”,

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o “BRICS Network of Labour Research Institutions”,
o “BRICS Social Security Cooperation Framework” and

.
o “BRICS entrepreneurship research”. da
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5. BRICS Agriculture Research Platform
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 The Union Cabinet has given its ex-post facto approval for a Memorandum of
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Understanding (MoU) signed among India and various BRICs countries for
.x

establishment of the BRICS Agriculture Research Platform (BRICS-ARP).

w

 In October 2016, a MoU for setting up agriculture research platform (ARP)

w

was signed by foreign ministers of BRICS countries in the 8th BRICS Summit
w

held at Goa.
 With this, the Centre will promote sustainable agricultural development and
poverty alleviation through strategic cooperation in agriculture to provide
food security in the BRICS member countries.
 BRICS-ARP will be the natural global platform for science-led agriculture-
based sustainable development for addressing the issues of world hunger,
under-nutrition, poverty and inequality, particularly between farmers’ and
non-farmers’ income, and enhancing agricultural trade, bio-security and
climate resilient agriculture.

6. BRICS Leaders’ Xiamen Declaration

 9th BRICS summit was recently held in Xiamen, China. This is the second time
the China has hosted the summit after the 2011 summit.
 At the end of the summit, Xiamen declaration was adopted by the leaders of
the five countries.
 Highlights of the Xiamen declaration:
o BRICS countries will strive towards broad partnerships with emerging
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o To promote the development of BRICS local currency bond markets NOTES

and to jointly establish a BRICS local currency bond fund and also to
facilitate financial market integration.
o Explorations toward the establishment of the BRICS Institute of
Future Networks.
o To strengthen BRICS cooperation on energy and work to foster open,
flexible and transparent markets for energy commodities and
technologies.
o BRICS Agriculture Research Platform is proposed to be established in
India.
o To establish a genuinely broad counterterrorism coalition and
support the UN’s central coordinating role in this regard.
o Importance of people-to-people exchanges in promoting
development and enhancing mutual understanding, friendship and
cooperation.
o To work together to promote most effective use of fossil fuels and
wider use of gas, hydro and nuclear power.

7. BRICS Interbank Cooperation mechanism

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 The Union Cabinet has given its approval to the signing of the (i) Interbank

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Local Currency Credit Line Agreement and (ii) Cooperation Memorandum

.
da
Relating to Credit Ratings by Exim Bank with participating member banks
under BRICS Interbank Cooperation Mechanism.
ad
 As both the Agreement and the MoU are umbrella pacts, and are non-binding
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in nature, the Board of Directors of Exim Bank has been authorized to

aa

negotiate and conclude any individual contracts and commitments within

@GURU_UPSC
.x

their framework.
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 Impact:
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o The Agreements will promote multilateral interaction within the area

w

of mutual interest which will deepen political and economic relations

with BRICS nations.
o Signing of the Agreement will position Exim Bank in the international
platform along with large development finance institutions, like CDS,
VEB and BNDES.
o Exim Bank, leveraging this umbrella agreement, could enter into
bilateral agreement with any of these member institutions to raise
resources for its business.
o As and when an opportunity arises for co-financing in commercial
terms, by any two member institutions (say India and South Africa),
lending in single currency by both the institutions would also be
possible.
 Background:
o Exim Bank finances, facilitates and promotes India’s international
trade.
o It provides competitive finance at various stages of the business cycle
covering import of technology, export product development, export
production and export credit at pre-shipment and post-shipment
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stages and investments overseas. NOTES

 Interbank Local Currency Credit Line Agreement:
o The initial Master Agreement on Extending Credit Facility in Local
Currency under the BRICS Interbank Cooperation Mechanism had a
validity of five years, which has expired in March 2017.
o It is understood that some of the member banks (like CDB and VEB;
CDB and BNDES) have entered into bilateral agreements for local
currency financing under the Master Agreement signed in 2012.
o Although the current conditions are not conducive to usage, it was
useful to keep the same alive as an enabling feature in case a suitable
opportunity materializes in future.
o Exim Bank raises resources in the off-shore market in diverse
currencies and swaps to mitigate the risk.
o The umbrella Agreement would serve as an enabler to enter into
bilateral agreements with member banks subject to national laws,
regulations and internal policies of the signatories.
 Cooperation Memorandum Relating to Credit Ratings:
o It would enable sharing of credit ratings amongst the BRICS member
banks, based on the request received from another bank.

m
o This would be an ideal mechanism to mitigate the credit risks

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associated with cross-border financing.

.
da
o In future, such a mechanism could also serve as pre-cursor to the
proposal of having an alternate rating agency by BRICS nations.
ad
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8. Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)

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 Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) is a multinational body concerned with

.x

reducing nuclear proliferation by controlling the export and re-transfer of

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materials that may be applicable to nuclear weapon development and by

w

improving safeguards and protection on existing materials.

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 The NSG was set up in 1974 as a reaction to India’s nuclear tests to stop what
it called the misuse of nuclear material meant for peaceful purposes.
 Currently, it has 48 members and works by consensus.
 Once admitted, an NSG member state:
o Gets timely information on nuclear matters.
o Contributes by way of information.
o Has confirmed credentials.
o Can act as an instrument of harmonization and coordination.
o Is part of a very transparent process.
 Background:
o India sought membership of the NSG in 2008, but its application hasn’t
been decided on, primarily because signing the NPT or other nuclear
moratoriums on testing is a pre-requisite.
o The NSG works under the principle of unanimity and even one
country’s vote against India will scuttle its bid.
o However, India has received a special waiver to conduct nuclear trade
with all nuclear exporters.
o India, Pakistan, Israel and South Sudan are among the four UN
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member states which have not signed the NPT, the international pact NOTES
aimed at preventing the spread of nuclear weapons.

9. BIMSTEC
 BIMSTEC or the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and
Economic Cooperation is a regional organization which comprises of seven
member states which lie near the Bay of Bengal.
o 5 come from South Asia, including India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan,
and Sri Lanka; and 2 come from Southeast Asia, which includes
Myanmar and Thailand.
 This sub-regional organisation was started on June 6, in the year 1997
through a Bangkok Declaration.
 BIMSTEC celebrated its 20th anniversary on June 06, 2017.
 BIMSTEC headquarters are situated in Dhaka, Bangladesh.
 The main objective of BIMSTEC is technological and economical cooperation
among South Asian and South East Asian countries along the coast of the Bay
of Bengal.
 The BIMSTEC region is home to around 1.5 billion people which constitute
around 22% of the global population.

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

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The region has a combined gross domestic product (GDP) of $2.7 trillion.

.
[Link] Disaster Management Exercise – 2017

da
ad
The first BIMSTEC Disaster Management Exercise-2017 (DMEx-2017) was
held in New Delhi.
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 It was conducted by the National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) as the

aa

nodal agency in Delhi and the National Capital Region.

.x

 The Exercise provided a platform to share the Best Practices on

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comprehensive aspects of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR), strengthening

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regional response and coordination for Disaster Management among the

w

BIMSTEC nations.
 The exercise comprised of a Table Top Exercise (TTX), Field Training Exercises
(FTXs) on Earthquake and Flood and an After Action Review (AAR).
 The exercise also aimed to test region’s preparedness and resilience towards
effective activation of inter-Governmental interaction and agreements for
immediate deployment of regional resources for disaster response.
 India has been at the forefront of DRR efforts by hosting the South Asian
Annual Disaster Management Exercise (SAADMEx) and the Asian Ministerial
Conference for Disaster Risk Reduction (AMCDRR).
 India has also offered its expertise and capabilities in DRR such as the South
Asia satellite, GSAT-9, and the Tsunami Early Warning Centre to other
countries.

[Link] meeting
 The 15th ministerial meeting of the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral
Technical and Economic Cooperation concluded in Kathmandu, endorsing the
memorandum of understanding for the establishment of BIMSTEC grid
interconnection and alsofrom-
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to expedite the negotiations for BIMSTEC

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Free Trade Area Agreement. NOTES

 The meeting of the BIMSTEC also pledged to deepen cooperation for shared
prosperity in the region.
 The meeting decided to establish cells focused on areas, like energy,
environment and culture, among others, for effective cooperation and to
elevate BIMSTEC as a vibrant and visible regional cooperation.
 The meeting also decided to form an eminent persons’ group to prepare the
future roadmap of BIMSTEC.

[Link] Task Force on Traditional Medicine

 The first-ever meeting of BIMSTEC Task Force on Traditional Medicine
(BITFM) was held at Parvasi Bhartiya Kendra in New Delhi.
 It was organized by Union Ministry of AYUSH.
 India being a major stakeholder in the field of Traditional Medicine plays an
important role in influencing the policies and strategies related to the
Traditional Medicine in the BIMSTEC Forum.
 Important Agenda:
o Implementation of Strategies of BIMSTEC Task Force on Traditional

m
Medicines

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o Identification of priority areas in traditional medicine for technical and
research collaboration among member states

.
da
o Regional Strategy for protection of Genetic Resource associated with
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Traditional Medicine Knowledge and Intellectual Property Rights
o Human Resource Development and Capacity Building among the
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BIMSTEC Member States

aa

o New Initiative, proposals and programmes for cooperation on

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Traditional Medicine among the BIMSTEC Task Force on Traditional

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Medicine.
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[Link] Cooperation Organization (SCO)

 SCO is a Eurasian economic, political and security organisation
headquartered in Beijing, China.
 It was founded in 2001. The full members of the organization are China,
Russia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, India and Pakistan.
 Afghanistan, Belarus, Iran and Mongolia have observer status at present.
 China had founded this grouping in 1996 and then it was called as Shanghai
Five comprising of Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.
 In 2001, Uzbekistan was invited to join it and SCO was officially born.
 The groupings main objective is military cooperation between members.
 It is primarily centred on Central Asian security-related concerns.
 The SCO has established relations with the United Nations, where it is an
observer in the General Assembly, the European Union, Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Commonwealth of Independent
States and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.
 17th SCO summit concluded in Astana, capital of Kazakhstan in June 2017.
 India and Pakistan were inducted as full members of the SCO at the summit.
 The next Downloaded from- [Link]
summit of the organization would take place in 2018 in China.

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NOTES
[Link] contact group meeting on Afghanistan
 India for the first time ever was invited to join Shanghai Cooperation
Organisation (SCO) contact group meeting on Afghanistan to discuss
prevailing security situation and economic potential of the landlocked
country.
 The meeting was held in Moscow and comes as a feather in the cap for India’s
Afghan strategy after successful US backed Indo-Afghan trade and investment
show in Delhi.
 The development is viewed as acknowledgement of India’s stake in the war-
torn country.
 Background:
o The SCO contact group on Afghanistan that became defunct in 2009
has been revived following intervention by Russian President Vladimir
Putin.
o India was invited to join maiden SCO contact group meeting on
Afghanistan after it became a SCO member this June.

[Link] Economic Association (IEA)

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 The Finance Ministry’s former Chief Economic Advisor Kaushik Basu has taken

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over as President of the International Economic Association (IEA). He will

.

hold the office for a term of three years. da
ad
The IEA was founded in 1950 as a Non-Governmental Organization, at the
instigation of the Social Sciences Department of UNESCO.
m

 It has since its creation maintained information and consultative relations

aa

with UNESCO and is since 1973 a federated member of the International

.x

Social Science Council.

w

 Its aim has been to promote personal contacts and mutual understanding
w

among economists in different parts of the world through the organization of

w

scientific meetings, through common research programs and by means of

publications of an international character on problems of current importance.
 The IEA is governed by a Council, composed of representatives of all
Member Associations as well as a limited number of co-opted members.
 The Council meets triennially when it reviews the general policy of the
Association and elects the President and other Officers and members of the
Executive Committee for a three-year term of office.
 Amongst the past presidents of IEA were the Nobel Laureates Robert Solow,
Amartya Sen and Joseph Stiglitz.

[Link] Asian Sub-Regional Economic Cooperation (SASEC)

 The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs gave its approval for upgradation
and widening of 65 kms of Imphal-Moreh Section of NH-39 in Manipur.
 The project is being developed with ADB’s loan assistance under the South
Asian Sub-Regional Economic Cooperation (SASEC) Road Connectivity
Investment Program.
 The project corridor is also a part of the Asian Highway No. 01 (AH01) and
acts as India’s Gateway to
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 SASEC: NOTES
o Established in 2001, the SASEC program is a project-based partnership
to promote regional prosperity by improving cross-border
connectivity, boosting trade among member countries and
strengthening regional economic cooperation.
o The seven-member SASEC comprises India, Bangladesh, Bhutan,
Maldives, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Myanmar.
o ADB is the secretariat and lead financier of the SASEC program,
which has supported around 46 projects worth $9.17 billion in
transport, trade facilitation, energy and information and
communications technology (ICT).
o The SASEC OP (Operational Plan), endorsed in June 2016 by the SASEC
member countries, is SASEC’s first comprehensive long-term plan to
promote greater economic cooperation among the member countries
in the areas of transport, trade facilitation, energy, and economic
corridor development.
o Bringing regional cooperation to a higher level, the SASEC OP plans to
extend physical linkages not only within SASEC but also with East and
Southeast Asia by the next decade.

@GURU_UPSC
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17.G20 Summit

.


12th G20 Summit was recently held at the German city of [Link]
ad
The theme for 2017 G20 Summit: “Shaping an Inter-connected World”.
 The leaders of the G20 countries agreed for taking concrete steps to stop
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funding of the terror activities.

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 The leaders proposed the Hamburg Action Plan to address major global
.x

challenges, including climate change, harnessing digitalisation, and to

w

contribute to prosperity and well-being.

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 The ‘Group of Twenty’ is made up of 19 countries and the European Union.

w

 The countries are Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France,

Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South
Africa, South Korea, Turkey, the UK and the US.
 It was started in 1999 as a meeting of Finance Ministers and Central Bank
Governors in the aftermath of the South-east Asian financial crisis.
 The G20, with its ministerial-level beginnings in 1999, first met for a summit
in 2008 in Washington to discuss ways to achieve balanced and sustainable
world economic growth.

18.G20 Sherpa
 Shri Shaktikanta Das, Former Secretary, Department of Economic Affairs, has
been appointed as India’s G 20 Sherpa till December 31, 2018 for the
Development Track of the G20.
 Who is a Sherpa?
o A Sherpa is a personal representative of the leader of a member
country at an international Summit meeting such as the G8, G20 or
the Nuclear Security Summit.
o The term is derived
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guides for mountaineers in the Himalayas. NOTES

 Appointment:
o Sherpas are career diplomats or senior government officials appointed
by the leaders of their countries.
o There is only one Sherpa per Summit for each member country;
he/she is assisted by several sous Sherpas.
 What they do?
o The Sherpa engages in planning, negotiation and implementation
tasks through the Summit.
o They coordinate the agenda, seek consensus at the highest political
levels, and participate in a series of pre-Summit consultations to help
negotiate their leaders’ positions.
 Sherpas at G20 summit:
o There are two tracks in G 20- Finance Track and Development Track.
o Finance Track is managed by the Secretary (Economic Affairs) as
India’s Deputy to G 20 and the Development Track is coordinated by
the Sherpa.
o The Department of Economic Affairs will provide necessary support to
the Sherpa.

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[Link] Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP)

.
 RCEP is proposed between the ten da
ad
member states of the Association of
Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) (Brunei,
m

Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, Indonesia,

aa

Laos, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore,

.x

Thailand, Vietnam) and the six states with

w

which ASEAN has existing FTAs (Australia,

w

China, India, Japan, South Korea and New

w

Zealand).
 RCEP negotiations were formally launched
in November 2012 at the ASEAN Summit in
Cambodia.
 RCEP is viewed as an alternative to the
TPP trade agreement, which includes the
United States but excludes China and India.

[Link]-Pacific Partnership
 11 Pacific Rim countries have formally entered into Comprehensive and
Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership or CP TPP or TPP11.
 It is revised version of Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) proposed by US, that
was finalized after US withdrew from it.
 TPP11 includes Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New
Zealand, Peru, Singapore and Vietnam.
 It will be world’s third largest trade bloc after European Union (EU) and North
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
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NOTES
[Link] Petroleum Congress
 The 22nd World Petroleum Congress (WPC) International Conference was
held at Istanbul, Turkey. India also took part in the conference.
 The tri-annual WPC Conference is widely recognized as the `Olympics` of the
oil and gas industry.
 It attracts Ministers, CEOs of Oil and Gas MNCs, experts and academics from
the hydrocarbon sectors and provides an ideal forum to showcase potential
of countries’ hydrocarbon sector.
 It also provides a platform to interact with policy makers, technologists,
scientists, planners and management experts.

[Link] League
 The Arab League is a regional organization of Arab countries in and around
North Africa, the Horn of Africa and Arabia.
 It was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945 with six members: Kingdom of
Egypt, Kingdom of Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria.
 Currently, the League has 22 members, but Syria’s participation has been

m
suspended since November 2011, as a consequence of government

co
repression during the Syrian Civil War.
 The League’s main goal is to “draw closer the relations between member

.
da
States and co-ordinate collaboration between them, to safeguard their
ad
independence and sovereignty, and to consider in a general way the affairs
and interests of the Arab countries“.
m

 The objective is to provide economic, political, cultural, scientific and social

aa

programmes designed to promote the interests of the Arab world.

.x
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[Link] of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)

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 India had strongly rejected the resolutions of the Organisation of Islamic

w

Cooperation (OIC) that had expressed concern about the attacks on people by
cow-vigilante groups.
 India has termed the resolutions adopted at the OIC’s foreign ministers’
meeting as “factually incorrect”.
 Background:
o The OIC noted that incidents of violence against the Muslim
community were being committed by extremist Hindu groups and said
it viewed such incidents “with grave concern”.
 About the OIC:
o Organisation of Islamic Cooperation is an international organization
founded in 1969, consisting of 57 member states.
o A few countries with significant Muslim populations, such
as Russia and Thailand, are Observer States, while others, such
as India and Ethiopia, are not members.
o The organisation states that it is “the collective voice of the Muslim
world” and works to “safeguard and protect the interests of the
Muslim world in the spirit of promoting international peace and
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o The OIC has permanent delegations to the United Nations and the NOTES
European Union.
o The official languages of the OIC are Arabic, English, and French.

[Link] Alimentarius Commission (CAC)

 The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) has adopted three Codex
standards for black, white and green pepper, cumin and thyme, paving the
way for universal agreement on identifying quality spices in various countries.
 This would facilitate evolving a common standardization process for their
global trade and availability.
 The Codex standards were adopted in the wake of India conducting three
sessions of Codex Committee on Spices and Culinary Herbs (CCSCH) at Kochi
(2014), Goa (2015) and Chennai (2017). The Chennai session succeeded in
achieving this consensus.
 With the adoption of the Codex standards on pepper, cumin and thyme,
spices have been included for the first time as commodities that will have
such universal standards.
 The adoption of the Codex standards would imply that there are now

m
reference points and benchmarks for the member-countries to align their

co
national standards for spices with Codex.
 It will bring harmony to the global spice trade and ensure availability of high

.
quality, clean and safe spices to the world. da

ad
Codex Alimentarius Commission:
o The Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) is an intergovernmental
m

body with over 180 members, within the framework of the Joint Food
aa

Standards Programme.
.x

o It was established by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the

w

United Nations (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO), with
w

the purpose of protecting the health of consumers and ensuring fair

w

practices in the food trade.

o The Commission also promotes coordination of all food standards
work undertaken by international governmental and
nongovernmental organizations.
o The Codex Alimentarius is recognized by the World Trade
Organization as an international reference point for the resolution of
disputes concerning food safety and consumer protection.

[Link] of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN)

 ASEAN is a group of 10 Southeast Asian nations which came into existence on
August 8, 1967 after ASEAN declaration (also known as Bangkok
declaration).
 It is a regional organisation that aims to promote intergovernmental
cooperation and facilitates economic integration amongst its members.
 Its Motto is “One Vision, One Identity, One Community”.
 The 10 members are Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia,
Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam.
 Founder Downloaded
countries of ASEAN [Link]
from- Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines

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and Thailand. NOTES

 The Secretariat of ASEAN is at Jakarta, Indonesia.
 ASEAN is an official United Nations observer, as well as an active global
partner.

[Link]-India Connectivity Summit (AICS)

 India hosted the Asean-India Connectivity Summit (AICS) on the theme
“Powering Digital and Physical Linkages for Asia in the 21st Century”.
 It was organized by the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) in collaboration
with AIC (ASEAN-India Centre) and CII (Confederation of Indian Industry).
 It was organised as part of the celebratory events being organised to
commemorate the silver jubilee of ASEAN-India dialogue partnership.
 The AICS aims to accelerate existing connectivity prospects, identify issues of
concern, evolve suitable policy recommendations and develop strategies to
enhance economic, industrial and trade relations between ASEAN and India.
 Its focus areas are infrastructure, roadways, shipping, digital, finance, energy
and aviation.
 Participants: Policymakers, senior officials from the government, investors,

m
industry leaders, representatives of trade associations and entrepreneurs on

co
the same platform.

.
[Link]-India Commemorative Summit da
ad
 Delhi declaration was adopted at the recently concluded ASEAN-India
Commemorative Summit.
m


aa

ASEAN-India Commemorative Summit was held to celebrate the 25th

anniversary of the establishment of sectoral dialogue between two sides
.x

under the theme of “Shared Values, Common Destiny”.

w

 India and 10 ASEAN countries for first time mentioned cross-border

w

movement of terrorists and made commitment to counter the challenge

w

through close cooperation as part of the declaration.

[Link] Dialogue 9
 The 9th edition of the Delhi Dialogue was held in New Delhi.
 The Delhi Dialogue is an annual event to discuss politico-security, economic
and socio-cultural engagement between ASEAN and India. It has been held
annually since 2009.
 The theme for Delhi Dialogue 9 is “ASEAN-India Relations: Charting the
Course for the Next 25 Years”.
 Delhi Dialogue is a conference in which policymakers converge to discuss a
range of issues relating to India-Asean relations.
 The Delhi Dialogue is being organised by the Ministry of External Affairs
(MEA) in collaboration with the Observer Research Foundation (ORF),
Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (Ficci), and other
bodies of the Asean countries.

[Link] Vaccine Institute (IVI)

 Downloaded
The Indian from-Research
Council of Medical [Link]
(ICMR) has signed a MoU with the

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International Vaccine Institute (IVI) for collaborating on vaccine research and NOTES
development.
 India will commit $5,00,000 (₹3.20 crore) annually for a stake in IVI.
 International Vaccine Institute (IVI), Seoul, South Korea, is an international
non-profit organization established in 1997 on the initiatives of the UNDP, is
devoted to developing and introducing new and improved vaccines to
protect the people, especially children, against deadly infectious diseases.
 Created initially as an initiative of the UN Development Programme (UNDP),
IVI began formal operations as an independent international organization in
1997.
 Currently, IVI has 40 countries and the World Health Organization (WHO) as
signatories to its Establishment Agreement.
 The Institute has a unique mandate to work exclusively on vaccine
development and introduction specifically for people in developing countries,
with a focus on neglected diseases affecting these regions.
 India and the IVI:
o In the year 2007, with the approval of Cabinet, India joined IVI. India is
a long-term collaborator and stake-holder of IVI.

m
o IVI has been partnering with Indian vaccine manufacturers, research

co
institutes, government, and public health agencies on vaccine
development, research, and training.

.
da
o One of the most successful collaborations was with Shantha Biotech
ad
on the development of Shanchol, the world’s first low-cost oral
cholera vaccine.
m
aa

[Link] Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

.x

 The International Atomic Energy Agency is the world's central

w

intergovernmental forum for scientific and technical co-operation in the

w

nuclear field.
w

 It was established as an autonomous organization in 1957 through its own

international treaty, the IAEA Statute.
 It is not under direct control of the UN. Though established independently of
the United Nations, the IAEA reports to both the United Nations General
Assembly and Security Council.
 It was set up as the world´s “Atoms for Peace” organization in 1957.
 It also seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and to inhibit its
use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons.
 The Agency works with its Member States and multiple partners worldwide to
promote safe, secure and peaceful nuclear technologies.
 The IAEA Secretariat is headquartered at the Vienna International Centre in
Vienna, Austria.
 The IAEA serves as an intergovernmental forum for scientific and technical
cooperation in the peaceful use of nuclear technology and nuclear power
worldwide.

[Link] Free Trade Association (EFTA)

 Downloaded
The European Free Tradefrom- [Link]
Association (EFTA) is a regional trade

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organization and free trade area consisting of four European NOTES

states: Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland.
 The organization operates in parallel with the European Union (EU), and all
four member states participate in the European Single Market.
 They are not party to the European Union Customs Union.
 It was established in May 1960 thorough Stockholm Convention to serve as an
alternative trade bloc for those European states that were unable or unwilling
to join then European Economic Community (EEC) which subsequently
became European Union.
 EFTA is not a customs union and member states have full rights to enter into
bilateral trade arrangements with third-country.
 EFTA does not envisage political integration and does not issue legislation.
 Its secretariat is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland.
 India and European Free Trade Association (EFTA) is yet to conclude their long
pending negotiations on Free Trade Agreement (FTA). So far, around 16
rounds of negotiations have taken place which had started in 2008.

[Link] Organization for Migration (IOM)

m
 IOM was established in 1951 as the Intergovernmental Committee for

co
European Migration (ICEM) to help resettle people displaced by World War II.
 It was granted Permanent Observer status to UN General Assembly in 1992.

.
 da
As of September 2016, it became a related organization of the United
ad
Nations.

m

Its headquarters is in Geneva, Switzerland.


aa

IOM is the leading inter-governmental organization in the field of migration

and works closely with governmental, intergovernmental and non-
.x

governmental partners.
w

 With 169 member states, a further 8 states holding observer status and
w
w

offices in over 100 countries, IOM is dedicated to promoting humane and

orderly migration for the benefit of all.
 It does so by providing services and advice to governments and migrants.
 India is a member of IOM.
 IOM works to help ensure the orderly and humane management of migration,
to promote international cooperation on migration issues, to assist in the
search for practical solutions to migration problems and to provide
humanitarian assistance to migrants in need, including refugees and
internally displaced people.
 IOM works in the four broad areas of migration management:
o Migration and development.
o Facilitating migration.
o Regulating migration.
o Forced migration.
 World Migration Report 2018:
o World Migration Report 2018 is the ninth in the series.
o Since 2000, International Organization for Migration has been
producing world migration reports to contribute to increased
Downloadedoffrom-
understanding [Link]
migration throughout the world.

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o India tops the world in the number of migrants sent abroad. About NOTES
16.59 million Indian live abroad. Mexico sent out 13 million migrants,
the second highest number.
o Most of the international migration takes place among developing
countries with 60% of the migrants from Asia going to other Asian
countries.
o International migrants:
 The definition of international migrants used in the report is
broad, taking into account anyone living in a country other
their own and includes refugees and economic migrants, both
those immigrating officially and those who do so “irregularly”.
 The numbers are not a count of people by national origin or
ethnicity and, therefore, do not include children of migrants
born in the countries their parents went to.

[Link] Motor Vehicles Agreement

 Bangladesh, India and Nepal agreed on text of operating procedures for
passenger vehicle movement (Passenger protocol) in sub-region under
Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal (BBIN) Motor Vehicles Agreement (MVA).

m
 The passenger protocol agreed upon is document detailing procedures for

co
cross-border movement of buses and private vehicles for transport facilitation

.

in sub region. da
ad
It will be signed by three countries after completing necessary internal
approval processes in their government.
m

 Bangladesh, India, and Nepal have already ratified the MVA and have agreed
aa

to start implementation of the MVA among the three signatory countries,

.x

with Bhutan joining after it ratifies the Agreement.

w

 Background:
w

o India in June 2015 had signed the major sub-regional transport

w

project, Bangladesh-Bhutan-India-Nepal (BBIN) Motor Vehicles

Agreement (MVA), for the seamless transit of passenger and cargo
vehicles among them.
o Bhutan could not get public and parliamentary support for it.
o However, Bhutan had suggested that Bangladesh, India and Nepal may
consider the implementation of the MVA.
 BBIN MVA:
o The four SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation)
countries had in June 2015 signed the Motor Vehicle Agreement.
o The pact aims at allowing motor vehicles of all categories registered
in three countries to move freely in the region.
o The pact aims to realise the ultimate objective of free movement of
people and goods in the region and said that this would be
supplemented through the building and upgrading roads, railways
and waterways infrastructure.
o The Asian Development Bank (ADB) has been providing technical,
advisory, and financial support to the BBIN MVA initiative as part of
its assistance to the south Asia sub-regional economic cooperation
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(SASEC) programme. NOTES

o Earlier, trial runs for cargo vehicles under the MVA were conducted
along the Kolkata-Dhaka-Agartala and Delhi-Kolkata- Dhaka routes.

[Link] Dialogue Forum

 Established in June 2003, INDIA-BRAZIL-SOUTH AFRICA (IBSA) is a
coordinating mechanism amongst three emerging countries, three multi
ethnic and multicultural democracies, which are determined to:
o Contribute to the construction of a new international architecture.
o Bring their voice together on global issues.
o Deepen their ties in various areas.
 It brings together three large democracies and major economies from three
different continents namely, Africa, Asia and South America that represents
three important poles for galvanizing South-South cooperation.
 IBSA also opens itself to concrete projects of cooperation and partnership
with less developed countries.
 The establishment of IBSA was formalised by the Brasilia Declaration of 6
June 2003.


m
Their status as middle powers, their common need to address social

co
inequalities within their borders and the existence of consolidated industrial
areas in the three countries are often mentioned as additional elements that

.
bring convergence among the members of the Forum. da
ad
[Link] Trust Fund Agreement
m

 India, Brazil and South Africa have signed the IBSA Trust Fund Agreement
aa

that seeks to fight poverty in developing countries.

.x

 The agreement was signed at the 8th IBSA trilateral Ministerial Commission
w

Meeting in Durban.
w

 Each country contributes USD 1 million annually to this fund which is

w

managed by the UN Development Programmes (UNDP) Special Unit for

South-South Cooperation.

[Link] Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN)

 The Nobel Peace Prize has been awarded to the International Campaign to
Abolish Nuclear Weapons (Ican).
 Ican has been chosen for its “groundbreaking efforts to achieve a treaty
prohibition” on nuclear weapons.
 Ican, a coalition of hundreds of non-governmental organisations (NGOs), is
10 years old and is based in Geneva, Switzerland.

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 Ican set about an NOTES

alternative approach – to
raise popular awareness
of the issue and to
pressure governments to
open up a new treaty for
signature in 2017 that
would seek an outright
ban on nuclear weapons.
 In July 2017, after
pressure from Ican, 122
nations backed a UN
treaty designed to ban
and eventually eliminate
all nuclear weapons. But
none of the nine known
nuclear powers in the
world – including the UK
and the US – endorsed it.

m
. co
[Link] Association of Marine Aids to Navigation and
da
ad
Lighthouse Authorities (IALA)
m


aa

Union Cabinet has given its approval for International Association of Marine
Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities (IALA) to change its status from
.x

Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) to Inter-Governmental Organization

w

(IGO).
w


w

The move will facilitate “to foster the safe, economic and efficient movement
of vessels”.
 It will bring IALA at par with International Maritime Organisation (IMO) and
International Hydrographic Organisation (IHO).
 Background:
o In its 12th session held in La Coruna, Spain in May 2014, IALA General
Assembly had adopted resolution stating that status of IALA from NGO
to IGO will best facilitate lALA’s aims in 21st century.
 IALA:
o The IALA, having headquarters at St. Germainen Laye (France) was
established in 1957 under French law.
o It is governed by a General Assembly having 83 National members,
with its Council as the executive body.
o The IALA council consists of 24 National Members and India is one of
the council members represented through the Directorate General of
Lighthouses and Lightships (DGLL), Ministry of Shipping.
o DGLL establishes and maintains Aids to Navigation in general waters
along coast of India including A&N and Lakshadweep group of islands,
asDownloaded
per Lighthousefrom- [Link]
Act 1927.

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 Insights PT 2018 Exclusive (International Relations)
NOTES
[Link] Asia Economic Summit
 Xth South Asia Economic Summit (SAES) was held at Kathmandu.
 More than 200 participants including ministers, members of parliaments,
ambassadors, government officials, eminent experts and thinkers attended
the summit.
 The theme of the summit is “Deepening Economic Integration for Inclusive
and Sustainable Development in South Asia”.
 Started in 2008, South Asia Economic Summit is like Davos- World Economic
Forum event in South Asia.
 It is a regional platform for discussing and analyzing economic and
development issues and challenges faced by South Asian countries and
advancing the cause of regional integration and cooperation.
 It brings together stakeholders from the government, private sector,
research, academics and civil society to generate innovative and actionable
ideas for consideration by the region’s policymakers and SAARC.

[Link] Pacific Computer Emergency Response Team (Apcert)

m
 The 15th Asia Pacific Computer Emergency Response Team (APCERT)

co
Conference was held in New Delhi.
 It is first ever conference to be held in India and South Asia.

.
 da
It was organised by Indian Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In)
ad
under the aegis of Ministry of Electronics & Information Technology.

m

The theme of conference was “Building Trust in the Digital Economy”.


aa

APCERT (Asia Pacific Computer Emergency Response Team) is a coalition of

CSIRTs (Computer Security Incident Response Teams), from 13 economies
.x

across the Asia Pacific region.

w

 APCERT organizes an annual meeting called APSIRC conference, and the first
w
w

conference was held in March 2002, Tokyo, Japan.

 Membership: Any CSIRT from Asia Pacific Region, who is interested to
furthering the objectives of APCERT, will be allowed to join as APCERT
members after meeting all member accreditation requirements.
 APCERT membership model has 2 levels:
o Full members: Full Members are CSIRTs/CERTs in the Asia Pacific
region, who have the right to vote on APCERT issues, as well as to
stand for election to the APCERT Steering Committee.
o All Founding Members are Full Members.
o General Members: Any CSIRTs/CERTs in the Asia Pacific region with an
interest in incident response and IT security, can join APCERT as a
General Member.
o General Members are not eligible to vote or to stand for election to
the APCERT Steering Committee.
o An applicant is required to join APCERT as a General Member first.
o After applicants obtain a General Member status, they can later apply
to upgrade their membership to a Full Member status.
o General Membership is a pre-requisite to become a Full Member.
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NOTES
40.7th Asian Energy Ministers’ Round Table organised by International
Energy Forum (IEF)
 India was the current Chair of the IEF.
 It was hosted by Thailand and co-Hosted by the United Arab Emirates.
 Highlights:
o How to overcome market and policy hurdles.
o Importance of a flexible, transparent and non-discriminatory global
LNG trading regime which would expedite ushering in the golden age
of gas.
o Need to move to a gas based economy and the avenues for FDI in
building infrastructure for gas including LNG terminals, pipelines, CGD
etc.
 International Energy Forum (IEF):
o IEF is the largest inter-governmental organisation in the field of oil and
gas comprising 72 member countries, accounting for 90% of global
supply and demand of oil and gas.
o Members include developing, developed, OPEC, Non-OPEC and G20

m
countries.

co
o 18 of the G20 countries are members of IEF.

.
o The IEF is promoted by a permanent Secretariat based in the
Diplomatic Quarter of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. da
ad
[Link] Energy Agency (IEA)
m


aa

The 2017 IEA Ministerial Meeting was recently held in Paris.

 The focus of the meeting was on global energy challenges and how they can
.x

be overcome.
w


w

Founded in 1974, the IEA was initially designed to help countries co-ordinate a
w

collective response to major disruptions in the supply of oil, such as the crisis
of 1973/4.
 Members: Presently it has 30 member countries. India is the associate
member of IAE.
 Headquarters (Secretariat): Paris, France.
 Publications: World Energy Outlook report.
 The four main areas of IEA focus are:
o Energy Security: Promoting diversity, efficiency, flexibility and
reliability for all fuels and energy sources;
o Economic Development: Supporting free markets to foster economic
growth and eliminate energy poverty;
o Environmental Awareness: Analysing policy options to offset the
impact of energy production and use on the environment, especially
for tackling climate change and air pollution; and
o Engagement Worldwide: Working closely with partner countries,
especially major emerging economies, to find solutions to shared
energy and environmental concerns.
 Functions:
o TheDownloaded
IEA examinesfrom-the [Link]
spectrum of energy issues including oil, gas
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 Insights PT 2018 Exclusive (International Relations)

and coal supply and demand, renewable energy technologies, NOTES

electricity markets, energy efficiency, access to energy, demand side
management and much more.
o The IEA advocates policies that will enhance the reliability,
affordability and sustainability of energy in its member countries and
beyond.

[Link] Asia Regional Training and Technical Assistance Center

(SARTTAC)
 An Interim Meeting of the Steering Committee of the International
Monetary Fund (IMF)’s South Asia Regional Training and Technical Assistance
Center (SARTTAC) was held recently in national capital to assess the Center’s
activities since its inauguration in February 2017 and to review the Fiscal Year
2018 Work Plan.
 Officials from all Six Member countries attended the meeting, together with
the Development Partner representatives (the European Union, the United
Kingdom, Australia, and USAID), and IMF staff.
 SARTTAC, the newest addition to the IMF’s global network of fourteen

m
regional centres, is a new kind of capacity development institution, fully

co
integrating customized hands-on training with targeted technical advice in a

.
range of macroeconomic and financial areas, and generating synergies
between the two. It was inaugurated at Delhi in February 2017. da
ad
 SARTTAC is financed mainly by its six member countries — Bangladesh,
m

Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, and Sri Lanka — with additional support from
aa

Australia, the Republic of Korea, the European Union and the United
Kingdom.
.x

 SARTTAC’s strategic goal is to help its member countries strengthen their

w

institutional and human capacity to design and implement macroeconomic

w
w

and financial policies that promote growth and reduce poverty.

 SARTTAC will allow the IMF to meet more of the high demand for technical
assistance and training from the region. Through its team of international
resident experts, SARTTAC is expected to become the focal point for the
delivery of IMF capacity development services to South Asia.

[Link] Committee of Military Medicine (ICMM)

 The 42nd World Congress of the International Committee of Military
Medicine (ICMM) was recently organised by the Armed Forces Medical
Services (AFMS) under the aegis of the Ministry of Defence (MoD).
 The event was organised for the first time in India, and was the largest
medical conference ever organised by the AFMS.
 The theme of this 42nd World Congress is “Military Medicine in Transition:
Looking Ahead.”
 The ICMM is an international inter-governmental organisation created in
1921 with its secretariat at Brussels in Belgium and currently has 112 nations
as members.
 The ICMM was established after World War I had revealed the lack of care
providedDownloaded from-
to victims and the [Link]
to strengthen cooperation between the

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 Insights PT 2018 Exclusive (International Relations)

health services of the armed forces worldwide. NOTES

 The main objective of the ICMM is to ensure that our medical services
personnel have the means to work together, using similar practices, in
operations involving international cooperation.
 This is a long-term goal, and the ICMM can work towards achieving this in a
number of ways:
o by encouraging activities at which scientific and technical experience is
shared,
o by developing contacts with the scientific community,
o by promoting regional events.
 This will enable us to pool our resources and work experience of military
medicine, both in the theatre of operations and in a support role in the case of
crisis situations.

[Link] Geological Congress

 A high level delegation of the International Union of Geological Sciences
(IUGS) recently visited India to discuss the preparatory aspects of the 36th
International Geological Congress (IGC) to be held in Delhi, India in the year

m
2020.


co
Background:
o Described as the Olympics of Geosciences, the IGCs are held

.
da
quadrennially under the aegis of the IUGS through a process of global
ad
bidding.
o India won the bid in 2012 at Brisbane, Australia to host the Congress in
m

2020.
aa

o The event makes a come back to the Indian soil after nearly 6 decades.
.x

o The event is being jointly funded by the Ministry of Mines and

w

Ministry of Earth Sciences with the active support of the Indian

w

National Science Academy (INSA), and the Science Academies of the

w

other neighbouring co-host countries, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan

and Sri Lanka.
 International Geological Congress (IGC) is the prestigious global platform for
advancement of Earth Science.
 The first session of IGC assembled in 1878 in France with an aim to provide the
global geological community with an opportunity to create an organizational
frame work for meeting at regular intervals.
 Management:
o Founded as a non-profit scientific and educational organization in
1878, IGC came under the aegis of International Union of Geological
Sciences (IUGS) in 1961.
o Since then the meetings of IGC are held in collaboration and under
scientific sponsorship of IUGS.
 Previous congresses:
o Since the inception of IGC, 33 Congresses have been hosted by 24
countries throughout the world at 3- to 5-year intervals.
o The 35th IGC was held at Capetown, South Africa in 2016.
 IUGS:
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o The IUGS was founded in 1961 and is a Scientific Union member of the NOTES
International Council for Science (ICSU), which it recognizes as the
coordinating body for the international organization of science.
o Currently geologists from 121 countries (and regions) are represented
in IUGS through 121 Adhering Organization.
o It is an international non-governmental organization devoted to
international cooperation in the field of geology.
o IUGS is a joint partner with UNESCO for the International Geoscience
Programme (IGCP) and they also participate in the Global Network of
National Geoparks (GGN).

[Link] Action Task Force (FATF)

 The Financial Action Task Force (FATF), the global anti- money laundering
watchdog has placed Pakistan back on its terrorist financing watchlist.
 The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) is an inter-governmental body
established in 1989 on the initiative of the G7.
 It is a “policy-making body” which works to generate the necessary political
will to bring about national legislative and regulatory reforms in various areas.


m
Objectives:
o The objectives of the FATF are to set standards and promote effective

co
implementation of legal, regulatory and operational measures for

.
da
combating money laundering, terrorist financing and other related
ad
threats to the integrity of the international financial system.
 What it does?
m

o The FATF monitors the progress of its members in implementing

aa

necessary measures, reviews money laundering and terrorist financing

.x

techniques and counter-measures, and promotes the adoption and

w

implementation of appropriate measures globally.

w

o In collaboration with other international stakeholders, the FATF works

w

to identify national-level vulnerabilities with the aim of protecting the

international financial system from misuse.
 There are currently 37 members of the FATF; 35 jurisdictions including India
and 2 regional organisations (the Gulf Cooperation Council and the European
Commission).
 There are also 31 international and regional organisations which are Associate
Members or Observers of the FATF.

[Link] North–South Transport Corridor (INSTC)

 India, Iran and Russia had in September 2000 signed the INSTC agreement to
build a corridor to provide the shortest multi-model transportation route
linking the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf to the Caspian Sea via Iran and
St Petersburg.
 From St Petersburg, North Europe is within easy reach via the Russian
Federation. The estimated capacity of the corridor is 20-30 million tonnes of
goods per year.
 The route primarily involves moving freight from India, Iran, Azerbaijan and
Russia via ship, rail and road.
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 The objective of the corridor is to increase trade connectivity between major NOTES
cities such as Mumbai, Moscow, Tehran, Baku, Bandar Abbas, Astrakhan,
Bandar Anzali and etc.
 INSTC will not only help cut down on costs and time taken for transfer of
goods from India to Russia and Europe via Iran but also provide an alternative
connectivity initiative to countries in the Eurasian region.
 It will be India’s second corridor after the Chabahar Port to access resource
rich Central Asia and its market.

m
. co
[Link] Cooperation Council (GCC) da
ad
 The 38th Gulf Cooperation Council summit was held in Kuwait.
m

 The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) is a political and economic alliance of six
aa

countries in the Arabian Peninsula: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi

Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.
.x


w

Its headquarters is in Riyadh, capital city

w

of Saudi Arabia.
w

 Established in 1981, the GCC promotes

economic, security, cultural and social
cooperation between the six states and
holds a summit every year to discuss
cooperation and regional affairs.
 Due to their geographic proximity, similar
political systems and common socio-
cultural stances, the immediate goal was
for these countries to protect themselves
from threats after the Iran-Iraq War.
 The GCC comprises six main branches that carry out various tasks, from the
preparation of meetings to the implementation of policies.
o They are- Supreme Council, Ministerial Council, Secretariat-General,
Consultative Commission, Commission for the Settlement of Disputes
and the Secretary-General.
 All current member states are monarchies, including
o Three constitutional monarchies (Qatar, Kuwait, and Bahrain),
o Two absolute monarchies (Saudi Arabia and Oman), and
o OneDownloaded from-(the
federal monarchy [Link]
United Arab Emirates, which is composed
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of six member states, each of which is an absolute monarchy with its NOTES
own emir).

[Link] Dialogue
 The third edition of the geo-political conference – Raisina Dialogue was held
in New Delhi.
 It was inaugurated by Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu.
 The event is jointly organised by the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) and
Observer Research Foundation (ORF).
 The theme of the conference- ‘Managing Disruptive Transitions: Ideas,
Institutions and Idioms’.
 The name of conference comes from Raisina Hill which is the elevation in
New Delhi where Rashtrapati Bhavan is located.
 It is organized on the lines of the Shangri-La Dialogue held in Singapore.
 The first edition of the conference was held in March 2016 with the theme
‘Asia: Regional and Global Connectivity’.
 It is structured as a multi-stakeholder, cross-sectorial conclave, involving
policy and decision makers, including cabinet ministers from various

m
Governments, high-level Government officials and policy practitioners,

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leading personalities from business and industry etc.

@UPSC_IAS_GURU da
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aa
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Join us on
TELEGRAM

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NOTES
United Nations Organisations
1. UN Specialised Agencies
 Specialized agencies are autonomous organizations working with the United
Nations.
 Specialized agencies may or may not have been originally created by the
United Nations, but they are incorporated into the United Nations System by
the United Nations Economic and Social Council.
 At present the UN has in total 15 specialized agencies that carry out various
functions on behalf of the UN.
 The specialized agencies are listed below:
o Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).
o International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
o International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD).
o International Labour Organization (ILO).
o International Maritime Organization (IMO).
o International Monetary Fund (IMF).
o International Telecommunication Union (ITU).

m
o United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

co
(UNESCO).

.
o United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO).
o Universal Postal Union (UPU). da
ad
o World Bank Group (WBG).
 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
m
aa

(IBRD),
 The International Finance Corporation (IFC),
.x

 The International Development Association (IDA),

w

 The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), and

w

 The International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes

w

(ICSID).
o World Health Organization (WHO).
o World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).
o World Meteorological Organization (WMO).
o World Tourism Organization (UNWTO).
 Former Specialized Agencies:
o The only UN specialized agency to go out of existence is the
International Refugee Organization, which existed from 1946 to 1952.
o In 1952, it was replaced by the Office of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees which is a subsidiary organ of the United
Nations General Assembly.

2. International Court of Justice (ICJ)

 India’s nominee to International Court of Justice (ICJ) Dalveer Bhandari was
elected for the second term.
 He was elected after United Kingdom withdrew its candidate from the
election.
 Downloaded
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time that a permanent member of the UNSC has lost at the ICJ on a vote. NOTES
 About ICJ:
o The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of
the United Nations (UN).
o It was established in June 1945 by the Charter of the United Nations
and began work in April 1946.
o The seat of the Court is at the Peace Palace in The Hague
(Netherlands).
o Of the six principal organs of the United Nations, it is the only one not
located in New York (United States of America).
o The Court’s role is to settle, in accordance with international law,
legal disputes submitted to it by States and to give advisory opinions
on legal questions referred to it by authorized United Nations organs
and specialized agencies.
o Its judgments have binding force and are without appeal for the
parties concerned.
 Judges at ICJ:
o The ICJ consists of 15 judges elected to nine-year terms by the United
Nations General Assembly and the Security Council that vote

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simultaneously but separately.

co
o Elections take place every three years, with one-third of the judges

.
retiring each time.
o Judges are eligible to stand for re-election.
da
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o President and Vice-President of the court are elected by secret ballot
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to hold office for three years.

aa

 The 15 judges of the Court are distributed as per the regions:

.x

o Three from Africa.

w

o Two from Latin America and Caribbean.

w

o Three from Asia.

w

o Five from Western Europe and other states.

o Two from Eastern Europe.
 Eligibility criteria:
o A candidate must receive an absolute majority of the votes in both
bodies (UNSC and UNGA).
o Judges will be elected from among persons of high moral character,
who possess the qualifications required in their respective countries
for appointment to the highest judicial offices, or are jurisconsults of
recognised competence in international law.
o Judges are chosen on the basis of their qualifications, not their
nationality, but no two judges can be from the same nationality.
o Effort is also taken to ensure that the principal legal systems of the
world are reflected in the composition of the court.
 Independence of the Judges:
o Once elected, a Member of the Court is a delegate neither of the
government of his own country nor of that of any other State.
o Unlike most other organs of international organizations, the Court is
not composed of representatives of governments.
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o Members of the Court are independent judges whose first task, NOTES
before taking up their duties, is to make a solemn declaration in open
court that they will exercise their powers impartially and
conscientiously.
o In order to guarantee his or her independence, no Member of the
Court can be dismissed unless, in the unanimous opinion of the other
Members, he/she no longer fulfils the required conditions. This has in
fact never happened.

3. UN Office for South- South Cooperation (UNOSSC)

 The United Nations Office for South-South Cooperation (UNOSSC) was
established to promote, coordinate and support South-South and triangular
cooperation globally and within the United Nations system.
 UNOSSC, hosted by UNDP since 1974, was established by the UN General
Assembly with a mandate to advocate for and coordinate South-South and
triangular cooperation on a global and UN system-wide basis.
 UNOSSC receives policy directives and guidance from the General Assembly
and through its subsidiary body, the High-level Committee on South-South

m
Cooperation.


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UNOSSC submits its strategic planning frameworks to the UNDP, UNFPA and
UNOPS Executive Board for approval and funding.

.
4. International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS)
da
ad
 In a significant victory for India at the UN, international law expert Neeru
m

Chadha has won a crucial election to a top UN judicial body that deals with
aa

disputes related to the law of the sea, becoming the first Indian woman to be
.x

appointed as a judge at the tribunal.

w

 Chadha, an eminent lawyer and the first Indian woman to become the chief
w

legal adviser in the ministry of external affairs, is elected for a nine-year term
w

from 2017 to 2026.

 Chadha is only the second woman to be judge of ITLOS in its two decades of
existence.
 ITLOS:
o The Hamburg-based ITLOS, established in 1996, is one of dispute
settlement mechanisms under the UN Convention on the Law of the
Sea (UNCLOS) that entered into force in 1994.
o The Tribunal is composed of 21 independent members who are
elected from among persons enjoying the highest reputation for
fairness and integrity and of recognised competence in the field of the
law of the sea.
o The tribunal is based in Hamburg, Germany.
o The Tribunal has the power to settle disputes between party states.
Currently, there are 161 parties.
o India is also a signatory to this convention.

5. UN approves creation of new office on counter-terrorism

 The UN General Assembly has approved the establishment of a new office to
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coordinate counter-terrorism efforts. NOTES

 Under the new structure, the Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force
Office (CTITF) and the UN Counter- Terrorism Centre (UNCCT), currently in
the UN Department of Political Affairs (DPA) will be transferred to the new
office, together with their existing staff and all associated regular and extra-
budgetary resources.
 The new Office would he headed up by an Under-Secretary-General.
 The Office would have five main functions:
o Provide leadership on the General Assembly counter-terrorism
mandates entrusted to the Secretary-General from across the United
Nations system.
o Enhance coordination and coherence across the 38 Counter-Terrorism
Implementation Task Force entities to ensure the balanced
implementation of the four pillars of the UN Global Counter-Terrorism
Strategy.
o Strengthen the delivery of United Nations counter-terrorism capacity-
building assistance to Member States.
o Improve visibility, advocacy and resource mobilization for United
Nations counter-terrorism efforts.

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o Ensure that due priority is given to counterterrorism across the United

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Nations system and that the important work on preventing violent

.
extremism is firmly rooted in the Strategy. da
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6. United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
m

 India has been re-elected to the UN’s principal organ on economic, social
aa

and environmental issues for another three-year term.

.x

 India was among 18 nations to win election to the ECOSOC. India obtained
w

183 votes, the second highest after Japan in the Asia Pacific category.
w

 The current elected members of the ECOSOC will hold a three year
w

term beginning January 1 2018.

 ECOSOC is one of the six main organs of the United Nations which was
established by the UN Charter.
 It is the principal body for coordination, policy review, policy dialogue and
recommendations on economic, social and environmental issues, as well as
for implementation of the internationally agreed development goals.
 The Council’s 54 member Governments are elected by the General Assembly
for overlapping three-year terms.
 Seats on the Council are allotted based on geographical representation.

7. UN Tax Fund
 India has contributed $100,000 to a UN fund to help developing countries
actively participate in the discussion of tax issues, becoming the first country
to make the contribution.
 The UN Tax Trust Fund aims to support the work of the Committee of Experts
on International Cooperation in Tax Matters (the UN Tax Committee).
 Voluntary contributions for the fund have been called for by the UN and the
committee since its establishment
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 The call for contributions was also emphasised in the Addis Ababa Action NOTES
Agenda adopted at the third International Conference on Financing for
Development in 2015.
 Through the fund, the UN expects that more developing countries will draw
upon the best practice of other bodies, ensuring that global tax cooperation
norms and rules will work more effectively and efficiently for all countries and
all stakeholders.
 Addis Agenda:
o The Addis Agenda provides a global framework to ensure the
effective mobilisation of resources at the national and international
level for sustainable development.
o Implementation of the Addis Agenda supports the implementation of
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and is an integral part of
the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

8. India-UN Development Partnership Fund

 India has pledged an additional 100 million dollars to a UN partnership fund
launched to support sustainable development projects across the

m
developing world.


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The India-UN Development Partnership Fund was set up in 2017 as a
partnership between India and the United Nations Office for South-South

.
Cooperation (UNOSSC). da

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Managed by UNOSSC, the fund will support Southern-owned and led,
demand-driven, and transformational sustainable development projects
m

across the developing world.

aa

 Focusing on Least Developed Countries (LDCs) and Small Island Developing

.x

States, United Nations agencies will implement the Fund’s projects in close
w

collaboration with partnering governments.

w

 Focus areas: Reducing poverty and hunger, improving health, education and
w

equality, and expanding access to clean water and energy.

9. International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO)

 The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is a UN specialized
agency, established in 1944 to manage the administration and governance of
the Convention on International Civil Aviation (Chicago Convention).
 ICAO works with the Convention’s 191 Member States and industry groups to
reach consensus on international civil aviation Standards and
Recommended Practices (SARPs) and policies in support of a safe, efficient,
secure, economically sustainable and environmentally responsible civil
aviation sector.
 These SARPs and policies are used by ICAO Member States to ensure that
their local civil aviation operations and regulations conform to global norms.
 ICAO also:
o Coordinates assistance and capacity building for States in support of
numerous aviation development objectives;
o Produces global plans to coordinate multilateral strategic progress for
safety and air navigation;
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o Monitors and reports on numerous air transport sector performance NOTES

metrics; and
o Audits States’ civil aviation oversight capabilities in the areas of safety
and security.

[Link] Telecommunication Union (ITU)

 ITU is the United Nations specialized agency for information and
communication technologies – ICTs.
 It allocates global radio spectrum and satellite orbits, develops the technical
standards that ensure networks and technologies seamlessly interconnect,
and strives to improve access to ICTs to underserved communities worldwide.
 ITU is committed to connecting all the world's people – wherever they live
and whatever their means.
 ITU brings the benefits of modern communication technologies to people
everywhere in an efficient, safe, easy and affordable manner.
 An organization based on public-private partnership since its inception, ITU
currently has a membership of 193 countries and almost 800 private-sector
entities and academic institutions.
 ITU is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and has twelve regional and

m
area offices around the world.

. co
[Link] Nations Security Council (UNSC)

da
ad
The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the six principal organs
of the United Nations and is charged with the maintenance of international
m

peace and security.

aa

 Like the UN as a whole, the Security Council was created following World
.x

War II to address the failings of a previous international organization,

w

the League of Nations, in maintaining world peace.

w

 UNSC powers include:

w

o Establishment of peacekeeping operations,

o Establishment of international sanctions, and
o Authorization of military action through Security Council resolutions;
o It is the only UN body with the authority to issue binding resolutions
to member states.
 The Security Council held its first session on 17 January 1946.
 The Security Council has 15 members, including five permanent.
 The five permanent members, each with the power of veto, are China,
France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States.
 The Council’s 10 non-permanent seats are allocated according to a rotation
pattern set by the Assembly in 1963, to ensure a proportionate
representation over time from the different parts of the world:
o Five from African and Asian States;
o One from Eastern Europe;
o Two from Latin American States; and
o Two from Western European and Other States.
 The Security Council is also responsible for determining the existence of a
threat against peace and to respond to an act of aggression.
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 It is also responsible for finding peaceful means to settle a conflict or a NOTES

dispute between States.
 In some cases, the Council can resort to sanctions or even authorize the use of
force to maintain or restore international peace and security.
 The five permanent members of the Security Council are also the only
countries recognized as nuclear-weapon states (NWS) under the Nuclear Non-
Proliferation Treaty (NPT).

[Link] Maritime Organisation (IMO)

 The IMO is the United Nations specialised agency with responsibility for the
safety and security of shipping and the prevention of marine pollution by
ships.
 It was established in 1948 in Geneva and came into force in 1959. Its
headquarters are in London, United Kingdom.
 It has 173 Member States and three Associate Members.
 India was one of earliest members of the IMO.
 The IMO’s primary purpose is to develop and maintain a comprehensive
regulatory framework for shipping and its remit today includes safety,

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environmental concerns, legal matters, technical co-operation, maritime

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security and the efficiency of shipping.
 IMO is governed by an assembly of members and is financially administered

.
by a council of members elected from the assembly. da
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 The IMO’s structure comprises the Assembly, the Council, the Maritime Safety
Committee, the Marine Environment Protection Committee, the Legal
m

Committee, the Technical Cooperation Committee, and the secretariat,

aa

headed by a Secretary-General.
.x

 IMO council:
w

o The IMO Council acts as the IMO’s Governing Body.

w

o It has a crucial role to play in deciding various matters in relation to

w

the global shipping industry, including its work programme strategy

and budget.
o Members of the Council consist of 40 member states, elected by its
Assembly including:
 10 members in category A with the largest interest in
providing international shipping services;
 10 members in category B with the largest interest in
international seaborne trade and
 20 members in category C with special interests in maritime
transport or navigation.
 India was re-elected to Council of the International Maritime Organisation
(IMO).
o India was elected under category B.
o India has been elected to the Council of the IMO ever since it started
functioning, except during 1983-1984.
o IMO Council consists of 40 member countries who are elected by IMO
Assembly.
o ItDownloaded
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from- various matters related to global
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shipping industry. NOTES

[Link] Nations Peacekeeping

 United Nations Peacekeeping was created in 1948.
 Its first mission involved the establishment of the UN Truce Supervision
Organization (UNTSO), which served to observe and maintain ceasefire
during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.
 UN Peacekeeping maintains three basic principles:
o Consent of the parties,
o Impartiality and non-use of Force except in self-defence and
o Defence of the mandate.
 The UN Peacekeepers are led by the Department of Peacekeeping
Operations (DKPO).
 There are currently 17 UN peace operations deployed on four continents.
 UN Peacekeepers are from diverse backgrounds, from areas all around the
world.
 They include police, military and civilian personnel.
 They are often referred to as Blue Berets or Blue Helmets because of their

m
light blue berets or helmets.

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 The UN Peacekeeping Force won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988.


.
The United Nations Charter gives the United Nations Security Council the
da
power and responsibility to take collective action to maintain international
ad
peace and security.

m

For this reason, the international community usually looks to the Security
aa

Council to authorize peacekeeping operations.

 India seeks greater role for troops contributing countries in UN
.x

peacekeeping missions:
w

o India has sought enhanced role for troops contributing countries in the
w
w

decision-making process of UN peacekeeping missions.

o Also, India has asked the UN Security Council to revisit the way
mandates are designed.
o According to India, the current system of excluding the troop and
police-contributing countries (T/PCCs) from the process of framing the
mandates is not sustainable.
o India is one of the largest contributors of troops and police to UN
peacekeeping missions. However, it has no say in the process of
formulation of the mandate.

[Link] Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

(UNESCO)
 UNESCO is a United Nations organization that helps preserve historical and
cultural sites worldwide.
 It is a special multi-country agency, formed in 1945 and based in France,
which promotes sex education and literacy as well as improving gender
equality in countries around the world.
 Its declared purpose is to contribute to peace and security by promoting
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reforms in order to increase universal respect for justice, the rule of law, NOTES
and human rights along with fundamental freedom proclaimed in the United
Nations Charter.
 It is the successor of the League of Nations' International Committee on
Intellectual Cooperation.
 UNESCO has 195 member states and ten associate members.
 UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major
programs: education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and
communication/information.
 It is also a member of the United Nations Development Group.
 It is also known for its work to preserve cultural and heritage sites such as
ancient villages, ruins and temples, and historic sites such as the Great
Mosque of Samarra in Iraq, which at one point came under threat of being
destroyed by the Islamic State.

[Link] and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

 The Food and Agriculture Organization is a specialised agency of the United
Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger.


m
Serving both developed and developing countries, FAO acts as a neutral

co
forum where all nations meet as equals to negotiate agreements and debate
policy.

.
 da
FAO is also a source of knowledge and information, and helps developing
ad
countries in transition modernize and improve agriculture, forestry and
fisheries practices, ensuring good nutrition and food security for all.
m

 It was established on 16 October 1945 and its headquarters is in Rome, Italy.

aa

 Its motto is “Let there be bread”. It has 194 member states, along with the
.x

European Union (member organization).

w

 FAO meet the demands posed by major global trends in agricultural

w

development and challenges faced by member nations.

w

[Link]’s Global Compact on Migration

 The United States has pulled out of UN Global Compact on Migration.
 US participation in Global Compact on Migration process was started in 2016
following Obama Administration’s decision to join UN’s New York Declaration
for Refugees and Migrants.
 US under Trump administration has pulled out of several global commitments
including UNESCO, UN cultural and educational body and 2015 Paris climate
change agreement.
 The global compact for migration is the first, intergovernmental negotiated
agreement, prepared under the auspices of the United Nations, to cover all
dimensions of international migration in a holistic and comprehensive
manner.
 In the New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants, adopted in
September 2016, the General Assembly decided to develop a global compact
for safe, orderly and regular migration.
 The global compact is a significant opportunity to improve the governance on
migration,Downloaded
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challenges associated with today’s migration, and

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to strengthen the contribution of migrants and migration to sustainable NOTES

development.
 The global compact is framed consistent with target 10.7 of the 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development in which member States committed to
cooperate internationally to facilitate safe, orderly and regular migration.

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. co
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NOTES
International Banks / International Financial Institutions
1. Asian Development Bank (ADB)
 ADB, based in Manila, Philippines is dedicated to reducing poverty in Asia
and the Pacific through inclusive economic growth, environmentally
sustainable growth, and regional integration.
 Established in 1966, it is owned by 67 members – 48 from the region.
 The bank admits the members of the United Nations Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP, formerly known as the United
Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East) and non-regional
developed countries.
 It offers both Hard Loans and Soft loans.
o The ADB offers “hard” loans from ordinary capital resources (OCR) on
commercial terms,
o The Asian Development Fund (ADF) affiliated with the ADB extends
“soft” loans from special fund resources with concessional conditions.
 ADB focuses on five core areas of operations: infrastructure; the
environment, including climate change; regional cooperation and integration;

m
finance sector development; and education.

co
 Funding:

.
o ADB raises funds through bond issues on the world’s capital markets.
da
o ADB also rely on its members’ contributions, retained earnings from
ad
its lending operations, and the repayment of loans.
m

o As of 31 December 2016, Japan holds the largest proportions of

aa

shares at 15.67%.
o The United States holds 15.56%, China holds 6.47%, India holds
.x

6.36%, and Australia holds 5.81%.

w


w

Board of Governors:
w

o It is the highest policy-making body of the bank.

o It is composed of one representative from each member state.
o The Board of Governors also elect the bank’s President who is the
chairperson of the Board of Directors and manages ADB.
 Subhash Chandra Garg, Secretary, Department of Economic Affairs (DEA),
Ministry of Finance, Government of India has been appointed as India’s
Alternate Governor on the Board of Governors of the Asian Development
Bank (ADB)
 ADB and the Government of India have signed a $220 million loan agreement
meant to improve connectivity, transport efficiency, and safety on the State
highways of Rajasthan.

2. Leading Asia’s Private Infrastructure Fund (LEAP)

 Asian Development Bank (ADB) is processing USD 500 million as debt and
equity funding for private infrastructure projects in India, Indonesia,
Myanmar, Pakistan, the Philippines, and Thailand.
 ADB has already approved two projects worth over USD 210 million in debt
financing from the co-financing arm Leading Asia’s Private Infrastructure
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 Leading Asia’s Private Infrastructure Fund (LEAP): NOTES

o The Leading Asia’s Private Sector Infrastructure Fund (LEAP) was
established in March 2016.
o The fund is an infrastructure co-financing fund, expected to leverage
and complement ADB’s existing nonsovereign platform to fill financing
gaps and increase access to finance for infrastructure projects in the
region.
o Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) has made a
contribution to the fund.
 What are the priorities?
o The fund will provide cofinancing to nonsovereign infrastructure
projects at different stages of development, and greenfield and
brownfield projects.
o It will support projects with strong anticipated development impacts
and alignment with the strategies of ADB and JICA.
o The fund will seek to support public–private partnerships, joint
ventures, private finance initiative projects, and privatizations, as well
as conventional project finance.
 Eligible project types will include the following infrastructure subsectors:

m
o Energy, including renewable energy generation, energy efficiency and

co
conservation, and natural gas transmission and distribution.

.
da
o Water and other urban infrastructure and services, including water,
ad
wastewater, and solid waste management.
o Transport, including road transport, water transport, rail transport, air
m

transport, multimodal logistics, urban roads and traffic management,

aa

and urban public transport.

.x

o Information and communication technology and health.

w

 Who is eligible to receive the fund?

w

o The fund will provide financing to companies and projects, as well as

w

to financial intermediaries (e.g., holding companies and local currency

vehicles) where there is a link to Infrastructure.
o Eligible countries include ADB developing member countries that are
also eligible for official development assistance (ODA) from Japan.

3. BRICS’ New Development Bank (NDB)

 It is a multilateral development bank operated by the BRICS countries.
 It is seen as an alternative to the existing US-dominated World Bank and
International Monetary Fund.
 The New Development Bank was agreed to by BRICS leaders at the 5th BRICS
summit held in Durban, South Africa in 2013.
 The bank is set up to foster greater financial and development cooperation
among the five emerging markets.
 The bank is headquartered in Shanghai, China.
 Unlike the World Bank, which assigns votes based on capital share, in the
New Development Bank each participant country will be assigned one vote
and none of the countries will have veto power.
 The New Development Bank will mobilise resources for infrastructure and
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sustainable development projects in BRICS and other emerging economies NOTES

and developing countries, to supplement existing efforts of multilateral and
regional financial institutions for global growth and development.
 It is headed by eminent Indian banker K V Kamath.
 NDB plans to lend $1.5 billion to South Africa for infrastructure projects over
the next eighteen months. The bank also officially opened its African
regional centre in Johannesburg.
 NDB has approved two infrastructure and sustainable development projects
in India and Russia with loans of $400 million.
 The loans will be used to rehabilitate the Indira Gandhi canal system in India
and to build a toll transport corridor connecting Ufa city centre to the M-5
federal highway in Russia.

4. Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB)

 The AIIB was established as a new multilateral financial institution aimed at
providing “financial support for infrastructure development in the Asia –
Pacific region.”
 The bank started operation after the agreement entered into force on 25

m
December 2015, with its headquarters in Beijing.


co
Its goals are also to boost economic development in the region, create
wealth, provide infrastructure and promote regional cooperation and

.
partnership. da
ad
 The value of AIIB’s authorized capital amounts to $100 billion, with almost
$30 billion invested by China.
m

 China, India and Russia are the three largest shareholders of AIIB, taking
aa

30.34%, 8.52%, 6.66% stake respectively. Their voting shares are 26.06%,
.x

7.5% and 5.92% respectively.

w

 The share of non-Asian countries is restricted to a maximum of 30 per cent.

w

 The bank currently has 64 member states while another 20 are prospective
w

members for a total of 84 approved members. India is the founding member

of AIIB.
 Major economies that are not members include Japan, Mexico, Nigeria, and
the United States.
 The first AIIB Annual Meeting of the Board of Governors was held in Beijing,
China in 2016.
 Third Annual Meeting of the Board of Governors will be held in Mumbai, India
in June 2018.

5. European Bank for Reconstruction & Development

 India has got the go-ahead to join the European Bank of Reconstruction and
Development (EBRD), after shareholders of the London-based multilateral
lender agreed to the country becoming its 69th member.
 How will this membership help India?
o Membership of EBRD would enhance India’s international profile and
promote its economic interests.
o It will also give access to EBRD’s Countries of Operation and sector
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o It would increase the scope of cooperation between India and EBRD NOTES
through co-financing opportunities in manufacturing, services,
Information Technology, and Energy.
o It would help India leverage the technical assistance and sectoral
knowledge of the bank for the benefit of development of private
sector.
o It would enhance the competitive strength of the Indian firms, and
provide an enhanced access to international markets in terms of
business opportunities, procurement activities, consultancy
assignments etc.
o This would open up new vistas for Indian professionals on the one
hand, and give a fillip to Indian exports on the other.
o It would also enable Indian nationals to get the employment
opportunity in the Bank.
 EBRD:
o The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) is an
international financial institution that supports projects in over 30
countries, from Eastern Europe to central Asia and the southern and
eastern Mediterranean.

m
o Investing primarily in private sector clients whose needs cannot be

co
fully met by the market, the EBRD promotes entrepreneurship and

.
da
fosters transition towards open and democratic market economies.
o The mandate of the EBRD stipulates that it must only work in countries
ad
that are committed to democratic principles.
m

o Respect for the environment is part of the strong corporate

aa

governance attached to all EBRD investments.

.x

o The EBRD provides project financing for banks, industries and

w

businesses, both new ventures and investments in existing companies.

w

o It also works with publicly owned companies, to support privatisation,

w

restructuring state-owned firms and improving municipal services.

o It uses close relationship with governments in the region to promote
policies that will bolster the business environment.
o The EBRD is owned by 65 countries and two intergovernmental
institutions: the European Union and the European Investment Bank
(EIB).
o The powers of the EBRD are vested in the Board of Governors to
which each member appoints a governor, generally the minister of
finance.
o The Board of Governors delegates most powers to the Board of
Directors, which is responsible for the EBRD’s strategic direction.
o The President is elected by the Board of Governors and is the legal
representative of the EBRD.
o Under the guidance of the Board of Directors, the President manages
the EBRD’s work.

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NOTES
International Events
1. ANUGA 2017
 ANUGA – an acronym for Allgemeine Nahrungs Und Genußmittel Ausstellung
(General Food and Non- essential Provisions Exhibition) is the world’s biggest
and most important trade fair for Food and beverage trade.
 It takes place biennially (every 2 years). ANUGA 2017 is the 34th edition held
in Cologne, Germany.
 India was the co-partner country in ANUGA 2017.
 ANUGA offers an extensive supporting programme with Lectures, Special
exhibition and attractive industry events.

2. World Maritime Day 2017

 The World Maritime Day was formally celebrated by the International
Maritime Organisation (IMO) on 28 September 2017.
 World Maritime Day is an official United Nations day.
 Every year, it provides an opportunity to focus attention on the importance of
shipping and other maritime activities and to emphasize a particular aspect

m
of IMO’s work.

co
 This day also serves as a reminder to all and sundry that a vibrant and

.
sustainable blue economy is a boon to all mankind.
 Theme: “Connecting Ships, Ports and People”. da
ad
m

3. World Food Day

aa

 World Food Day is celebrated on October 16 every year to raise awareness on

.x

the issues of poverty and hunger.


w

World Food Day was established by Food and Agriculture Organization of the
w

United Nations (FAO) in November 1979 and since then the day is celebrated
w

worldwide by many organisations that are concerned with food security.

 Theme: “Change the future of migration. Invest in food security.”
 World Food Day is a chance to show our commitment to Sustainable
Development Goal (SDG) 2 – to achieve Zero Hunger by 2030.
 It’s also a day for us to celebrate the progress we have already made towards
reaching #ZeroHunger.

4. Global Conference on Cyber Space 2017

 India, for the first time hosted the Global Conference on Cyber Space (GCCS),
one of the world’s largest conferences in the field of Cyber Space and related
issues.
 The National e-Governance Division (NeGD), under the Ministry of
Electronics & IT (MeitY) is the main agency to organize GCCS 2017.
 The theme for the GCCS 2017 is ‘Cyber4All: An Inclusive, Sustainable,
Developmental, Safe and Secure Cyberspace’.
 This is the fifth edition of GCCS wherein international leaders, policymakers,
industry experts, think tanks and cyber experts gathered to deliberate on
issues and challenges for optimally using cyber space.
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 The overall goals of GCCS 2017 are to promote the importance of NOTES
inclusiveness and human rights in global cyber policy, to defend the status
quo of an open, interoperable and unregimented cyberspace and to create
political commitment for capacity building initiatives to address the digital
divide and assist countries.
 GCCS is a prestigious international conference that aims at encouraging
dialogue among stakeholders of cyberspace, which has been taking place
since 2011.
 Incepted in 2011 in London, GCCS witnessed a participation of 700 global
delegates.
 Global Forum on Cyber Expertise (GFCE) for capacity building in cyber space
was launched in the fourth edition of the conference held in The Hague,
Netherlands.

5. Global Entrepreneurship Summit 2017 (GES-2017)

 8th annual Global Entrepreneurship Summit (GES 2017) was held in
Hyderabad, Telangana.
 Prime Minister Narendra Modi and US President Donald Trump’s advisor and

m
daughter Ivanka Trump jointly inaugurated the summit.


co
The summit organised annually since 2010, is the preeminent annual
entrepreneurship gathering that convenes over one thousand emerging

.
entrepreneurs, investors, and supporters from around the [Link]
ad
 GES 2017 marks the first GES held in South Asia.
 It was hosted by NITI Aayog in partnership with US government.
m

 The summit was attended by 1,500 entrepreneurs from 170 countries.

aa

 GES 2017 Theme: “Women First, Prosperity for All”.

.x

 The four primary focus areas of GES 2017 are Digital Economy and Financial
w

Technology, Health Care and Life Sciences, Energy and Infrastructure, and
w
w

Media and Entertainment.

 Outcomes of the summit:
o The Summit provided opportunities for meeting with global industry
leaders, networking of international entrepreneurs, innovators,
investors.
o The summit also provided forum for pitching competition, strategic
workshops and sector-programmes to help in creating new
collaborations amongst entrepreneurs and Investors.
o The Summit provided for significantly increased economic
opportunities for young entrepreneurs, especially, women
entrepreneurs and start-ups.

6. Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (PBD)

 The Pravasi Bharatiya Divas (PBD) is celebrated every year on January 9 to
mark the contribution of Overseas Indian community in the development of
India.
 2018 PBD celebrated ASEAN-Indian partnership with the theme: Ancient
Route, New Journey: Diaspora in the Dynamic ASEAN INDIA Partnership.
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centuries-old cultural, religious and human links, forged on an ancient route NOTES
of commerce.
 The PBD was held in Singapore – which is considered as India’s gateway to the
East and also is the heart of ASEAN.
 January 9 was chosen as the day to celebrate this occasion since it was on this
day in 1915 that Mahatma Gandhi, the greatest Pravasi, returned to India
from South Africa, led India’s freedom struggle and changed the lives of
Indians forever.

m
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da
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.x
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Military Excercises NOTES

1. Varuna-18
 The Indo-French joint naval exercise Varuna-18 was held in Arabian Sea off
Goa coast.
 Varuna-18 was conducted in three sea areas, including the Arabian Sea, Bay of
Bengal and South Western Indian Ocean.
 France was the first country with which India conducted a joint naval exercise
called 'Varun' after the 1998 nuclear tests.

2. Malabar 2017
 The MALABAR series of exercises was initiated in 1992 between the Indian
and US Navies.
 Originally a bilateral exercise between India and the United States, Japan
became a permanent partner in 2015.
 In 2007, the exercise also saw participation of Australia and Singapore.
 The 21st edition of the exercise, MALABAR-17 was conducted in the Bay of
Bengal in July 2017.

m
 The primary aim of this exercise is to increase interoperability amongst the

co
three navies as well as develop common understanding and procedures for

@GURU_UPSC .
maritime security operations.
da
ad
3. Yudh Abhyas – 2017
m

 The 13th edition Yudh Abhyas 2017, a joint military training exercise
aa

between India and United States was held at Joint Base Lewis McChord,
Washington, US.
.x


w

Yudh Abhyas is annual bilateral military exercise, alternately held by the two
w

countries.
w

 The purpose of the exercise is counter insurgency and counter terrorism

operations (CICT under UN charter.

4. International Maritime Search and Rescue Exercise (IMMSAREX)

2017
 The 2017 International Multilateral Maritime Search and Rescue Exercise
(IMMSAREX) were held in Bangladesh.
 The exercise was under the aegis of Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS).
 From India, Navy Chief Admiral Sunil Lanba participated in the exercise to
consolidate bilateral naval relations between India and Bangladesh and to
explore new avenues for naval cooperation.
 The ships and aircraft of IONS members and observers including China
(observer status) and Pakistan also participated in exercise.
 IONS:
o The IONS is a regional forum of Indian Ocean littoral states,
represented by their Navy chiefs, launched by India in February 2008.
o It presently has 23 members and nine observers.
o It is a voluntary initiative that seeks to increase maritime co-
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operation among navies of the littoral states of the Indian Ocean NOTES
Region by providing an open and inclusive forum for discussion of
regionally relevant maritime issues and, in the process, endeavors to
generate a flow of information between naval professionals that
would lead to common understanding and possibly agreements on the
way ahead.
o Under the charter of business adopted in 2014, the grouping has
working groups on Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief
(HADR), Information Security and Interoperability (IS&I) and anti-
piracy now renamed as maritime security.

5. Exercise INDRA - 2017: Indo-Russia Joint Exercise

 The Joint Indo-Russia Tri-Services Exercise (Navy, the Army and the Air
Force) INDRA-2017 was successfully conducted at Vladivostok, Russia.
 It was India’s first joint tri-services exercise and also first between Russia
and India.
 Exercise INDRA in its previous nine avatars has been conducted as a single
service exercise alternately between the two countries.


m
It was also first time Russia has hosted Tri-Services Exercise on its soil.

co
6. Surya Kiran

.
 da
India and Nepal held their joint military exercise in Nepal. This is the 12th
ad
edition of Nepal-India joint military exercise. The exercise – Surya Kiran –is
being participated by around 300 troops each side.
m

 The 11th edition of the joint exercise was held in Pithoragarh in Uttarakhand.
aa

 The Surya Kiran series of Exercises are being conducted annually,

.x

alternatively in Nepal and India.

w

 The aim of this exercise is to conduct battalion level joint training with
w

emphasis on Counter Terrorism in mountainous terrain.

w

 Aspects of Disaster Management have also been included in the exercise.

7. Mitra Shakti 2017

 The fifth India-Sri Lanka Joint Training Exercise MITRA SHAKTI 2017 was held
in Pune.
 The aim of the joint training is to exchange the best of military practices of the
two countries and build a strong military-to-military relation between the
two armies.
 The exercise, the fifth in the series, also aims at developing joint strategies by
sharing the expertise of conducting operations, especially in the counter-
insurgency and counter terrorism (CI and CT) environment.

8. CORPAT (Coordinated Patrol)

 CORPAT is a bilateral maritime exercise between India and Indonesia.
 Both countries have been carrying out maritime exercise twice a year since
2002.
 The CORPAT exercise between the two navies’ aims to enhance mutual
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rescue operations, institutes measures for vessels indulged in unlawful NOTES

activities as well as control pollution.
 The exercise is aimed to foster closer maritime ties with countries located on
the rim of the Indian Ocean.
 INS Sukanya participated in the 30th edition of CORPAT (Coordinated Patrol)
and 3rd bilateral exercise between the Indian Navy and the Indonesian Navy.
 As part of the Indian Government’s vision of SAGAR (Security and Growth for
All in the Region), Indian Navy has also been involved in assisting countries in
the Indian Ocean Region with EEZ surveillance, Search and Rescue and other
capability enhancement activities.

9. Sampriti 2017
 It is Joint Indo-Bangladesh Training Exercise. The 2017 edition was recently
held in Mizoram. It is the seventh such exercise in the SAMPRITI series.
 The exercise has been aimed to strengthen and broaden the aspects of
interoperability and cooperation between the Indian and Bangladesh Armies.

[Link] Blue Flag-17



m
The bi-annual multilateral exercise ‘Blue Flag-17’ was held at Uvda Air Force

co
Base in Israel.
 Blue Flag is a bi-annual exercise which aims to strengthen military cooperation

.
amongst participating nations. da
ad
 The exercise is designed to strengthen Israel’s military cooperation
internationally.
m

 This is the first time India is participating in the drill, along with the US,
aa

France, Germany, Italy, Greece and Poland. Ex Blue Flag will give an
.x

opportunity to the IAF to share and learn best practices with some of the best
w

professionals from other Air Forces.

w
w

[Link]
 It is a joint military exercise between India and Maldives. The eighth edition
of the exercise was held in Belagavi, Karnataka.
 The bilateral annual exercise is a 14-day joint military training between the
Indian Army and the Maldives National Defence Force (MNDF), which is held
alternatively in India and Maldives since 2009.
 The seventh edition of the exercise was held at Kadhdhoo, Lammu Atoll,
Maldives in December, 2016.
 The focus of the exercise is to acquaint both armies with each other’s
operating procedures in the backdrop of counter-terrorist operations in an
urban or semi-urban environment under the United Nations (UN) Charter,
with an overall aim to enhance interoperability between the two armies.
 ‘Ekuverin’ means ‘friends’ in the Maldivian language.

[Link] Warrior 2017

 Ajeya Warrior is a joint exercise between the Indian Army and Royal British
Army.
 Downloaded
The Exercise is held oncefrom-
in [Link]
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 Insights PT 2018 Exclusive (International Relations)

 The 3rd edition of this joint military exercise was held in Rajasthan. NOTES
 The aim of the Exercise is “to build and promote positive military relations
between Indian and UK Army and to enhance their ability and interoperability
to undertake joint tactical level operations in Counter Insurgency/Counter
Terrorism Environment under United Nations Charter”.
 The exercise further focuses on enhancing and exchanging skills and
experience between the Indian Army and the Royal British Army.

[Link]-Al-Bahr
 It is a bilateral exercise between Indian Navy and Oman Navy.
 The exercise is also called as “Sea Breeze”. The 11th edition of this exercise
was held in Muscat.
 The first exercise Indian Navy with Royal Navy of Oman was conducted in
1993 and 2017 marked 24 years of Indian Navy -Royal Navy of Oman bilateral
exercises.

[Link]
 It is a military exercise between India and Vietnam.

m
 VINBAX-2018 was Table Top Exercise to carry out training for Peace Keeping

co
Operations under United Nations (UN) mandate.


.
It is the first military exercise between the two countries.
 The exercise was being held in Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh. da
ad
[Link] Prahar
m


aa

‘Vajra Prahar’ is an Indo-US Special Forces joint training exercise conducted

alternately in India and the US.
.x

 The aim of the exercise is to promote military relations between the two
w

countries by enhancing interoperability and mutual exchange of tactics

w
w

between Special Forces.

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 Insights PT 2018 Exclusive (International Relations)

Places in News NOTES

1. Lisbon
 PM Modi paid a visit to Lisbon, Portugal.
 Lisbon is the capital and the largest city of
Portugal.
 It is continental Europe’s westernmost capital
city and the only one along the Atlantic coast.
 Lisbon lies in the western Iberian Peninsula on
the Atlantic Ocean and the River Tagus.

2. Nathu La
 Nathu La is a mountain pass in the Himalayas. It connects the Indian state of
Sikkim with China’s Tibet Autonomous Region.
 It is also one of the four officially
agreed BPM (Border Personnel
Meeting) points between the
Indian Army and People’s

m
Liberation Army of China for

co
regular consultations and

.
interactions between the two
armies. da
ad
 The four BPM are: Chushul in Ladakh, Nathu La in Sikkim, Bum La Pass in
m

Tawang district of Arunachal Pradesh, and Lipulekh Pass in Uttarakhand.

aa

 The pass reduces the journey time to Mansarovar Lake from fifteen days to
two days.
.x
w

3. Djibouti
w
w

o Djibouti has acquired major

significance as result of geopolitical
developments and presence of
military bases of US and China in
Djibouti.
o Djibouti, officially the Republic of
Djibouti, is a country located in the
Horn of Africa.
o It is bordered by Eritrea in the
north, Ethiopia in the west and south, and Somalia in the southeast.
o The remainder of the border is formed by the Red Sea and the Gulf of
Aden at the east.

4. Israel-Palestine
 The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is over who gets what land and how it’s
controlled.
 The 1967 war is particularly important for today’s conflict, as it left Israel in
control of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, two territories home to large
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 Today, the West Bank is nominally controlled by the Palestinian Authority NOTES
and is under Israeli occupation.
 This comes in the form of Israeli troops, who enforce Israeli security
restrictions on Palestinian movement and activities, and Israeli “settlers,”
Jews who build ever-expanding communities in the West Bank that effectively
deny the land to Palestinians.
 Gaza is controlled by Hamas, an Islamist fundamentalist party, and is under
Israeli blockade but not ground troop occupation.

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5. Hebron

m

The UNESCO World Heritage Committee has put the West Bank city of
aa

Hebron on endangered heritage list.

 This made Israel angry and triggered a new Israeli-Palestinian spat at the
.x

international body.
w

 Hebron is part of the West Bank, a territory captured by Israel in the 1967
w
w

Mideast war. The international community considers it to be occupied.

 The Old City of Hebron has sites that are holy to both Jews and
Muslims, known as either the Tomb of the Patriarchs or the al-

@GURU_UPSC
Ibrahimi mosque.

6. Belarus
 The Union Cabinet has given its ex-post
facto approval for a Memorandum of
Understanding between India and Belarus
for cooperation in the field of Vocational
Education and Training (VET).
 This is for the first time a MoU for
cooperation in area of vocational education,
training and skill development has been
signed with Eurasian country.
 Belarus is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe bordered by Russia to the
northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia
to the northwest.
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NOTES
7. Catalonia
 Catalonia is an autonomous
community of Spain in the north-
east end of the Iberian Peninsula,
designated as a nationality by its
Statute of Autonomy.
 It has four provinces: Barcelona,
Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona.
 The capital and largest city is
Barcelona, which is the second most populated city in Spain.

8. Colombia
 The Union Cabinet has given its approval for
signing the Joint Interpretative Declaration
(JID) between India and Colombia regarding
the existing Agreement for the Promotion
and Protection of Investments between India

m
and Colombia.


co
Colombia is a sovereign state largely situated
in the northwest of South America.

.
 Colombia shares a border to the northwest da
ad
with Panama, to the east with Venezuela and Brazil and to the south with
Ecuador and Peru.
m

 Ecologically, it is one of the world’s 17 megadiverse countries, and the most

aa

densely biodiverse of these per square kilometer.

.x
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Miscellaneous
1. Sustainable Development Goals
 The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), otherwise known as the Global Goals, are a universal
call to action to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure that all people enjoy peace and
prosperity.
 The SDGs are a set of 17 goals and 169 targets aimed at resolving global social, economic and
environmental problems.
 These new SDGs replace the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which were adopted in 2000.
 The SDGs came into effect in January 2016, and they will continue to guide UNDP policy and
funding until 2030.
 UNDP provides support to governments to integrate the SDGs into their national development
plans and policies.

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2. India’s population to surpass that of China’s around 2024: UN

.x

 The World Population Prospects: The 2017 Revision, published by the UN Department of
w

Economic and Social Affairs, was released.

w


w

The 2017 Revision of World Population Prospects is the 25th round of official UN population
estimates and projections.
 According to the UN forecast, India’s population could surpass that of China’s
NOTES
around 2024, two years later than previously estimated, and is projected to
touch 1.5 billion in 2030.
 Currently China with 1.41 billion inhabitants and India with 1.34 billion
remain the two most populous countries, comprising 19 and 18% of the total
global population.

3. One-China Policy
 The "One China principle" is the principle that insists
both Taiwan and mainland China are inalienable parts of a single "China".
 Under the policy, any country that wants diplomatic relations with mainland
China must break official ties with Taipei that it considers a ‘breakaway
province.’
 Under the policy, the US recognises and has formal ties with China rather
than the island of Taiwan.
 Since, the US established formal diplomatic ties with Beijing in 1979, it had to
sever tiesDownloaded from-
with Taiwan and [Link]
closed its Taipei embassy.
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NOTES
4. US Lists China Among World's Worst Human Trafficking Offenders
 The United States declared China as among the world’s worst offenders in
human trafficking and forced labor, placing it alongside — Iran, North Korea
and Syria.
 China has been listed as a Tier 3 human trafficking and forced labour
offender, the lowest ranking. In 2016, China was placed in Tier 2 “watch list”.
 According to the US, Beijing was not doing enough to curb “state sponsored
forced labor,” and did not meet “minimum standards” for fighting human
trafficking, even though it was making progress.
 Girls and women from rural areas are at higher risk of being recruited for sex
trafficking in cities.
 Implications of this move:
o Countries placed in Tier 3 can be penalized with sanctions, including
the withholding of non-humanitarian aid and assistance that could
affect agreements with the International Monetary Fund and World
Bank.
o Officials from countries designated in that tier can be barred from

m
participating in US government educational and cultural exchange

co
programs.

.
5. TAPI Gas Pipeline da

ad
Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India (TAPI) have ceremonially
broke ground on the Afghan section of an ambitious, multi-billion dollar gas
m

pipeline, expected to
aa

help ease energy deficits

.x

in South Asia.
w

 Turkmenistan,
w

Afghanistan, Pakistan
w

and India aim to

complete the 1,840-km
pipeline and begin
pumping natural gas
from Turkmenistan’s
Galkynysh gas fields by
the beginning of 2020
and supply life is
expected to last for
period of 30 years.
 TAPI Project is being developed by the Asian Development Bank.
 The TAPI pipeline will have a capacity to carry 90 million standard cubic
metres a day (mscmd).
 India and Pakistan would get 38 mscmd each, while 14 mscmd will be supplied
to Afghanistan.
 The pipeline runs through Galkynysh field (Turkmenistan), Afghanistan’s Herat
and Kandahar province, Pakistan’s Multan via Quetta and ends at Fazilka in
Punjab (India).
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 India’s effort is to tap Turkmenistan’s Galkynysh gasfields, which are the NOTES
fourth largest in the world.

6. India, ASEAN-5 more fetching to FDI than other emerging markets

 As per a report, India along with Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, the
Philippines and Vietnam has emerged as attractive destinations to FDIs as
compared to other emerging markets and flows to these nations are expected
to surge to around USD 240 billion by 2025.
 For the same reason, India and ASEAN-5 (Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines,
Thailand and Vietnam) have been dubbed as “Asia’s tiger cubs“.
 Sources of FDI to these nations are also witnessing a significant shift with
more inflows expected from countries as China and Japan.
 Factors behind this:
o Rising labour costs in China and an ageing population in Northeast Asia
have disincentivised FDI and they are in search of new destinations
and India and the ASEAN-5 are well placed to emerge as that
destination.
o Other factors– large and growing domestic markets; reforms focussed

m
on improving infrastructure and the ease of doing business; a more

co
open and liberal FDI regime; sound economic management and
political stability; and availability of low-cost labour.

.
7. India’s Exclusive Rights to Explore Polymetallic Nodules Extended
da
ad
 India’s exclusive rights to explore polymetallic nodules from seabed in Central
m

Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) have been extended by five years.

aa

 This has been approved unanimously in the 23rd session of International

.x

Seabed Authority (ISA) concluded at Kingston, Jamaica.

w

 The rights extended are over 75000 sq. km of area in international waters
w

allocated by International Seabed Authority for developmental activities for

w

polymetallic nodules.
 The estimated polymetallic nodule resource potential in this region is 380
million tonnes.
 Background:
o India is the first country to have received the status of a pioneer
investor in 1987 and was allocated an exclusive area in Central Indian
Ocean Basin by United Nations (UN) for exploration and utilization of
nodules.
o India is one among the top 8-countries and is implementing a long–
term programme on exploration and utilization of Polymetallic
Nodules through Ministry of Earth Sciences.
o This includes survey and exploration, environmental studies,
technology development in mining and extractive metallurgy, in which
significant contributions have been made.
 What are PMN?
o Polymetallic nodules (also known as manganese nodules) are largely
porous nodules found in abundance carpeting the sea floor of world
oceans in deep sea.
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o Besides manganese and iron, they contain nickel, copper, cobalt, lead, NOTES
molybdenum, cadmium, vanadium, titanium, of which nickel, cobalt
and copper are considered to be of economic and strategic
importance.
 ISA:
o International Seabed Authority (ISA) is a UN body set up to regulate
the exploration and exploitation of marine non-living resources of
oceans in international waters.
o ISA is an autonomous international organization based in Kingston,
Jamaica, established in 1994.
o It is an organization established under the 1982 United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
o The Authority obtained its observer status to the United Nations in
October 1996.
o India actively contributes to the work of International Seabed
Authority.
o In 2016 India was re-elected as a member of Council of ISA.
o India’s nominees on Legal and Technical Commission and Finance
Committee of the ISA were also elected in 2016.

m
co
8. Atomic fuel reserve in Kazakhstan

.
 da
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has opened world’s first low
Enriched Uranium (LEU) Bank in Oskemen in Kazakhstan.
ad
 The bank is owned and managed by IAEA. It will be the first of its kind LEU
m

bank not to be under control of any individual country.

aa

 The bank will hold 90 tons of uranium—enough to power a large reactor for
.x

three years—and member states that withdraw from the bank will cover the
w

cost of restocking.
w

 To ensure transport, the IAEA signed an agreement with Russia in 2015 to

w

allow the material to travel through the country.

 What is it for?
o The bank will serve as sources of last resort for low-enriched uranium
when IAEA members are unable to either produce it or if it becomes
unavailable on the international market for whatever reason.
o This function will help non-proliferation efforts. By providing uranium,
it will disincentivise countries from developing their own uranium
enrichment capacities—as even supposedly peaceful programs could
see uranium enriched to a weapons-grade level.
o The bank seeks to ensure that in the event of an international crisis or
similar circumstances, countries dependent on nuclear power would
still have access to uranium.
 The IAEA has established a series of strict criteria for a member state to
request and purchase uranium from the bank. These criteria include:
o There must be a disruption in supply “due to extraordinary
circumstances” that would render the country in question unable to
obtain fuel by the usual means.
o In addition, the IAEA must have certified that nuclear material has not
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been diverted by the country in the past and that the country NOTES
complies with all safety measures.
o The buying country must commit to using uranium only to produce
fuel, never for weapons, and not to enrich it or transfer it to third
parties without the express consent of the IAEA.
o If these conditions are met and the uranium is purchased at the
prevailing market price, the material will be introduced into special
cylinders and transferred from northern Kazakhstan, to a facility where
LEU can be converted into fuel.

9. ICT Facts and Figures 2017 report

 The ICT Facts and Figures 2017 report released by the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU), the United Nations specialised agency for
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), shows that of the 830
million young people online worldwide, 320 million, or 39%, are in China and

@GURU_UPSC
India.

[Link] Declaration
 India refused to be a part of Bali Declaration adopted at conclusion of World

m
Parliamentary Forum on Sustainable Development held in Bali.

co
 India disassociated from the adoption of the Bali Declaration as it referred to

.
da
the violence in the Rakhine state of Myanmar and emphasised that any
ad
mention of country-specific issues was not appropriate.
 Bali declaration:
m

o The Bali Declaration, adopted at the World Parliamentary Forum on

aa

Sustainable Development in Indonesia called on all parties to

.x

contribute to restoring stability and security in the region.

w

o It urged everyone to “exercise maximum self-restraint from using

w

violent means, respect the human rights of all people in Rakhine state
w

regardless of their faith and ethnicity, as well as facilitate and

guarantee safe access for humanitarian assistance”.
 Why India refused to sign the declaration?
o India has maintained that the Bali Declaration was not in line with the
agreed principles of sustainable development.
o India also maintained that it continues to support achievement of
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the Forum’s mandate was to
discuss global issues and the overarching principles relating to SDGs.
o India argued that specifying a particular country is unjustified as this
Forum is focused on SDGs and inclusive development for all countries
based on cooperative and collaborative approach to achieve the 2030
Agenda for the world.

[Link] will soon grant citizenship to Chakma, Hajong refugees

 The Centre will soon grant citizenship to nearly one lakh Chakma and Hajong
refugees, who came from the erstwhile East Pakistan five decades ago and
are living in camps in the northeast.
 In 2015, the Supreme Court had directed the Central government to grant
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citizenship to the Chakma and Hajong refugees, mostly staying in Arunachal NOTES
Pradesh.
 Chakmas and Hajongs were originally residents of Chittagong Hill Tracts in
the erstwhile East Pakistan.
 They left their homeland when it was submerged by the Kaptai dam project
in the 1960s.
 The Chakmas, who are Buddhists, and the Hajongs, who are Hindus, also
allegedly faced religious persecution and entered India through the then
Lushai Hills district of Assam (now Mizoram).
 The Centre moved the majority of them to the North East Frontier Agency
(NEFA), which is now Arunachal Pradesh.
 Their numbers have gone up from about 5,000 in 1964-69 to one lakh. At
present, they don’t have citizenship and land rights but are provided basic
amenities by the state government.

[Link] Refugee Cards

 The West Bengal government distributed identity cards issued by the United
Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) to Rohigya children

m
lodged in the juvenile justice homes of the State.


co
Background:
o The UNHCR has issued identity cards to the Rohingyas in India so as to

.
shield them from harassment and arbitrary arrests. da
ad
o The UNHCR says some 16,500 Rohingya from Myanmar are registered
with it in India.
m

 UNHCR cards:
aa

o The UNHCR issues ID cards to registered refugees and documents to

.x

asylum-seekers which help to prevent arbitrary arrests, detention and

w

deportation.
w

o The card includes a number of enhanced security features including 3D

w

holograms, bar codes and a large SQR code.

o The card is supported by enhanced biometric data collection at the
UNHCR office, including retina, 10 fingers and face scan.
 Significance of these cards:
o The government issues long-term visas to refugees which ease their
access to public services and employment in the private sector.
o Because of some recent changes to the documentation processes,
some refugees have reportedly been facing challenges in accessing
public services and opening bank accounts.
o It is important for refugees to have access to employment and basic
services. Therefore, refugee cards help in facilitating their access to
these services.

[Link] Belt, One Road (OBOR) initiative

 The Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st-century Maritime Silk Road also
known as One Belt, One Road is a development strategy and framework
initiative of China that focuses on connectivity and cooperation among
countries primarily between the People's Republic of China and the rest of
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Eurasia. NOTES
 It consists of two main components, the land-based "Silk Road Economic
Belt" (SREB) and oceangoing "Maritime Silk Road" (MSR).
 The coverage area of the initiative is primarily Asia and Europe,
encompassing around 60 countries. Oceania and East Africa is also included.
 OBOR initiative aims to connect major Eurasian economies through
infrastructure, trade and investment.
 The “Belt” is a network of overland road and rail routes, oil and natural gas
pipelines, and other infrastructure projects that will stretch from Xi’an in
central China through Central Asia and ultimately reach as far as Moscow,
Rotterdam, and Venice.
 The “Road” is its maritime equivalent: a network of planned ports and other
coastal infrastructure projects that dot the map from South and Southeast
Asia to East Africa and the northern Mediterranean Sea.
 It is basically investment and trade promotion scheme aiming to deepen
economic connections between China and rest of the world.

m
. co
da
ad
m
aa
.x
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w
w

[Link] Check Posts (ICPs)

 A Cabinet proposal to set up 13 new Integrated Check Posts (ICPs) is being
mooted by the Union Home Ministry to encourage India’s engagement with
its neighbours belonging to SAARC region.
 Among the 13 ICPs, seven will be along the India-Bangladesh border, apart
from the three already operational there.
 The ICPs planned along the Bangladesh border will be at Hili, Changrabandha,
Ghojadanga, Mahadipur, Fulbari in West Bengal, Kawripuichhuah in Mizoram
and Sutarkandi in Assam.
 Among the new ICPs, only one will be on the India-Pakistan border while four
will be on the India-Nepal border and one on the India-Myanmar border.
 Some of the other ICPs are at Dawki (Meghalaya), Akaura, (Tripura)
Kawarpuchiah (Mizoram), Jobgani (Bihar), Sunauli (UP) and
Rupaidiha/Nepalganj (UP).
 The cost Downloaded
of setting up 13from-
ICPs will be Rs 3,000 crore.
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 They are managed by Land Port Authority of India (LPAI). NOTES

 An ICP not only provides various services under one roof but is also equipped
with cargo process building, cargo inspection sheds, warehouse, cold storage,
currency exchange counters, Internet hubs, clearing agents, banks, vehicle
scanners, isolation bay and parking.

[Link] China sea dispute

 The South China Sea is located at the western edge of the Pacific Ocean, to
Asia’s southeast.
 It encompasses an area of about 1.4 million square miles and contains a
collection of reefs, islands and atolls, including the Spratly Islands, Paracel
Islands and Scarborough Shoal.
 China’s claims:
o Beijing claims 90% of the South China Sea, a maritime region believed
to hold a
wealth of
untapped oil
and gas

m
reserves and

co
through which
roughly $4.5tn

.
of ship-borne da
ad
trade passes
every year.
m

o Vietnam,
aa

Malaysia,
.x

Brunei and
w

Taiwan also
w

contest
w

China’s claims
to islands and
reef systems closer to their territory than Beijing’s.
o China says it follows a historical precedent set by the “nine-dash line”
that Beijing drew in 1947 following the surrender of Japan.

@GURU_UPSC
o The line has been included in subsequent maps issued under
Communist rule.
 Importance of South China Sea:
o It is a 3.5m sq km waterway.
o One of the world’s most strategically vital maritime spaces.
o More oil passes through here than the Suez Canal.
o More than $5 trillion in trade flows through its waters each year. That
is a third of all global maritime commerce.
o The Strait of Malacca that links Indian and Pacific Oceans handles four
times as much oil as Suez Canal.

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[Link] Page 84 [Link]
2 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Idealism
Realism
Structural Marxism
Neoliberalism
Neorealism
Social Constructivism
Critical International Theory
Feminism
Postmodernism
State and State-system
Non-State Actors
Power
Sovereignty
Security
Changing Nature of War
Weapons of Mass Destruction
Deterrence
Conflict Resolution
Conflict Transformation
United Nations
Peace and Development
Humanitarian Intervention
International Law
International Criminal Court
Globalization
Global Governance and Bretton Woods System
North-South Dialogue
World Trade Organisation
G20 (Group of Twenty)
BRICS
European Union
5 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

African Union
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)
ASEAN
International Terrorism
Climate Change and Environment Concerns
Human Rights
Migration and Refugees
Poverty and Development
Role of Religion
Culture and Identity Politics
6 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

1
IDEALISM

INTRODUCTION

➢ Idealism theory emerged during the first world war (1914-1918).

➢ Because war produced number of causalities, millions were killed
➢ Such war disturbed everyone
➢ Hence, Idealism gave the explanation of:
• Why war happened and
• how such war can be stopped in future?
➢ Two major reasons for war by Idealism:
1. Lack of Democratic Institutions in Autocratic Nation
2. Military Alliances
➢ Austria & Germany Attacked Serbia
➢ Russia was duty bound to aid Serbia
➢ Britain and France were treaty bound to support Russia in Attack
➢ Thus, Idealism theory suggested war can be avoided by reforming
democratic structure of autocratic nation and by reforming international
system.
MAJOR THINKERS OF IDEALISM
1. Woodrow Wilson
➢ He popularized Idealist Thought.
7 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

➢ He gave famous 14 Points Speech in 1918.

➢ In this speech, he proposed Idealist Ideas:
• End of secret diplomacy: public scrutiny of treaty
• Freedom of navigation on the seas
• Remove barriers to free trade
• Weapons should be reduced to the lowest point
• Colonial and territorial claims should be settled with principle of self-
determination
• Formation of League of Nation
➢ He received 1920 Nobel Peace Prize
2. Ralph Norman Angell

➢ In his famous work ‘The Great Illusion’ (1909)

➢ He gave idealist explanation for prevent war

➢ He explains that it is an illusion that war is beneficial for the winner

➢ It is rather opposite

➢ In modern times, war disrupts international commerce and Thus,

conquest territory is extremely expensive.

His Other Major Works:

➢ America and the New World State (1912).

➢ The Problems of Wars and Peace (1915)

3. J.A. Hobson

➢ He argued that war happens because of Imperialism

➢ Imperialism subjugated foreign people and their resources

8 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

➢ Thus, it was becoming the primary source of international conflict

His Major Works:

1. Evolution of Modern Capitalism (1894).

2. The Morals of Economic Internationalism (1920).

3. Towards the International Government (1915).

Criticism of Idealism

➢ E.H. Carr in his ‘Twenty Years Crisis: 1919-1939’ (1939), criticized

Idealism

➢ He argued that Idealism misunderstood the fact the international relations

are based on cooperation

➢ But actually, it is based on conflict

➢ Some countries are better off than other

➢ They will attempt to preserve and defend their privilege position.

➢ But haves not will struggle to change the situation.

➢ IR are struggle between such conflicting interests and desires

Success & Failures of Idealism

Success:

➢ High point of success was Kellog-Briand pact 1928

➢ Which abolish war; was justified in extreme case of self-defense
➢ In short, Idealism dominated first phase of academic IR
Failures:
9 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

➢ Instead of spread of democracies, dictatorship emerged in Germany, Italy

and Spain
➢ Many democratic countries still had colonies
➢ The League of Nations failed to prevent another war
10 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

2
REALISM
INTRODUCTION

➢ Realism theory emerged during the period of 1930s-1940s

➢ It emerged as a challenge to Idealism during inter-war period (1919-1939).
➢ Realists criticized idealism:
• for ignoring the role of power struggle,
• overestimating the IR as arena of cooperation,
• Mistakenly believed that war could be prevented

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF REALISM

1. A pessimistic view of human nature i.e. self-interested, greedy, have lust
of power;
2. IR are necessarily conflictual and that international conflicts are ultimately
resolved by war;
3. A high regard for the values of national security and state survival;
4. States are primary actors. All other actors in world politics—individuals,
international organizations (IGOs), nongovernmental organizations (NGOs),
etc.—are either far less important or unimportant;
5. International state system is an arena of anarchy i.e. no world government
6. States are unequal in power. There are Great powers and Small powers.
International arena is struggle among great powers for power and
domination. Small or weaker powers are less important.
11 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

TYPES OF REALISM & IT’S MAIN THINKERS

1. Classical Realism

• Thucydides
• Machiavelli
• Thomas Hobbes
• Hans J. Morgenthau

2. Strategic Realism

• Thomas Schelling

3. Neorealism

• Kenneth Waltz
• John Mearsheimer

4. Neo-Classical Realism

THINKERS OF CLASSICAL REALISM

1. Thucydides

➢ He gave realists thoughts in his book ‘The History of Peloponnesian War

(431-404 BC)’,
➢ States have unequal power and capabilities
➢ All states, large and small, must conduct themselves accordingly.
➢ If states do that, they will survive and perhaps even prosper.
➢ If states fail to do that, they will place themselves in danger and may even be
destroyed.
➢ Foresight, prudence, caution, and judgement are the main features of
Thucydides' Realism
12 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

2. Machiavelli

➢ In his ‘The Prince’ (1532), he argues that world is dangerous place

➢ Ruler should have both qualities of Lion (Strong) and Fox (Cunning) to
survive
➢ Ruler should always defend the interests of his state and ensure its survival
➢ Rulers must not operate according to Christian ethics i.e. love thy
neighbour, be peaceful, avoid war, share wealth etc.
➢ If any ruler will follow such ethics he is bound to lose and such ruler can’t
ensure his state survival

3. Thomas Hobbes

➢ In his ‘Leviathan’ (1691), he argues that International State System have

permanent ‘State of Nature’
➢ A condition in which no world government exists
➢ Individuals escape from state of nature by creating state, but simultaneously
they creates another ‘state of nature’ between states
➢ International state of nature is a condition of war, there can be no
permanent peace but domestic peace within sovereign states

4. Hans. J. Morgenthau

➢ In his ‘Politics Among Nation’ (1948), he argues that Human is a political

animal
➢ He Speaks of ‘animus dominandi’ i.e. Lust of Power
➢ Humans wants to enjoy the power and don’t want to dominate by others
➢ This is why they want to secure a territory for them
➢ Thus they create an effective state for themselves to defend their interest
13 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

➢ The anarchical system of states invites international conflict which

ultimately takes the form of war

Six Principles of Morgenthau

1. Politics is governed by objectives laws; IR theory is a rational theory that

reflects these laws
2. International politics is about national interests and the national interest
defined in terms of power, national interest keeps changing
3. The political ethics is different from the universal moral principles
4. Particular nations cannot impose their national aspirations on other
nations
5. Pessimistic knowledge of human nature is in the centre of international
politics
6. Politics is an autonomous sphere, independent of economics and personal
morality
14 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

3
STRUCTURAL MARXISM

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF STRUCTURAL MARXISM

➢ Globe has been dominated by a single integrated economic and political
entity: a global capital system
➢ It has gradually incorporated all of humanity within its grasp
➢ This system further the interest of dominant nation, dominant class
➢ Main actor in IR is class; state, MNC, International org- UN, IMF, World
Bank, WTO- they all represent dominant class interest
➢ Structure of global capitalist system: core, periphery, semi-periphery
➢ IR is not interplay of interest and power but reflection of global mode of
production and resulting relation among states- global economic structure
determines global politics
➢ Colonialism and imperialism were process of capitalist expansion
➢ Dominant class/state not only use force but also its hegemony to make their
ideas, ideologies, worldview as mainstream and commonly accepted by
subordinate class/states- soft power or cultural hegemony

STRANDS OF MARXISM

1. Imperialism Theory
• Leon Trotsky
• Rosa Luxemberg
• V.I. Lenin
15 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

2. Dependency Theory
• Immanuel Wallerstein
• Andre Gunder Frank
3. Gramscianism
• Robert Cox
4. Critical Theory
• Andrew Linklater

IMPERIALISM THEORY & IT’S THINKERS

These thinkers talk about Global expansion of Capitalism

1. Leon Trotsky

➢ He gives the idea of combined and uneven development

➢ Development would be combined because no state could develop
independently in capitalist system of states
➢ It would be uneven because the rates of development of state would not
follow uniform pattern;
➢ Some would necessarily develop faster than others

2. Rosa Luxemburg

➢ Her main work is ‘The Accumulation of Capital’ (1913)

➢ Her main argument was that capitalism as a mode of production in Western
Europe had emerged and alongside pre-capitalist sets of relation
➢ It means, capitalism actually depended for its continued growth on pre-
capitalist socities
➢ These provided markets for goods from advanced capitalist countries and
sources of cheap labour.
16 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

3. Vladimir Lenin

➢ He published a pamphlet ‘Imperialism is the highest stage of Capitalism’

in 1917
➢ He argues that capitalism has entered a new state- a highest and final
stage- with development of monopoly capitalism
➢ Under monopoly capitalism two tier structure had developed in world
economy- core exploiting less-developed periphery
➢ Due to core-periphery, workers of world can’t be united
➢ Because capitalist class of core improving the condition of their worker by
exploiting periphery

DEPENDENCY THEORY

1. Immanuel Wallerstein

➢ He is known for his work ‘The Modern World System’ (1974)

➢ Global history marked by rise and demise of world systems
➢ Modern World System emerged in Europe at 16th Century
➢ Driving force behind this system is capitalism
➢ Capitalist world economy is built on a hierarchy of core areas, peripheral
areas, and semi-peripheral areas.
➢ Such system make core more richer and richer, periphery poorer and poorer
➢ Core areas consist of advanced industries which is controlled by capital
class there
➢ Peripheral areas produce raw material, employ forced labour, have little
industrial acitivity
➢ Semi-peripheral areas are economically mixed, indigenously owned
industries,
17 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

➢ It helped to stabilize the system by providing labour and space to those

industries which no longer runs in core ([Link] assemblies)
➢ Such System has beginning, middle and end
➢ Wallerstein argue after the end of cold war this system has entered into ‘end
phase’

2. Andre Gunder Frank

➢ He is known for his work ‘The Underdevelopment of Development’

(1974)
➢ He argues that developing nations have failed to develop not because of
‘internal barriers to development’ as modernization theorists argue,
➢ but because the developed West has systematically underdeveloped them,
keeping them in a state of dependency
➢ World Capitalist System consists of Core and Periphery nations
18 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

➢ The core nations exploit the peripheral nations because of their superior
economic and military power.

GRAMSCIANISM

Robert W. Cox

➢ He is known for his essay ‘Social Forces, States and WoĀrld Order:
Beyond IR Theory’ (1981)
➢ ‘Theory is always for some one and for some purpose’
➢ No Theory is objective or value free
➢ Realism serves the interests of developed states’ ruling elites to legitimate
status-quo
➢ Dominant Powers, shaped the world to suit their interests through hegemony
(consent, not force)
➢ For e.g. USA and UK, spread the hegemonic idea of free trade which
ultimately benefit them

CRITICAL THEORY

➢ Developed by Frankfurt School: Herbert Marcuse, Jurgen Habermas,

Andrew Linklater
➢ More focus on superstructure- culture, bureaucracy, media, family
➢ Proletariat revolution absorbed by mainstream system- one dimensional
society (Marcuse)
➢ Emancipation: more equal and just world, reconciling with nature,
Habermas argue for radical democracy i.e. widest participation of people
across borders
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4
NEOLIBERALISM

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF NEOLIBERALISM

➢ Liberals argue that modernization is a process involving progress in most
areas of life.
➢ The process of modernization enlarges the scope for cooperation across
international boundaries.
➢ Progress means a better life for at least the majority of individuals.
➢ Humans possess reason, and when they apply it to international affairs
greater cooperation will be the end result

TYPES OF NEOLIBERALISM

5. Sociological Liberalism
6. Interdependence Liberalism
7. Institutional Liberalism
8. Republican Liberalism

SOCIOLOGICAL LIBERALISM

➢ It rejects realists view i.e. IR is only about state-state relations

➢ It holds that IR is about transnational relations i.e. relations between
people, groups and organization
➢ James Rosenau says that such relations have important consequences on
events
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➢ Relations between people are more cooperative and peaceful than relations
between states

1. Karl Deutsch

Main Work: Political Community and North Atlantic (1957)

➢ He argues that transnational ties between society leads to security

community
➢ It means a sense of community has been achieved
➢ People have come to agree that conflicts and problems can be solved without
war
➢ Such security community exists among western countries in the North
Atlantic area
➢ 4 conditions for security community: increased social communication,
greater mobility, stronger economic ties and mutual human transactions

2. John Burton

Main Work: World Society (1972)

➢ He proposes a cobweb model

➢ Nation state consists of many different groups that have different type of
external tie and interests
➢ Groups like religious groups, business groups, labour group etc
➢ IR can’t be understood by realists’ billiard model
➢ Cobweb model points that world driven by mutually beneficial cooperation,
not conflict
➢ Individuals are member of different groups, conflict will be muted, if not
eliminated
➢ Overlapping membership minimize risk of conflict
21 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

3. James Rosenau

Main Work: The Study of Global Interdependence (1980)

➢ He supports the liberal idea that world, characterized by transnational

networks of individuals and groups, will be more peaceful.
➢ it will be a more stable world, because the old order built on state power has
broken down;
➢ But only rarely will conflicts lead to the use of force,
➢ because the numerous new cosmopolitan individuals that are members of
many overlapping groups will not easily become enemies divided into
antagonistic camps.

INTERDEPENDENCE LIBERALISM

➢ Since the period of 1950s, we have seen rise in highly industrialised

countries.
➢ We have also seen interdependence among these countries increased
➢ Such countries prefer economic development and foreign trade over
military force and territorial expansion
➢ Trading states like Japan and Germany has been spending less on military
and more on economic self-sufficiency
➢ However, modern states can still go back to military option. But it is less
developed countries where war occurs; land is still important

1. David Mitrany

Main Work: Functionalist Theory of Integration (1975)

➢ He argues that greater interdependence between countries can lead to

peace
22 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

➢ Cooperation should be arranged by technical experts, not by politicians.

➢ The experts would solve problems in various functional areas: transport,
communication, finance and so on
➢ When citizens see that welfare improvements resulted from collaboration in
international org
➢ They would transfer their loyalty from the state to intermational org
➢ In this way, interdependence lead to political integration and to peace
2. Ernst Hass
Main Theory: Neofunctionalist Theory of Integration
➢ He rejects the notion of Mitrany that ‘technical’ matters can be
separated from politics.
➢ Integration happens when self-interested political elites intensify
their cooperation
➢ Integration is a process whereby political actors shift their loyalties
toward a new centre
➢ The integration depends on the notion of ‘spillover’
➢ It means increased cooperation in one area leads to increased cooperation
in other areas
3. Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, Jr

Main Work: Power and Interdependence (1977)

➢ Instead of state leaders various branches of government and different

actors maintain relations between states
➢ There is a host of transnational relations between individuals and
groups outside of the state.
➢ The ‘low politics’ of economics and social affairs has priority over the
‘high politics’ of security and survival
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➢ Military force is less useful; negotiating skills imp

➢ Complex int world is more friendly and cooperative

INSTITUTIONAL LIBERALISM

➢ Against realist view, this strand believes international institutions are

independent of states
➢ They can promote cooperation between states; however, it is difficult to
control states’ behaviour
➢ International inst includes international organisations such as NATO, EU or
it is a set of rules which governs state action, such as aviation or shipping
➢ It criticizes realist view> end of cold war> end of bipolarity>revival of
multipolarity>instability and insecurity
➢ They argue that high level of institutionalization significantly reduces the
destabilizing effects of multipolar anarchy
➢ Institutions provides information between states> reduce fear> provides
forum for negotiation

REPUBLICAN LIBERALISM

➢ Liberal democracies are more peaceful states than other (perpetual peace
by Kant)
➢ Do they don’t go for war? Yes they go for war, but argument is they don’t
fight with each other
➢ Why? Michael Doyle provides three reasons:
1. Democratic governments are controlled by their citizens, who will not
advocate wars with democracies
2. They hold common moral values which lead to the formation of ‘pacific
union’; prefers peaceful solution over violence
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3. Peace between democracies is strengthened through economic

cooperation and interdependence. Kant called it ‘spirit of commerce’
➢ This strand has strongest normative element than other strands of liberalism
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5
NEOREALISM

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF NEOREALISM

➢ States and other actors interact in an anarchic environment i.e. no central
authority
➢ The Structure of the system is the major determinant of actor behaviour
➢ Sates are self-interested-oriented, and an anarchic and competitive system
pushes them to self-help over cooperative behaviour
➢ States are rational actors, selecting strategies to maximise benefits and
minimize losses
➢ The most critical problem presented by anarchy is survival
➢ That’s why states see all other states as potential enemies and threat to
their national security
➢ This distrust and fear create security dilemma; this motivates all policies

NEOREALISM V/S REALISM

Difference:

➢ Human nature is not important for neorealism, it does not focus on human
nature to build its theory

➢ Ethics of states craft and diplomacy is less important

➢ Structure determines state leaders action

26 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

Similarity:

➢ Both believe that states are important actors

➢ Both believe that there is anarchy at international system

➢ Thus Survival and self-help is more important

TYPES OF NEOREALISM

9. Strategic Realism
[Link] Realism
[Link] Realism
[Link] Realism

STRATEGIC REALISM

Thomas Schelling

Main Work: The Strategy of Conflict (1960)

➢ His work focuses on foreign policy decision making

➢ State leaders think strategically i.e. logically to deal with diplomatic and
military issues

➢ It deals with how to employ power to get our enemy to do what we desire,
without using brute force

➢ There is difference between brute force and coercion

➢ Brute force succeeds when it is used, coercion is when power is held in

reserve

➢ Coercion requires finding a bargain, our interest and our opponents are not
absolutely opposed
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STRUCTURAL REALISM

Kenneth Waltz

Main Work: The Theory of International Politics (1979)

➢ Independent states exist in a system of international anarchy

➢ States are alike, perform similar functions i.e. collect taxes, conduct foreign
policy etc.

➢ State differs in capabilities i.e. power

➢ Structure of a system changes with changes in distribution of capabilities

➢ In other words, international change occurs when great powers rise and fall
and BOP shifts accordingly.

➢ He argues that structures are more important than leaders

➢ Structures more or less determine actions of leaders, they have little

choice

➢ They must operate according to international structure

➢ Structure of international system is determined by great powers

➢ Bipolar system- more stable (cold war)- provides guarantee of peace and
security than multipolar

➢ Two great powers maintain the system to maintain themselves.

OFFENSIVE AND DEFENSIVE REALISM

John Mearsheimer
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Main Work: The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (2001)

➢ He regards Watlz’s realism as defensive realism because it recognizes that

state seek power in order to be secure and survive

➢ State does not need excessive power beyond its survival

➢ He calls his realism as offensive realism

➢ It rests on the assumption that great powers ‘are always searching for
opportunities to gain power over their rivals, with hegemony as their final
goal’
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6
SOCIAL CONTRUCTIVISM

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

➢ Constructivism term was coined by Nicholas Onuf.

➢ Ideas and beliefs that inform the actors on international scene

➢ Material facts are secondary to ideas. Ex: For US, 500 Nuclear weapons of
UK are less threatening than 5 North Korean nuclear weapons. Because
British are friends and North Koreans are not.

➢ Actors can change structure through acts of social will. They need not to
act accordingly structure (against neorealist)

➢ For neorealists identities and interests are given; states know who they are
and what they want. For constructivists, it is the very interactions with
other that create identities and interests

➢ Thinkers: Alexander Wendt, Emanuel Adler and Michael Barnett, Ted

Hopf, Martha Finnemore and Alistair Johnston.

MAIN THINKERS

Alexander Wendt

Main Work: Anarchy is what states make of it (1992)

30 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

➢ He criticized neorealists that anarchy compels states to take certain action;

Ex: self-help

➢ Anarchy depends on the interaction between states. Ex: If US and USSR

decide they are no longer enemies, ‘the cold war is over’

➢ Wendt suggests three major ideal types of anarchy: Hobbesian, Lockean,

and Kantian

➢ In the Hobbesian culture, states view each other as enemies; the logic of
Hobbesian anarchy is ‘war of all against all’.

➢ States are adversaries and war is endemic because violent conflict is a way
of survival.

➢ Hobbesian anarchy, according to Wendt, dominated the states system until

the seventeenth century

➢ In the Lockean culture, states consider each other rivals, but there is also
restraint;

➢ States do not seek to eliminate each other, they recognize the other states’
right to exist

➢ Lockean anarchy became a characteristic of the modern states system after

the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.

➢ Finally, in a Kantian culture, states view each other as friends, settle disputes
peacefully, and support each other in the case of threat by a third party

➢ A Kantian culture has emerged among consolidated liberal democracies

since the Second World War
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➢ So in anarchic system, military power can be a threat to other states, but

enmity and arms races are not inevitable outcomes.

➢ Interactions b/w states> Friendly culture of anarchy

Martha Finnemore

Main work: National Interests in International Society (1996)

➢ Norms of international society define states identities and interests

➢ Such norms are transmitted through international organisations

➢ International Org teach states what their interests should be

1. Ex: UNESCO taught about science bureaucracy policy

2. Red Cross taught what was ‘appropriate behaviour’ for civilized states
involved in war,

3. World Bank taught how developing countries should promote poverty

alleviation

CRITICISM

➢ Neorealists argue that international norms are easily disregarded if that is

in the interest of powerful states.

➢ For neorealists, states can’t become friends due to their social interaction.
States behave aggressive due to anarchy and uncertain intentions.

➢ States does not know and cannot know the real intentions of others. There
will be always an uncertainty.
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7
CRITICAL INTERNATIONAL THEORY

ORIGIN OF CRITICAL THEORY

➢ Critical theory has been the thinking of the Frankfurt School

➢ A group of Marxist-influenced theorists who worked at the Institute of

Social Research, which was established in Frankfurt in 1923

➢ During Nazism, this institute was shifted to USA in the 1930s and it was
re-estb in Frankfurt in the early 1950s (dissolved in 1969)

➢ First generation thinkers: Theodor Adorno, Max Horkheimer and Herbert

Marcuse.

➢ Second generation thinker: Jurgen Habermas

➢ Main Thinkers of Critical International Theory: Robert Cox and Andrew

Linklater

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS

➢ Critical theory underlines the linkages between knowledge and politics,

that theories should be understood in framework of interests and values

➢ Commitment to emancipatory politics: seeks to uncover structures of

oppression and injustice in global politics to advance the cause of individual
and collective freedom
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➢ It promotes idea of political community beyond nation states, to have

more inclusive and cosmopolitan notion of political identity (World
Citizenship)

➢ Critical theory, criticizes existing system of domination. It identifies

process and forces that will create an alternative world order

MAIN THINKERS

Robert Cox

Main Work: Production, Power and World Order (1987)

➢ Cox differentiated b/w ‘problem solving’ and ‘critical theory’.

➢ Problem solving approaches preserve existing system and supports the

interests of hegemonic social forces (neorealism)

➢ For neorealists, anarchy is unalterable and order can be maintained through

balance of power

➢ In Cox’s much-quoted phrase, ‘theories are ‘always for someone and for
some purpose’

➢ Critical theory, criticizes existing system of domination

➢ It identifies process and forces that will create an alternative world order

➢ Most important political actors for Cox were states (especially in the third
world) and social movements.

➢ Because these two challenged the global capitalist economy along with
forms of labour exploitation and social inequality
34 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

➢ Cox basically looking to find alternative principles of world political

organization which will be carry forward by counter-hegemonic forces

Andrew Linklater

Main work: The Transformation of Political Community (1998)

➢ Andrew Linklater developed normative notion of critical theory.

➢ For him critical theory facilitate the extension of moral and political
community in international affairs beyond the state

➢ Linklater wants to develop a theory that is “deeply sensitive about all forms
of inclusion and unjustified exclusion-domestic, transnational, and
international”

➢ For the realization of this project, Linklater envisages a “triple

transformation” of the political community that is more universal, less
unequal, and more sensitive to differences

➢ Such political community questions the siginificance of national boundaries

and develops a post-national or post-Westphalian forms of life

➢ Linklater considers that globlisation has made nation states incapable of

providing citizens of basic needs of justice, social welfare, and physical
security

➢ Thus there is need of post-Westphalian community like European Union

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8
FEMINISM

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
➢ Its first and foremost criticism is that IR assumed that women had no role
to play in world politics.

➢ World politics does not effect women and men equally. For example: war
affect women more than men

➢ There is domination of males (elite) in the field and study of IR.

➢ Basic notion of human nature was gendered. Concepts like conflict,

competition, security and power based on human nature have masculine
values.

➢ IR theorists focus on ‘high politics’ such as diplomacy, war and statecraft,

visualizing a world of male-centric statesmen and soldiers.

MAIN WORKS OF FEMINISM SCHOLARSHIP IN IR

➢ Women and War by Jean Bethe Alsatian in 1987;

➢ International Relations Theory: Contributions of a Feminist Standpoint

by Robert Ethane in 1989;

➢ Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Sense of International Politics by

Cynthia Enloe in 1990;
36 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

➢ Gender and International Relations by Grant and Newland in 1991;

➢ Gender in International Relations by Ann Tickner in 1992.

CRITIQUE OF REALISM

➢ Ann Tickner, traced masculinism and misogyny of realism.

➢ Realism projected the behaviour of states with idea of glorified male

warriors.

➢ Realist idea of security is a masculinist way of looking at the world.

➢ Realist security is based on military defence of states in an international

anarchy

➢ It does not talk about gender hierarchy in world politics. It only talks
about external threat, it does not tell about subordination of women

➢ Laura Sjoberg applied gender perspective on wars

➢ Women enjoy a status as protected, uninvolved civilians. But it does not

provide real security to women. It hides actual problems of women. Wars
actually affects women more than men.

MAIN THINKERS

ANN TICKNER’S 6 PRINCPILES OF REALISM

Ann Tickner has reformulated the Morgenthau’s Six Principles of Realism

1. Dynamic Objectivity: Human nature is both masculine and feminine.

Dynamic objectivity is more connected and have less domination
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2. National interest is Dynamic: National interest of state can’t be defined in

terms of power. It is more dynamic. To solve present day problems like
terrorism, climate change, epidemic, hunger/poverty- demand cooperative
rather than zero sum solutions.

3. Power cannot be defined universally: Power, understood as ‘domination’

and as ‘control’, favours male centric or masculine frameworks and ignores
the possibility of ‘collective empowerment’

4. Morality and Politics can’t be separated: All Political actions have moral
significance. Moral principles of justice is important and thus cant’t be
ignored.

5. Discover moral commonalities in human: It accepts that the moral

ambitions of particular nations cannot be compared and likened with
universal moral principles. Feminism attempts to discover common moral
elements in human aspiration to solve international conflicts and to
strengthen the international community

6. Rejects autonomy of politics: Autonomy is linked with masculinity.

Confining politics around narrow boundary of ‘political man’ excludes
women, their concerns and contributions.

CYNTHIA ENLOE

Main work: Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of

International Politics (1989).

➢ Enloe argued that gender was of huge importance in the world but this
remained undiscovered in IR.
38 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

➢ She went on to demonstrate the subordinate, yet vital, position of women

in a number of areas, especially in the international economic order.

➢ Many low-paid, low-status, industrial jobs are now undertaken by women

from developing countries.

➢ Women occupy the low-end jobs in the service sectors (cleaning, washing,
cooking, and serving).

➢ It’s not only international divison of labour that subordinates women but
international politics also depends on men’s control of women; serving
wives of diplomates, around foreign military bases (sex industry) and so on.
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9
POSTMODERNISM

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
➢ Postmodernism/ Poststructuralism became part of IR in 1980s

➢ It focuses on high politics (war, security and military)

➢ It maintains a concern with states’ construction of threats and enemies

➢ They are critical of two important aspects:

1. Critical of the way most states conduct their foreign policies

2. Critical of how most IR theories tell us to study what states do

➢ They disagree with the realism’s understanding of state as self-help units

that stays the same through history

➢ International anarchy is not given but it is reproduced by the system

➢ Postmodernists want us to take seriously what is excluded and marginalized

by existing policies and theories

➢ Important postmodernist theorists are Richard Ashley, David Campbell,

James Der Derian, Jim George, Fritz Kratochwil, Michael Shapiro, and Rob
Walker

MAIN CONCEPTS OF POSTMODERNISM

Discourse
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➢ Language is essential to how we make sense of world

➢ Language is social because we cannot make our thoughts understandable to

others without a set of shared codes

➢ This is explained by concept of discourse

➢ Michel Foucault defined discourse as a linguistic system that orders

statements and concepts

➢ The words we use to describe something are not neutral, it has some political
implications

➢ Explaining the Sudan conflict as a ‘genocide’ (pressure on int community)

or as a ‘tribal warfare’ (less pressure)

Deconstruction

➢ Deconstruction is an approach to understanding the relationship between

text and meaning.

➢ This theory was developed by Jacques Derrida

➢ Language is made up of dichotomies, for e.g. developed-underdeveloped,

modern-premodern, civilized-barbaric

➢ These dichotomies are not neutral because one term is superior to other

➢ Deconstruction shows how such dichotomies make something, for instance

how developed country is look like

➢ It is not an objective description, but structured set of values

Genealogy

➢ It is another concept of Foucault, defined as ‘history of present’.

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➢ It asks two questions: what political practices have formed the present and
which alternative understandings and discourses have been marginalized and
forgotten.

➢ For instance, genealogy of climate change might start

➢ By asking who are allowed to speak and make decisions at events such as
Copenhagen summit 2009

➢ It asks what constructions of ‘the climate’ and global responsibility are

dominant

➢ And how these constructions relate to past discourses

Intertextuality

➢ The theory of intertextuality is developed by Julia Kristeva.

➢ It holds that we can see world politics as made up of texts

➢ Texts form an intertext: All texts refer to other texts that came before them.

➢ For ex: EU or UN quote previous declarations and statements by member

countries

➢ It also calls attention to silence and taken for granted assumptions

➢ For e.g. NATO documents from cold war, not necessarily mention Soviet
Union.

STATE SOVEREIGNITY

Inside-Outside distinction

➢ Postmodernists agree with realists that state is central to world politics.

42 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

➢ However, they don’t agree that state remain same across time and space

➢ According to R.B.J. Walker, state sovereignty implies a division of world

into an ‘inside’ the state and an outside

➢ Inside the state there is order, trust, loyalty and progress and outside
there is conflict, suspicion, self-help, and anarchy

➢ We know international by what is not national and vice-versa. State

reproduce sovereignty.

➢ State, by using this dichotomy of national-international, silences numerous

facts and events

➢ For instance, when states choose not to intervene in other states that are
persecuting their ‘own citizens

Universal Alternatives

➢ Postmodernists argue that to deal with dichotomies, we can’t simply replace

the ‘state’ with ‘globe’.

➢ Global or universal suggests that there is something different or particular

➢ And that which is different is almost always in danger of being forced to

change to become like the universal

➢ For ex: values like freedom, liberty, security, democracy etc is not truly a
global voice, but defined by a particular state

➢ Universal discourse can reinforced ‘the West’

IDENTITY AND FOREIGN POLICY

➢ Traditional view was that foreign policy are designed to protect state
43 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

➢ But postmodernists hold that foreign policy produces the identity of state
through construction of threats, dangers, and challenges

➢ For example, debates within EU over whether Turkey (Muslim country)

should be accepted as its member

➢ Like whether it is possible to be European and Muslim at the same time

➢ These questions have implications for construction of Turkey’s identity, but

that of Europe’s

Identity as Performative

➢ The concept of performativity comes from Judith Butler

➢ It holds that identities have no objective existence, but they depend on

discursive practices.

➢ Identities can’t maintain their ‘realness’ if we do not reproduce them

➢ EU does not has to decide from scratch about Turkey’s identity for EU
membership

➢ Historically construction of Europe as white, civilized and Christian is

enough here

➢ Identities are product and justifications for FP

➢ Performativity theory of identity also comes from David Campbell

➢ Work: Writing security: United States Foreign Policy and the politics of
identity (1992)
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➢ He talks about two kind of FP: Foreign policy (the policies undertaken by
states in international arena) and foreign policy (practices that constitute
something as foreign in relation to self)

➢ Ex: foreign policy within state: women unfit for military and homosexual
alien to national sense

➢ Postmodernists looks at both FPs; symbolic boundaries

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10
STATE AND STATE-SYSTEM

STATE
Introduction:
➢ State has been regarded as the most significant actor of world politics
➢ A state is a community of persons more or less numerous occupying a
definite territory, possessing an organised government and enjoying
independence from external control
➢ Max Weber described state as a compulsory political organisation with the
centralised government that maintains a Monopoly of the legitimate use of
force within the certain territory
➢ Joseph Schumpeter complemented this definition by pointing out that the
state also has a fiscal monopoly, in its monopoly of the right to tax citizens
➢ A state is a state that has capacity to protect against external attack and
maintain domestic order
STATE-SYSTEM
Origin:
➢ State is a historical institution which emerged in 15th-16th century Europe
➢ The Peace of Westphalia (1648) is believed to have given birth to state
system
➢ By establishing states as sovereign entities, it made states the principal
actors on the world stage.
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➢ International politics was thus thought of as a ‘state system’.

➢ The state system expanded from Europe>North America>South America
and Japan.
➢ By 20thcentury state system appeared to be more popular ever
➢ In 2009, the UN recognized 192 states, compared with 50 in 1945
➢ There are number of ‘unrecognised’ states waiting in the queue. Ex:
Palestine, Kurdistan, Quebec, Chechnya, Western Sahara etc

MONTEVIDEO CONVENTION (1933)

Terms and Features:

➢ The classic definition of the state in international law is found in the

Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of the State (1933).

➢ According to Article 1 of the Montevideo Convention, the state has four

features:

✓ A defined territory

✓ A permanent population

✓ An effective government

✓ The capacity to enter into relations with other states

➢ According to this view, recognition from other states is not necessary, even
without recognition state has right to defend its integrity and independence
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STATE AND GLOBALISATION

Three Arguments:

➢ First: The rise of globalisation is marked by decline of the state as a

meaningful actor. Hyper globalist believed that globalisation has made the
state superfluous.

➢ Second: Realist tend to deny that globalisation has alter the core feature of
world politics i.e., state. They believe that globalisation had no effect on
state role whatsoever.

➢ Third: Globalisation has brought about qualitative changes in the role or

significance of the state. This argument is more likely to accept.

➢ State used to have supreme control over territory

➢ Rise of international migration and the spread of globalization has made

state borders ‘permeable’

➢ State has less control on cross border communications and information flows
through TV, Radio and internet

➢ Due to economic globalization there is rise of supraterritoriality; declining

importance of territorial locations or geographical distance

➢ For ex: financial crisis in one state can affect other states

➢ ‘De-territorialized’ transnational corporations can shift their base to other

countries if state policy is not conducive to their profits

➢ Susan Strange put it, ‘where states were once masters of markets, now it is
the markets which, on many issues, are the masters over the governments of
states’.
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STATE TRANSFORMATION

➢ In early and mid-20th century, there was the development of collectivized

states, which attempted to bring all economic life under state control

➢ We have seen this in USSR and Eastern Europe

➢ This time also witnessed Keynesian strategies of economic management

and a strengthening of social protection, led to development of welfare state

➢ After 1990s, states are adopting neoliberal policies, losing hold on economy,
encouraging privatization, deregualtion and ‘rolling back’ of welfare of
provisions

➢ Robert Cox argues that there is internationalisation of state i.e. matching the
national policies with global capital economy

➢ Bob Jessop argues that there is shift from ‘Keynesian welfare national
state’, to the ‘Schumpeterian competition state’.

➢ Competition state aims to secure economic growth by securing competitive

advantages in the wider global economy

➢ According to Robert Cooper, now we have postmodern states

➢ Postmodern states, rejected force as a means to resolve disputes, respect

rule of law, works with multilateral institutions, less centralized and
multiculturalists states.

RETURN OF THE STATE

➢ In view of transnational terrorism, state is the only entity which can protect
its citizen from external attack
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➢ As Bobbitt says ‘The State exists to master violence’. It is essentially ‘war

making institution’

➢ There was a decline in military expenditure after end of cold war.

➢ But After 9/11 attack, the state military expenditure has increased again

➢ Not only in USA but it has also grown in China, France, UK, Russia etc

➢ After 2008 economic depression, it has become clear that market

economies can only operate in legal and social order created by states

➢ There is growing recognition of the role of state in promoting development

➢ So, state-building is a key aspect of the larger process of peace-building

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11
q ACTORS
NON-STATE

Introduction:
➢ Non-State actors are individuals or organisations who are independent
of a sovereign state and hold influence at international level
➢ Pluralism approach challenges the state centric approach, or realism
➢ Not only state but all type of actors can effect political outcomes.
➢ The very phrase ‘non-state’ actors implies that states are dominant and other
actors are secondary
➢ That’s why some scholars use transnational actors to assert that IR is not
limited to governments, and that other actors also play important role
➢ Not all companies are transnational actors, if they lobby foreign
governments about trade, they become transnational political actors
Categories:
➢ Transnational companies: such as Wal-Mart, Microsoft, Apple, Google,
Amazon etc.
➢ NGOs: Such organizations have base in single country only. For ex: World
Development Movement (UK) or the Sierra Club (USA)
➢ IGOs: It is known as Intergovernmental Organisations, such as the UN,
NATO, EU, BRICS, ASEAN, SAARC etc
➢ INGOs: It is known as International Non-governmental Organisations, such
as Amnesty International, Greenpeace etc.
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❑ All above the categories are legitimate political actors. There are also
illegitimate political actors like terrorist or criminal groups. They also effect
world politics

COTONOU AGREEMENT
➢ The Cotonou Agreement is a treaty between the European Union and the
African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States ("ACP countries").
➢ It was signed in June 2000
➢ The term Non State actors was widely used in this agreement
➢ Non-state actors include according to Cotonou agreement :
✓ Civil society in all its diversity, according to national characteristics;
✓ Economic and social partners, including trade union organisations and;
✓ The private sector.

TNCS AS POLITICAL ACTORS & SOVEREIGNTY

Financial Flows and Sovereignty

➢ The effect of TNCs is at such level that government have lost control of
financial flows

➢ Companies like Google and Amazon, attribute their operations to offices in

countries with low tax rates

➢ Governments are losing substantial tax income

Regulatory arbitrage and loss of sovereignty

➢ It is difficult for governments to regulate companies activities because

company may choose regulatory arbitrage
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➢ If a company does not like policy of a government, it may threaten to limit

or close down its local production and increase production in another
country

Extraterritoriality and Sovereignty

➢ TNCs generate clashes of sovereignty between different governments

➢ When a company has a headquarters in the USA and a subsidiary company

in the UK, three lines of authority exist

➢ US government’s decisions cover global operations of TNC.

➢ Does the subsidiary obey the UK government or US govt order.

➢ This is a problem of extraterritoriality.

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12
POWER

Meaning:
➢ Harold Lasswell in his book ‘Politics: Who Gets What, When, How?’
(1936), define power as the ability to achieve desired outcome.
➢ Joseph Nye likened power to love – ‘easier to experience than to define
or measure’.
➢ Concept of Power can be understood in two ways:
1. Power to: It means power to do something. This includes the ability of a
country to conduct its own affairs without the interference of other countries.
2. Power over: It means power over others. This includes the ability to
influence the behaviour of others without their choice. For Ex: if A gets B to
do something that B would not otherwise have done.

THREE NOTIONS OF POWER

1. Power as capability
➢ This is the traditional approach in international politics
➢ Here, power is possession. Such approach reflect in ‘elements’ of ‘national
power’.
➢ This includes size and quality of a state’s armed forces, its per capita wealth
and natural resources, the size of its population, its land mass and
geographical position, the size and skills of its population and so on.
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➢ The advantage of this approach is that it makes power tangible and

quantifiable factor.
➢ Through this approach states were classified as ‘super power’ (US), ‘great
power’ (China), ‘middle power’ (India), ‘small power’ (Nepal) and so on.
➢ Drawback: Unreliable outcomes of event. Ex: US in Vietnam War (1959-
75)
2. Relational Power
➢ It is understood as an effect one actor has another.
➢ In simple words, if a concern with capabilities equates power with strength,
a concern with relationship equates power with influence.
➢ A may exert influence on B in one of two ways:
1. either by getting B to do what B would not otherwise have done
(compellance), [riskier and require greater resources]
2. by preventing B from doing what B would otherwise have done
(deterrence).
➢ Ex of Compellance: 2003 of invasion of Iraq for ‘regime change’
➢ Ex of Deterrence: Creation of ‘no-fly zone’ to protect Kurds
3. Structural Power
➢ structural power links the distribution of power to biases within the social
structures through which actors relate to one another and make decisions.
➢ Susan Strange defines it as ‘power to decide how things shall be done’
➢ She describes four primary power structures:
1. The knowledge structure, which influences actor’s beliefs, ideas or
perceptions
2. The financial structure, which controls access to credit or investment
3. The security structure, which shapes defence and strategic issues
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4. The production structure, which affects economic development and

prosperity
➢ State can dominate in any of these structure
Major Works of Susan Strange:
➢ States and Markets (1988)
➢ The Retreat of the State (1996)
➢ Casino Capitalism (1998)
➢ Mad Money (1998)

TYPES OF POWER
Hard Power
➢ Traditional realist view of power is hard power.
➢ It encompasses both military and economic power.
➢ Hard power is ‘command power’, the ability to change what others do
through the use of inducements (carrots) or threats (sticks).
➢ Carrot also means through economic aid and sticks also means through
military force.
➢ It is a power a coercion and domination.
Soft Power
➢ Term was coined by Joseph Nye.
➢ Soft power is invisible power. It is power of attraction rather than
coercion.
➢ Soft power rests on the ability to shape the preferences of others, without the
use of force, coercion or violence.
➢ It is less costly and more effective for long term.
➢ It is getting things done from other person willingly.
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➢ According to Nye, it is more important that how many friends you have won
rather than how many enemies you have build.
Smart Power
➢ It was also given by Joseph Nye. However, it is popularized by former US
SOS Hilary Clinton.
➢ Smart power is a combination of both Hard and Soft power.

Fast Power
➢ This idea was given by John Chipman.
➢ It is not sufficient to posses hard and soft power. The determinant of
success in our times is speed.
➢ Our ability to take faster action may reduce the cost of protecting our
national interest.
➢ Only this way we can shape the world order rather than getting shaped by
others.
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➢ Former External Affairs Minister Sushma Swaraj once said that Indian
diplomacy has moved into ‘fast-track diplomacy’
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13
SOVEREIGNTY

INTRODUCTION

➢ Sovereignty is the most important element out of four elements of state.

Other three are territory, population and government.
➢ Sovereignty is a principle of absolute and unlimited power; the absence of a
higher authority in either domestic or external affairs

MAIN THINKERS
Jean Bodin
➢ The first systematic presentation of sovereignty found in Jean Bodin’s Six
Books of the Republic (1576)
➢ He argued that power and authority should be concentrated in a single
decision maker- preferably the King.
➢ He believed that a well-ordered society required an ‘absolute and perpetual
power’, namely the sovereign.
➢ Stability can be ensured by sovereign with final law making power.
Thomas Hobbes
➢ In Leviathan (1651), Hobbes defined sovereignty as a monopoly of
coercive power
➢ He advocated that it be vested in the hands of a single ruler.
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➢ the need for sovereignty arose from the self-seeking and power-interested
nature of human beings
➢ Which meant that, in the absence of a sovereign ruler – that is, in a ‘state of
nature’

TYPES OF SOVREIGNTY
Internal Sovereignty
➢ It refers to the internal affairs of the state.
➢ It implies that within the state, state is the final authority whose
decisions are binding upon all citizens
➢ Early thinkers believed that sovereignty should be vested in single ruler or
monarch.
➢ J.J Rousseau rejected monarchical rule in favour of the notion of popular
sovereignty, the belief that ultimate authority is vested in the people
themselves
➢ It can be located in legislative bodies. For Ex: John Austin argued that
sovereignty in the UK was vested neither in the Crown nor in the people but
in the ‘Monarch in Parliament’.
External Sovereignty
➢ It establishes the state’s capacity to act as an independent and
autonomous entity in world affairs.
➢ This type is of crucial importance for global politics
➢ external sovereignty guarantees that the territorial integrity and political
independence of each state is inviolable
➢ Moral concerns have been raised because external sovereignty appears to
allow states to treat their citizens however, they please
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➢ There is therefore tension between the principle of external sovereignty and

the doctrine of human rights

WHITHER THE SOVEREIGN STATE?

➢ Ever since globalization has come to scene, ‘hyperglobalists’ claims that it
has hollowed the state and deprive it of power over monopolies.
➢ ‘Sceptics’ says it is a exaggeration, globalization is a myth developed by
Western states to promote neoliberal economic policies.
➢ ‘Transformationalists’ accepts that human activities have been
‘deterritorialised’. But the state still retains authority.
➢ Some scholars argue that globalization has adversely affects many
developing countries. They had to adopt harsh measures favored by West.
➢ Thinkers like Andrew Linklater, R.B.J Walker and David Cambell have
delivered powerful critique of sovereign practices.
➢ They want more freer, less exclusivist, more democratic forms of political
society.
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14
SECURITY

MEANING

➢ Security implies freedom from threats. But not from all kinds of threats.
➢ Security relates only to extremely dangerous threats— threats that could
so endanger core values that those values would be damaged beyond repair.
➢ Core value means value like sovereignty, independence and territorial
integrity.

DEBATES ON SECURITY
➢ Scholars argue that idea of security is very state centric.
➢ During cold war period, the idea of national security defined in militarized
terms was dominated.
➢ Barry Buzan, in his study People, States and Fear (1983), argues for a
view of security that includes political, economic, societal, and
environmental as well as military aspects. He talks about international
security.
➢ Some scholars talk about ‘societal security’, where ethno-national groups,
rather than states, should become the centre of attention for security analysts.
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➢ Other scholars argue for global society, instead of ethno-national group.

They believe globalization is posing certain risks and threats like
international terrorism, global warming, dangers of nuclear accidents.
➢ Such threats can’t be handled by nation-states, we need a global community
to deal with this adequately.

TRADITIONAL APPROACH
➢ Realists or Neo-realists argue that national security or insecurity is a
result of structure (anarchy) of international system.
➢ Due to this anarchial structure, states in a struggle for power constantly
attempt to take advantage of each other. Thus, national security becomes
imp.
➢ Liberal Institutional approach says that institutions at world level can
enhance security.
➢ According to Keohane and Martin, ‘institutions can provide information,
reduce transaction costs, make commitments more credible, establish focal
points for coordination and, in general, facilitate the operation of reciprocity’
➢ Thus, Traditional view is only limited to national security, military
threat and believe that most of the threat come from outside the borders of
states. There can be internal threat sometimes, like insurgency etc.

NON-TRADITIONAL APPROACH
➢ Non-Traditional Approach challenges the state-centric notion of security
by focusing on the individual as the main referent object of security.
➢ Instead of focusing on national security, it focuses on human security
➢ Human security is about security for people, rather than for states or
governments.
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➢ It wants to secure people from threats posed by poverty, disease,

environmental stress, human rights abuses, as well as armed conflict.
➢ Scholars like Mahubub ul Haq and Amartya Sen, conceptualized the
UNDP’s Human Development Report. It focuses on building human
capabilities to overcome poverty, illiteracy, diseases, discrimination, violent
conflict etc.
➢ Human Development Report, 1994, includes sever areas in human
security: Economic, food, health, environment, personal and community
security.

KEY CONCEPTS OF SECURITY

Security Community:
➢ This concept was given by Karl Deutsch. Security community is a group of
people that has attained the sense of community.
➢ By a "sense of community" mean a belief that common social problems
must and can be resolved by processes of "peaceful change".
Security Regimes:
➢ This idea was developed by Robert Jervis. Security regimes occur when a
group of states co-operate to manage their disputes and avoid war.
➢ They seek to eliminate security dilemma both by their own actions and by
their assumptions about the behavior of others.
Security Complex:
➢ It is also known as regional security complex. This idea was given by Barry
Buzan.
➢ Security complex means that there are group of states whose primary
national security concerns are so closely linked together that they cannot
be addressed independently of each other.
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➢ It means their security is depended on each other.

➢ Thus, this theory views security from point of view of interdependence.
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15
CHANGING NATURE OF WAR

INTRODUCTION
➢ Around 14,400 wars have occurred in recorded history
➢ Claiming the lives of 3.5 billion people
➢ Basil Liddell Hart once said ‘if you want peace, understand war’
➢ Leon Trotsky declared that ‘you may not be interested in war, but war is
interested in you’.

DEFINITIONS OF WAR
➢ Clausewitz states that war is 'an act of force intended to compel our
opponents to fulfil our will', and 'a continuation of political intercourse with
a mixture of other means’.
➢ For Hedley Bull, it is 'organised violence carried on by political units
against each other’
➢ For Quincy Wright, war is 'a conflict among political groups, especially
sovereign states, carried on by armed forces of considerable magnitude, for a
considerable period of time'

NATURE OF WAR
War and violence:
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➢ War is a form of organized human violence. This can be easily recognized

when states are involved.
➢ It is difficult to recognize when violence is also involved in terrorism,
insurgency and criminal violence.
➢ War always involves violence, but not all violence described war.
War has objective:
➢ For Clausewitz, War is an extension of politics by other means. (On
War, 1832)
➢ War is not a random violence, it always some political purpose to attain.
Globalization and War
➢ Due to Globalization, War is also played out in wider fields other than local
context
➢ They are influenced by non-governmental organizations, intergovernmental
organizations regional and global media, and users of the Internet.
War Requires Cooperation
➢ War is not about conflict, it requires enormous amount of cooperation
➢ Michel Foucault called the institution of war ‘the military dimension of
society'
State is a Result of War
➢ In the words of the sociologist Charles Tilly, 'war made the state, and the
state made war’.
➢ State was created to fulfil the demands of warfare
➢ With more and more armed conflict, size of armies increased, war got costly
➢ In such a competitive system, only state could ensure survival.
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War and Change

➢ The requirement to defeat the opponent’s forces may lead to advances in
technologies such as transportation, food manufacture and storage,
communications, and so on

POSTMODERN WAR
Increased role of media
➢ Media is shaping the understanding of war
➢ Media has made war more transparent
➢ Journalists have turned from observer to active participant, facing danger
like soldier
Outsourcing war
➢ Over last decades, states have contracted out key military services to private
corp.
➢ Privatized military companies (PMCs) sell a wide range of war-related
services to states.
➢ PMCs played a significant role in the 2003 US-led invasion of lraq.
Total War
➢ The twentieth century saw the advent of total war
➢ It involves mobilization of the human, economic, and military resources of
the state.
➢ Such war involves whole society.
➢ Raymond Aron called this ‘hyperbolic war’
Nuclear taboo
➢ After strike against Japan, Nuclear War has never been used.
➢ Nina Tannenwald argues that a nuclear taboo against the use of nuclear
weapons has developed.
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Degenerate War
➢ Martin Shaw finds out link between genocide and war.
➢ Genocide usually occurs in the midst of war, but because genocide is a form
of war directed against civilian populations.
➢ Martin Shaw uses ‘degenerate war’ involving the mass destruction of
civilian populations, when target is a state
➢ and ‘genocide’, the deliberate destruction of civilian groups as such.
➢ Mary Kaldor suggests that ‘new war’ has emerged since the mid-1980s.
➢ The driving force behind these new wars is globalization.

NEW WAR
Disintegration of states and war
➢ New wars are based around the disintegration of states and subsequent
opposite groups tries to control the state
➢ Earlier wars were linked to emergence and creation of sate.
➢ In the last decade, 95% armed conflicts have taken place within states, rather
than between them.
Poor state and war
➢ The ‘new war’ occur when economy of the state is performing extremely
poor
➢ Power of state declining, increase in corruption and criminality
➢ In such situation, violence get privatized, paramilitary groups increased,
organized crime grows and political legitimacy collapse.
➢ Gap between soldier and citizen gets blur.

POST-WESTPHALIAN WAR
Sub-state war
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➢ War is not something that always takes between states.

➢ There are sub-state wars which are fought by militias, paramilitaries,

warlord armies, criminal gangs, private security firms, and tribal groupings,
➢ This has been notable in conflicts such as those in the Democratic Republic
of Congo, Sudan, and Bosnia.
Globalisation and failed states:
➢ New conditions produced by globalization have weakened the states.
➢ Post-westphalian war occur in failed states.
➢ Steven Metz has termed the countries falling into this category as the 'third
tier'
Open war economy
➢ The funding of such wars does not come from taxes like in case of old war.
➢ Funding comes from: hostage-taking, trafficking of weapons, drugs etc.
➢ Such regional wars are connected with global criminal network.
Open War Economy
➢ Herfried Munkler calls such network as open war economy.
➢ Such wars are founght for economic purpose and not political
➢ Moldova and Chechnya is example of such wars
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16
WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRCUTION

INTRODUCTION
➢ The US’s explosion of the world’s first atomic bomb in a New Mexico
desert in 1945 marked the beginning of the ‘Atomic Age’. (Trinity, Nuclear
Test)
➢ Nuclear weapons were used for first and only time against Japan
(Aug,1945)
➢ Since then nuclear technology has spread & now there is 9 nuclear state.
➢ Globalisation & end of cold war have introduced new challenges:
➢ These include growth of nuclear energy, loose nuclear weapons, nuclear
terrorism, problems of Israel, Iran & North Korea

NUCLEAR PROLIFERATION SINCE 1945

➢ States have developed long range weapons: intercontinental ballistic missiles
(ICBMs), submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs).
➢ During cold war, nuclear weapons were acquired to achieve nuclear
deterrence
➢ USA adopted three strategy to deter Soviet Union:
1. Counterforce strategy: Using nuclear weapons to attack Soviet
Union’s nuclear and military assets
2. Countervalue strategy: threaten to target industries or populated
cities
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3. Extended deterrence: threat of nuclear response in order to deter

an attack on one of its allies.
➢ More and more states join nuclear club during this period.
➢ USSR (1949), UK (1952), France (1960) and China (1964).
➢ These five states are known as P-5, permanent five members of UNSC.
➢ By 2002, USA and Russia had 98% of all the nuclear warheads

TIMELINE OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS TESTS

1. 1945 United States of America
2. 1949 Soviet Union
3. 1952 Great Britain
4. 1960 France
5. 1964 People's Republic of China
6. 1966 Israel (alleged cold test)
7. 1974 India ('peaceful nuclear explosion')
8. 1979 Vela Incident (potential test by Israel and South Africa)
9. 1998 India (weapon), Pakistan
10.2006 North Korea

DEBATES ON NUCLEAR PROLIFERATION

➢ There are issues involve how to define nuclear proliferation
➢ Nuclear opacity: Israel has never confirmed about its nuclear arsenal
➢ Latent nuclear capacity: a country has nuclear infra and can quickly
assemble a nuclear weapons.
➢ Japan, for example, is sometimes described as being ‘five minutes from a
nuclear weapon'
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➢ Motivations to weapons: security, domestic politics, norms, political

economy etc.

PROLIFERATION OPTIMISM AND PESSIMISM

➢ Kenneth Waltz argues that gradual nuclearization will contribute to

stability.
➢ The likelihood of war decreases as deterrent and defensive capabilities
increase.
➢ Nuclear Weapons make wars harder to start. They should be welcomed
➢ Scott Sagan argues that nuclear weapons can bring devastation.
➢ Deterrence can fail also, civilian govt can lose control over nuclear facilities
➢ Military org biases can lead to war.

NUCLEAR POSTURE

Vipin Narang identifies three types of nuclear posture:

1. Catalytic: Israel like state catalyse outside assistance from a third party in
event of severe crisis. No survivable weapons.
2. Assured retaliation: states like China and India adopted this posture. It
seeks to deter nuclear attack by retaliation.
3. Asymmetric escalation: states like Pak and France adopted this posture.
They intend to deter conventional attack by nuclear attack.
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COUNTRIES WHO GAVE UP NUCLEAR WEAPONS

➢ In 1993, the President of South Africa, F. W. de Klerk, announced that

South Africa had developed six nuclear weapons,
➢ but that it had chosen to relinquish them and join the NPT.
➢ Former Soviet Union states Kazakhstan, Belarus, and Ukraine -suddenly
found themselves inheritors of the USSR's large nuclear stockpile.
➢ All three countries agreed to give up these weapons and sign the NPT,

NUCLEAR DISARMAMENT TREATIES TIMELINE

➢ 1959 Antarctic Treaty – prohibits weapons testing and deployment in
Antarctica (multilateral)
➢ 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty – bans atmospheric, underwater and outer-
space nuclear tests (multilateral)
➢ 1967 Outer Space Treaty – bans the deployment of nuclear weapons in
space
➢ 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) – (a) prohibits the
acquisition of nuclear weapons by non-nuclear states, and (b) commit the
five recognized nuclear powers to the reduction and removal of their
weapons over time (multilateral)
➢ 1972 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty 1 (SALT 1) – limits strategic
nuclear weapons and freezes ICBMs at 1972 levels (USA/USSR)
➢ 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty – limits the number of anti-
ballistic missiles (USA/USSR)
➢ 1979 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty 2 (SALT 2) – banned new missile
program, limit the number of long range missile to 1320.
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➢ 1987 Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty – eliminates all

intermediate range nuclear weapons in Europe (USA/USSR)
➢ 1991 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty 1 (START I) – limits the number
of nuclear warheads and delivery systems (USA/USSR)
➢ 1993 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty 2 (START II) – further limits the
number of nuclear warheads and eliminates certain categories of warhead
(USA/Russia)
➢ 1996 Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) – bans the testing of
weapons, but not ratified by the USA, China, India, Pakistan and North
Korea (multilateral)
➢ 2002 Strategic Offensive Reduction Treaty (SORT or Moscow Treaty) –
limits the number of deployed nuclear warheads (USA/Russia)
➢ 2010 New START Treaty (or Prague Treaty) – limits both sides’ nuclear
warheads to 1,550, a 30 per cent reduction on SORT and a 74 per cent
reduction on START 1 (USA/Russia).
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17
DETERRENCE
“The supreme art of war is to subdue the enemy without fighting” – Sun Tzu

INTRODUCTION

➢ In the 20th century, tragedy of World War1 and World War2 sparked
tension between countries and led to the cold war and creation of atomic
bombs
➢ In this situation of fear and doubt, idealistic theorists became silent
➢ But Realist thinkers like Thomas C. Schelling, Kenneth Waltz and John
Mearsheimer developed the theory of deterrence to prevent war

CONCEPT OF DETERRENCE

➢ The concept of deterrence can be defined as the use of threats by one party
to convince another party to refrain from initiating some course of action.
➢ 18th century Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham formulated the
‘deterrence theory’ in relation to criminal offending (penology).
➢ According to them idea of deterrence or theory is that the threat of
punishment will deter people from committing crime
➢ In IR, Bernard Brodie in his work ‘The Absolute weapon: Atomic Power
And World Order’ (1946)
➢ Applied concept of deterrence on nuclear weapons.
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➢ He believes that nuclear weapons had made total war obsolete.

➢ Deterrence theory is based on the principle of Mutual Assured
Destruction (MAD), first used by American military analyst Donald
Brennan

APPROACHES

Narrow view:
➢ Using military threat to prevent other to take action.
Broader view:
➢ Using non-military threat to deter other states. Ex: economic sanctions,
diplomatic exclusion.
Modern view:
➢ Discouraging unwanted actions using means beyond threats. For example:
including offering concessions or reassurance.

NATURE OF DETERRENCE
➢ Nature of deterrence can be classified into:
Conventional Deterrence:
➢ Deterrent threats to resist or to inflict costs against an aggressor using
conventional military force during the resulting conflict.
Nuclear Deterrence:
➢ Means an enemy will be deterred from using nuclear weapons as long as he
can be destroyed consequently.
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TYPES OF DETERRENCE
➢ Deterrence can be used in two sets of circumstances:
Direct Deterrence:
➢ It consists of efforts by a state to prevent attacks on its own territory
➢ Ex: During cold war, discouraging Soviet nuclear attack by U.S. on its
territory
Extended Deterrence:
➢ It involves discouraging attacks on third parties, such as allies or partners.
➢ Ex: During the Cold War, preventing a Soviet attack on NATO members.

Deterrence can be employed in two over lapping time periods:

General Deterrence:
➢ It involves persistent effort to prevent unwanted actions in non-crisis times
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➢ Ex: US promises of defence and punishment if the Soviet Union attacked

Western Europe
Immediate Deterrence:
➢ Urgent attempt to prevent attack during crisis.
➢ Ex: US engaged in such deterrence during crisis, when US feared Soviet
aggression against Berlin was imminent
Immediate and General Deterrence:
➢ Patrick Morgan in his book, ‘Deterrence: A Conceptual Analysis’ (1977)
➢ utilized the concept of immediate deterrence to analyze deterrence between
America and the Soviet Union in times of crises
➢ and proposed the idea of general deterrence as a contrasting concept to
immediate deterrence

KEY TERMS

Complex Deterrence
➢ After cold war, traditional deterrence theory prove ineffective
➢ In dealing with threats such as terrorists attacks or cyber attacks
➢ Because in such cases nature, type of actors, their motives become unclear.
Minimal Deterrence
➢ State possesses no more nuclear weapons than is necessary to deter any
adversary from attacking.
Credible Minimum Deterrence
➢ It underlines no first use (NFU) with an assured second-strike capability
(India)
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IMPORTANT BOOKS ON DETERRENCE

1. Patrick M. Morgan- ‘Deterrence Now’(2003)

2. Thomas C. Schelling- ‘Arms and Influence’(1996), ‘The Strategy of
Conflict’ (1990)
3. Kenneth Waltz- ‘The Spread Of Nuclear Weapons: An Enduring debate’
(1981)
4. Robert Jervis- ‘Deterrence theory revisited’ (1979), ‘Deterrence and
Perception’ (1982), ‘Perception and Misperception’(1976)
5. Bernard Brodie- ‘The Absolute Weapon : Atomic Power and World
Order’(1946), ‘Strategy in Missile Age’(2007)
6. John Mearsheimer ‘Conventional Deterrence’ (1983)
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18
CONFLICT RESOLUTION

INTRODUCTION

➢ Conflict arises because of differences in interests, ideologies, civilizations

etc.
➢ Conflict resolution is mechanism that eliminates these conflicts.
➢ International conflict resolution examines the nature of conflict that has
global significance and the effects the conflict has on parties involved.
➢ International conflicts include wars, violent confrontation between nation
states
➢ It also includes various types of threats to peace and security. Ex: Genocide

PHASES OF CONFLICT RESOULTION

Phase one (1918-1945)

➢ After World War I, the focus was on ways to prevent another world war.
➢ League of Nations was established as first International body devoted to
international peace
➢ With emergence of WW2, League of Nation was collapsed.
➢ It was realized that there were problems with the early efforts of conflict
resolution.
Phase two (1945-1965)
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➢ marked by institutional growth of conflict resolution.

➢ After WW2, the central concern of conflict resolution was to ensure peace
and protection of human rights within states
➢ As a result, United Nations Organization has established in 1945.
Phase Three (1965-1989)
➢ It’s a period of expansion of international conflict resolution.
Phase Three (1965-1989)
➢ Numerous theories and methods of international conflict resolution have
developed
➢ influenced by three often-converging trends in the Western tradition, namely
materialism, political realism, and secularist political philosophy.
Phase four (1989-present)
➢ We witnessed major shift in the nature of international conflict in post-Cold
War.
➢ This phase has been shaped by non-state actors (NGOs, MNCs, terrorist org)

STAGES OF CONFLICT
1. conflict emergence,
2. conflict escalation,
3. stalemate
4. de-escalation
5. dispute settlement
6. post conflict peace building
➢ According to methodological approach conflict progress through these
stages.
➢ These stages are nonlinear.
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➢ The stages can be repeated, or sometimes the conflict primarily moves

between two or three stages.

THEORIES OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION

1. Co-operative & Competitive model

➢ Morton Deutsch proposed this theory in 1949.
➢ Parties interest is so interconnected that it can lead to situation where one
party’s win can become lose for others
➢ Positively, success of one party can give success to others, or failure with
failure.
➢ Parties should adopt cooperative relationship
2. Principled Negotiation
➢ It stands for ‘win-win’ situation.
➢ The phrase was taken from Game theory
➢ Roger Fisher and William Ury drew this theory in their 1981 book
“Getting to yes”.
➢ The book advocates four fundamental principles of negotiation:-
1) separate the people from the problem
2) focus on interests, not positions
3) invent options for mutual gain
4) insist on objective criteria.
➢ Principled negotiation is about finding a way that will benefit all parties.
3. Human Needs Model
➢ John Burton presents this theory in his book: ‘Deviance, Terrorism and
War: The Process of Solving Unsolved Social and Political Problems’
(1979)
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➢ Conflict is inevitable when human fundamental needs for identity, security,

recognition are denied.
➢ To resolve such conflicts, restricting of social systems require that can
accommodate needs of all individuals and groups
4. Conflict Transformation
➢ John Paul Lederach proposed the idea of conflict transformation.
➢ Lederach uses the term conflict transformation to refer to peace building.
➢ For building peace, destructive or negative communication patterns need to
be transformed or replaced by constructive or positive interaction patterns.
5. Conflict Transmutation
➢ It does not only focus on conflict transformation but also address the source
of conflict behaviour.
6. Hourglass Model
➢ It visualizes possible stages of an ongoing conflict and ongoing conflict
resolution and link them together
➢ Ramsbotham and Woodhouse developed hourglass model.

STRATEGIES OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION

Conventional
➢ Threats of armed force (deterrence, coercive diplomacy, defensive alliances
such as NATO)
➢ Economic sanctions
➢ Tangible nonmilitary threats and punishments, such as the withdrawal of
foreign aid
➢ Direct military force to establish demilitarized zones.
Emerging Strategies
➢ Using military for peace keeping missions
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➢ NGOs and MNCs can sometimes threaten states’ interests, threaten to leave
country if human rights are violate
➢ Conflict transformation: finding common ground of interests
➢ Structural prevention: focus on culturally divide states, performs dialogue
between groups or communities
➢ Normative changes: developing norms that define responsibilities for states
to prevent violent conflict

IMPORTANT WORKS ON CONFLICT RESOLUTION

➢ Interactive Conflict Resolution (1997): Ronald J. Fisher

(Ronal J. Fisher presents social and psychological approach to resolving
violent ethno political conflict).
➢ Understanding Conflict Resolution (2002): Peter Wallenstein
(He surveys the major theoretical perspectives on conflict and violence and
provides examples of ways in which violence is being handled.
➢ The Strategy of Conflict (1960): Thomas C. Schelling
(pioneered the study of bargaining and strategic behavior in what he refers to
a conflict behavior).
➢ Conflict Resolution in Asia; Mediation and other cultural models (2020):
Stephanie P. Stobbe, Paul Redekop, Nadja Alexander and Dale Bagshaw (It
examines how traditional, indigenous, and culturally based conflict
resolution processes interact with formal legal systems.)
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19
CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION

INTRODUCTION

➢ Conflict transformation is one of the most influential Peace building

theories.
➢ It focuses on the transformation of deep-rooted armed conflicts into peaceful
ones.
➢ It suggests replacing the term “conflict resolution” with the term “conflict
transformation”.
➢ John Paul Lederach is the main thinker of this theory.
➢ His work ‘Building peace: sustainable reconciliation in divided societies’
(1997).

HOW THIS THEORY VIEWS A CONFLICT?

➢ Conflict Transformation is based on two verifiable realities:

a) Conflict is normal in human relationship.
b) Conflict is motor of change.
➢ Conflict creates life: It’s a motor of change and thus, it keeps relationship
and structures alive and responsive to human needs.
➢ Conflict is an opportunity: conflict is providing opportunities to grow and
to increase understanding of ourselves, of others, of our social structures.
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CONCEPT OF CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION BY LEDERACH

➢ Lederach analyzed conflict transformation as a person on a journey,

comprised of a head, heart, hands and legs:
➢ Head: The head refers to the conceptual view of conflict—how we think
about and therefore prepare to approach conflict.
➢ Heart: In conflict, transformation relationships are central. Like the heart in
the body, conflicts flow from and return to relationships.
➢ Hands: We refer to our hands as that part of the body capable of building
things and affect the shape that things take.
➢ Legs: Legs and feet represent the place where we touch the ground; Conflict
transformation will be only utopian if it is unable to be responsive to real-life
challenges, needs, and realities.

THREE LENSES OF CONFLICT TRANSFORMATION

1. Immediate situation: What are the immediate problems that need to be

solved?
2. Deeper patterns of relationships: including the context in which the
immediate problem finds expression.
3. Conceptual framework: holds these perspectives together, that permits us
to connect the presenting problems with the deeper relational patterns.
➢ Such a framework can address both the immediate problems and the broader
relational and structural patterns.
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LEDERACH PYRAMID FOR PEACEBUILDING

➢ Lederach divides the society into three levels which can approached
through different strategies: -
1. Top Leadership:
➢ comprises of Military and Politician with high visibility.
➢ It focus on high level negotiations, emphasis on cease fire, led by highly
visible single mediator.
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2. Mid-Level Leadership:
➢ comprise of ethnic leaders, religious leaders, Academics, Intellectuals
➢ It can be reached through more resolution-oriented approaches, such as
problem-solving workshops or peace-commissions, and with the help of
partial insiders.
3. Grassroot Level:
➢ It includes Local leaders, leaders of Indigenous NGO’s, Community
developer, Local health officials, Refugee camp leaders.
➢ People can be approached with local peace commissions, local training,
trauma healing.

IMPORTANT WORKS

1. John Paul Lederach `

- Preparing for peace: conflict Transformation Across culture (1995)
- Building peace: sustainable reconciliation in divided societies (1997).
- The journey Towards Reconciliation (1999)
-The Poetic Unfolding Of Human Spirit(2010)
-The Moral Imagination(2003)
- The Little book Of Conflict Transformation(2003)
2. Hugh Miall -Emergent Conflict and Peaceful Change(2007)
3. Robert A. Baruch Bush and Joseph Folger - The Promise of Mediation(2004)
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20
UNITED NATIONS

INTRODUCTION

➢ The UN was founded on 24 Oct, 1945.

➢ Currently it has 193 members, South Sudan was last member to join in
2011.
➢ UN succeeded the League of Nations which was estb in 1919 under the
Treaty of Versailles
➢ The name ‘United Nations’ was coined by US President Franklin D.
Roosevelt.
➢ UN was founded in UN Conference on International Organisation held in
San Francisco (USA).
➢ It was attended by 50 countries and they signed UN Charter.

FOUR PURPOSES OF UN

According to the Charter, the UN had four purposes:

1. to maintain international peace and security;
2. to develop friendly relations among nations;
3. to cooperate in solving international problems and in promoting respect for
human rights;
4. and to be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations.
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MAIN ORGANS

The 6 main organs of the UN are

1. the General Assembly,
2. the Security Council,
3. the Economic and Social Council,
4. the Trusteeship Council,
5. the International Court of Justice,
6. and the UN Secretariat.
All the 6 were established in 1945 when the UN was founded.

GENERAL ASSEMBLY

➢ All 193 UN member states are represented in the Gen Assembly

➢ It is known as ‘Parliament of Nations’.
➢ It held annual session in September
➢ Each member state has one vote.
➢ A two-thirds majority in the General Assembly is required for decisions
on key issues such as:
1. international peace and security,
2. the admission of new members,
3. and the UN budget.
➢ A simple majority is required for other matters.
➢ Gen Assembly’s decisions have only recommendations status, and not
binding status.
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➢ Exception: General Assembly's Fifth Committee, which makes decisions on

the budget that are binding on members.
➢ President of GA is elected each year by assembly to serve one year term of
office
➢ 6 Main Committees: Draft resolutions can be prepared for the General
Assembly by its six main committees:
(1) First Committee (Disarmament and International Security),
(2) Second Committee (Economic and Financial),
(3) Third Committee (Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural),
(4) Fourth Committee (Special Political and Decolonization),
(5) Fifth Committee (Administrative and Budgetary),
(6) Sixth Committee (Legal).

SECURITY COUNCIL

➢ It has main responsibility, under the UN Charter, for the maintenance of

international peace and security
➢ It includes five permanent members, namely the USA, Britain, France,
Russia and China, as well as ten non-permanent members.
➢ Each permanent member of UN has veto power i.e. they can reject any
resolution
➢ In case of threat, it first explores peaceful settlement of disputes, under
Chapter VI
➢ Under Chapter VII, it can impose economic sanctions or can use military
action
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THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL

➢ Under the authority of Gen Assembly, it covers economic and social work
of UN.
➢ It has 54 members, elected by Gen Assembly for overlapping three year
terms
➢ It coordinated the work of the 14 specialized agencies, ten functional
commissions and five regional commission.
➢ However, ECOSOC was not given the necessary management powers.
➢ It can only issue recommendations and receive reports from the Specialized
Agencies

TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL

➢ It was established in 1945 by the UN Charter, under Chapter XIII.

➢ It was created to provide international supervision for eleven Trust
Territories administered by seven member states
➢ By 1994, all the Trust Territories had attained self-government or
independence
➢ Trusteeship Council suspended operation on 1 November 1994.
➢ Its work completed; the Trusteeship Council now consists of the five
permanent members of the Security Council.

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICS (ICJ)

➢ The International Court of Justice is the main judicial organ of the UN.
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➢ Consisting of fifteen judges elected jointly by the General Assembly and the
Security Council, for 9-year terms
➢ the Court decides disputes between countries.
➢ Participation by states in a proceeding is voluntary, but if a state agrees to
participate, it is obligated to comply with the Court's decision.

THE SECRETARIAT

➢ The Secretariat comprises of Secretary General and Thousands of staff

around the world.
➢ The Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly, on the
recommendation of the Security Council, for a five year, renewable term
➢ Secretariat remains primarily bureaucratic, and it lacks the political power
➢ But there is one exception, under Art 99 of the charter, He/She can bring
to the attention of Security Council in case of breakdown of
international peace.
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TIMELINE OF UN SECRETARY GENERALS

TIMELINE OF UNITED NATIONS

➢ 1944 Dumbarton Oaks conference (the USA, the Soviet Union, the UK and
China) sets down the general aims and structure of the future UN.
➢ 1945 UN Charter approved in San Francisco by 50 states (Poland was not
represented but signed the Charter later to become one of UN’s 51 original
members).
➢ 1946 Trygve Lie (Norway) appointed Secretary General.
➢ 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted.
➢ 1950 Security Council approves military action in Korea.
➢ 1950 UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) established.
➢ 1953 Dag Hammarskjöld (Sweden) appointed Secretary-General
➢ 1956 First UN peacekeeping force sent to the Suez Canal.
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➢ 1960 UN operation in the Congo established to oversee the transition from

Belgian rule to independence.
➢ 1961 U Thant (Burma) appointed SecretaryGeneral.
➢ 1964 UN peacekeepers sent to Cyprus.
➢ 1965 UN Development Programme (UNDP) founded.
➢ 1968 General Assembly approves the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of
Nuclear Weapons (NPT).
➢ 1971 People’s Republic of China replaces the Republic of China (Taiwan) at
the UN Security Council
➢ 1972 First UN environment conference is held in Stockholm, leading to the
establishment of the UN Environment Programme (UNEP).
➢ 1972 First UN conference on women in Mexico City, inaugurates
International Women’s Year.
➢ 1972 Kurt Waldheim (Austria) appointed Secretary-General
➢ 1982 Javier Pérez de Cuéllar (Peru) appointedSecretary-General
➢ 1990 UNICEF convenes the World Summit for Children.
➢ 1992 Boutros Boutros-Ghali (Egypt) appointed Secretary-General
➢ 1992 The ‘Earth Summit’ in Rio approves a comprehensive plan to promote
sustainable development.
➢ 1992 Security Council issues ‘An Agenda for Peace’, highlighting new
approaches to peacemaking, peacekeeping and peacebuilding.
➢ 1997 Kofi Annan (Ghana) appointed Secretary General
➢ 2000 General Assembly adopts the Millennium Development Goals.
➢ 2002 International Criminal Court (ICC) established.
➢ 2005 UN Peacekeeping Commission is established.
➢ 2007 Ban Ki-moon (South Korea) appointed Secretary-General.
➢ 2017 Antonio Guterres (Portugal) appointed Secretary-General.
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21
PEACE AND DEVELOPEMENT

UN: PEACE & SECURITY

➢ The principal aim of the UN is ‘to maintain international peace and

security’ (Art 1),
➢ with responsibility for this being vested in the Security Council.
➢ Has UN prevented WW3? Or it was just a ‘balance of terror’ that helped?
➢ The capacity of UN to maintain peace is severely limited, because it is
depended on member states, particularly P5 nations.
➢ While the UN Charter provided for a standing army, but East-West cold war
rivalry made it impossible to implement.
➢ For instance, from 1945-1990: 193 Veto was invoked.

PEACEKEEPING

➢ The term ‘peacekeeping’ is not found in the UN Charter.

➢ Nevertheless, over the years peacekeeping has become a significant way for
UN to maintain peace and security.
➢ Peacekeeping falls between resolving dispute through negotiation (CH 6)
and to take forceful action (CH 7).
➢ peacekeeping was described by the second UN Secretary-General, Dag
Hammarskjöld, as belonging to ‘Chapter Six and a Half’.
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➢ Between 1948 and 2009, the UN carried out 63 peacekeeping operations.

CLASSICAL PEACEKEEPING

➢ Classical peacekeeping involves the establishment of a UN force,

➢ under UN command, to be placed between the parties to a dispute after a
ceasefire.
➢ Such a force only uses its weapons in self-defence,
➢ It is established with the consent of the host state, and does not include
forces from the major powers.
➢ This mechanism was first used in 1956, when a UN force was sent to
Egypt, during Suez Canal Crisis

PEACE ENFORCEMENT

➢ Peace enforcement emerged after the end of the cold war.

➢ These missions are more likely to use force to achieve humanitarian ends.
➢ Such forces have been used when order has collapsed within states, and
therefore address civil wars as well as international conflict.
➢ Sometimes UN peacekeepers found it increasingly difficult to maintain a
neutral position.
➢ Example: Intervention in Somalia (early 1990s) and in Yugoslavia (mid
1990s).
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AGENDA FOR PEACE

➢ After the end of cold war (1990s), the UN agenda for peace and security
expanded quickly.
➢ UN Secretary-General at the time, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, issued a UN
seminal report, An Agenda for Peace (1992).
➢ The report described interconnected roles for the UN to maintain peace and
security in the post-cold war context.
➢ In this report many terms were defined in context UN aim for peace and
security:
Preventive diplomacy:
➢ involving confidence-building measures, fact-finding, and
➢ preventive deployment of UN authorized forces.
Peacemaking:
➢ designed to bring hostile parties to agreement, essentially through peaceful
means.
Peacekeeping:
➢ the deployment of a UN presence in the field with the consent of all parties
(this refers to classical peacekeeping).
Peace enforcement:
➢ however, when all peaceful means have failed, peace enforcement,
authorized under Chapter VII of the Charter, may be necessary.
➢ Peace enforcement may occur without the consent of the parties
Post-conflict peacebuilding:
➢ to develop the social, political, and economic infrastructure to prevent
further violence and to consolidate peace.
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UN PEACEBUILDING COMMISSION

➢ It was established in Dec, 2005.

➢ It is an intergovernmental advisor subsidiary body of the General Assembly
and the Security Council.
➢ It was first proposed by Sec Gen’s High level Panel on Threats, Challenges
and change
➢ And Again, in the Secretary-General's Report, In Larger Freedom in March
2005
➢ It is made up of 31 member states.
➢ The first countries on the agenda of the Peacebuilding Commission were
Burundi, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, and the Central
African Republic.

UN & ECONOMIC-SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

➢ UN realized that apart from traditional threats between states,

➢ there are also new threats relating to economic and social conditions
within states
➢ Eco and social problems are so well connected, that they in one part of the
world may effect other areas.
➢ The preamble to the UN Charter talks of promoting 'social progress and
better standards of life in larger freedom', and
➢ the need to 'employ international machinery for the promotion of the
economic and social advancement of all peoples'
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INSTITUTIONS AND RESOURCES

➢ The number of institutions and resources in the UN system that address

economic and social issues has significantly increased.
➢ Several global conferences were convened to discuss pressing problems:
1. Environmental issues at a conference in Rio de Janeiro (1992),
2. Human rights at a conference in Vienna (1993),
3. Population questions at a conference in Cairo (1994), and
4. women’s issues at a conference in Beijing (1995).

UNITED NATION DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (UNDP)

➢ Apart from ECOSOC, the principal vehicle responsible for global

development policy is the UN Development Programme (UNDP), created
in 1965.
➢ It has presence in more than 166 countries.
➢ It annually publishes Human Development Index (HDI).
➢ HDI focuses mainly on three indexes: life expectancy, education and per
capita income
➢ In 1994, Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali issued An Agenda for
Development, to establish a coordinated programme for sustainable
development.
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MILLENNIUM DEVLOPMENT GOAL

➢ In 2000, the UN convened a Millennium Summit, and set a series of goal

known as MDG.
➢ These goals , to be achieved by 2015.
✓ include reducing by half the number of people living on less than a
dollar a day,
✓ achieving universal primary education, and
✓ reversing the spread of HIV/AIDS and malaria
➢ The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) succeeded the MDGs in
2016.
➢ There are total 17 SDGs.
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22
HUMANITARIAN INTERVENTION

INTRODUCTION

➢ An understanding emerged that issue of peace and security also includes

human security and justice
➢ UN was expected to take a stronger role in protecting individuals within
states.
➢ What was the difficulty? UN had to go against doctrine of non-intervention.
What is intervention?
➢ It is defined as deliberate incursion into a state without its consent in order to
change the policies and goals of its government in the favour of intervening
agency.

HISTORY OF INTERVENTION

➢ At the founding of UN, sovereignty of states was respected.

➢ It also meant that, governments of states had exclusive jurisdiction within
their own frontiers,
➢ a principle enshrined in Article 2(7) of the United Nations Charter
➢ In earlier periods, states used to intervene.
➢ USA used to intervene in internal affairs of other states in their hemisphere
until 1933.
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➢ Soviet Union, in its Brezhnev doctrine (1970s) held that it had the right to
intervene in the member states

LICENCE TO INTERVENE

➢ By the 1990s, some people believed that there should be return to the period
where intervention was justified
➢ They insisted on a key role for the United Nations in granting a licence to
intervene.
➢ It was pointed out that the UN Charter did not assert merely the rights of
states,
➢ but also, the rights of peoples: statehood could be interpreted as conditional
on respect for such rights.
➢ A 1991 Gen Assembly resolution implied some relaxation to this
principle
➢ It decided to provide humanitarian assistance with the consent of affected
state
➢ In the Outcome Document of the 2005 World Summit, the General
Assembly said that:
➢ If national authorities are 'manifestly filing to protect their populations from
genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity’,
➢ if peaceful means are inadequate, the international community could take
collective action through the UN Security Council according to Chapter VII
of the Charter
➢ This document echoes recommendations from Responsibility to Protect,
the 2001 final report of the International Commission on Intervention and
State Sovereignty
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CASES OF INTERVENTIONS

➢ Kosovo was the first occasion where UN used international forces to

intervene on humanitarian grounds.
➢ NATO launched air campaign in March 1999 in Kosovo against
Yugoslavia to stop ethnic cleansing, without security council’s permission.
➢ But NATO stated that they were acting in accordance with principles of UN
by stopping crime against humanity
➢ The intervention in Libya in 2011 was another case.
➢ A Security Council resolution approved a no-fly zone over Libya and called
for 'all necessary measures’ to protect civilians
➢ The Iraq War in 2003, where legality of intervention is contested.
➢ US failed to obtain Security Council mandate.
➢ The US action against Afghanistan in 2001, is an exceptional case. UN
recognized state right to attack in defence (against 9/11 events )
➢ The 1991, intervention in Iraq at the end of Gulf War did not breach Iraqi
Sovereignty
➢ Because Security Council sanctioning intervention was depended on
Saddam Hussain’s consent
➢ The 1992 Security Council resolution that first sanctioned UN involvement
in Somalia was based on a request by Somalia.
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23
INTERNATIONAL LAW

INTRODUCTION

➢ Generally, it is assume that international law matters little in

international politics.
➢ What matters is the interest of state.
➢ Law is just a servant of the powerful.
➢ But if International law doesn’t matter, why do states and other actors
devote so much time to negotiating on new laws.
➢ Why does so much international debate revolve around the legality of state
behaviour, the applicability of legal rules?

HISTORY OF INTERNATIONAL LAW

➢ Great thinkers such as Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) and Emerich de Vattel

(1714-67) are often cast as the ‘fathers' of international law.
➢ And the Treaties of Augsburg (1555), Westphalia (1648), and Utrecht
(1713) are seen as landmarks in the development of international public
law.
➢ Earlier, during monarchies, law was considered as command of God. Known
as natural law
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➢ But later in 19th century, law became ‘positive law’ i.e. product of
negotiation, that has no moral content.

LANDMARK LEGAL TREATIES

The Peace of Augsburg, 1555

➢ This consisted of a series of treaties that, amongst other things,
➢ reaffirmed the independence of German principalities from the Holy Roman
Empire,
➢ and allowed them to choose their own religion.
The Peace of Westphalia, 1648
➢ consisting of the Treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, this initiated a new
political order in central Europe
➢ based on the principle of state sovereignty
➢ and the right of monarchs to maintain standing armies, build fortifications
and levy taxes
The Treaties of Utrecht, 1713
➢ These established the Peace of Utrecht,
➢ which consolidated the principle of sovereignty
➢ by linking sovereign authority to a fixed territorial boundary
➢ It is also known for promoting balance of power
The Treaty of Paris, 1814
➢ It ended the Napoleonic wars and paved the way for congress of Vienna.
➢ Congress of Vienna defined the nature of post-Napoleonic war
➢ And ultimately led to the concert of Europe
The Peace Treaty of Versailles, 1919
➢ It ended First World War (1914-18)
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➢ It established league of nations

➢ Specified rights and obligations of the victorious and defeated powers.
The Charter of UN, 1945
➢ It created UN as the world only ‘supranational organisation’
➢ The charter defined the rights and obligations of party to the charter
➢ It is the key legal document limiting the use of force to instances of self-
defence and collective peace enforcement by UNSC.

APPROACHES TO INTERNATIONAL LAW

Realism
➢ Realists are sceptics about International law.
➢ Because there is no central authority to legislate or to enforce law.
➢ Morgenthau claimed that at best it is a ‘primitive law’ akin to aboriginal
societies
➢ In absence of any enforcement mechanisms, legal obligations is thus
nonsensical for realists.
Neo-Liberal Institutionalism
➢ They treat states as rational egoists.
➢ Law is seen as a regulatory institution.
➢ Law is not something that condition states’ identities and interests.
➢ law is seen as an intervening variable between the goals of states and
political outcomes
The new liberalism
➢ Its three core assumption is that:
➢ individual are main actors of IR
➢ Interest of states are defined by dominant domestic pressure groups
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➢ configuration of interdependent state preferences determines state behavior

➢ Anne-Marie Slaughter has proposed a three-tiered conception of
international law.
➢ 1. The voluntary law of individuals and groups in transnational society; 2.
the law of transnational governmental institutions; and 3. the law of inter-
state relations
Critical theory
➢ Critical legal studies highlights indeterminate nature of Int law i.e. legal
language has multiple and competing meaning.
➢ Post-colonialists argue that international law developed out of Christian and
Eurocentric thinking.

SUPRANATIONAL LAW

➢ So far international law was designed to facilitate integrational order

➢ States were the principle actors and law was concerned with regulations of
inter-state relations
➢ Global governance is transforming international law into supernational
law
➢ individuals, groups, and organizations are increasingly becoming recognized
subjects of international law.
➢ Non-state actors are becoming important in developing international legal
norms
➢ Earlier, Int law was limited to order, now it includes issue of human rights
and justice
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LEGAL TERMS

Pacta sunt servanda:

➢ (Latin) The principle that treaties are binding on the parties to them and must
be executed in good faith

Rebus sic stantibus:

➢ The doctrine that states can terminate their obligations under a treaty if a
fundamental change of circumstances has occurred.

jus ad bellum:

➢ the law governing when states may use force or wage war,

jus in bello:

➢ the law governing the conduct of war once launched.

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24
INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT

INTRODUCTION

➢ ICC is the world’s first permanent international criminal court.

➢ It was established under Rome Statute on 17 July, 1998, which was adopted
by 120 states.
➢ Rome Statue came into force on 1 July, 2002.
➢ ICC has jurisdiction over serious crimes against humanity: Genocide,
Crimes against humanity, War crimes, and the crime of aggression
committed after 1 July 2002.

ICC MEMBERS STATE

➢ Important countries such as USA, China, India, Russia are not the
members of ICC.
➢ Recently Malaysia has ratified the Rome Statute and became the 124th
State party to the ICC.

ICC ORGANISATION STRUCTURE

➢ 18 judges of the ICC are elected for 9 years by the member countries.
➢ They are not generally eligible for re-election.
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Four Organs of ICC

1. Presidency: Conducts external relations with states, coordinates judicial
matters such as assigning judges.
2. Judicial Divisions: 18 judges in 3 divisions- Pre-Trial, Trial and Appeals –
conduct judicial proceedings.
3. Office of the Prosecutor: conducts preliminary examinations,
investigations, and prosecutions.
4. Registry: conducts non-judicial activities, such as security, interpretation,
outreach, support to Defence and victims' lawyers etc.

ICC FACTS AND FIGURES

➢ Today the ICC has over 900 staff members from approximately 100 States.
➢ It has 6 official languages: English, French, Arabic, Chinese, Russian and
Spanish.
➢ ICC has 6 field offices: Kinshasa and Bunia (Democratic Republic of the
Congo, "DRC"); Kampala (Uganda); Bangui (Central African Republic,
"CAR"); Nairobi (Kenya), Abidjan (Côte d'Ivoire).
➢ It has 2 working languages: English and French.
➢ ICC Headquarters at The Hague, the Netherlands.
➢ There have thus far been 27 cases before the Court, with some cases
having more than one suspect.
➢ 16 people have been detained in the ICC detention centre.
➢ The judges have issued 8 convictions and 3 acquittals.
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25
GLOBALIZATION

INTRODUCTION

➢ Globalization is mostly simply defined as a process of increasing

interconnectedness between Societies
➢ such that events in one part of the world increasingly have effects on peoples
and societies far away.
➢ For ex: Recession in UK can affect jobs of Bangkok’s people.

PATTERNS OF GLOBALIZATION

Economic
➢ In economic sphere, patterns of worldwide trade, finances and production
creating single global market.
➢ Castells call it ‘global informational capitalism’
➢ MNC organize their production and decide which countries get credit and on
what terms
Military
➢ Global arms trade, the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, the
growth of transnational terrorism, the growing significance of transnational
military corporations.
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Legal
➢ the expansion of transnational and international law from trade to human
rights,
➢ alongside the creation of new world legal institutions such as the
International Criminal Court, is indicative of global legal order
Culture
➢ We see complex mix of homogenization.
➢ There is a global diffusion of popular culture, global media corporations,
communications networks etc.
➢ Simultaneously, we see reassertion of nationalism, ethnicity and difference.

THEORIES AND GLOBALIZATION

Realism
➢ Globalization does not affect territorial division of world into nation-
states.
➢ State retains sovereignty and struggle for power continues even after
globalization.
➢ Globalization does not undermine the importance of threat of the use of
force and balance of power.
➢ Globalization may affect our social, economic and cultural lives, but it does
not change the reality of international political system.
Liberalism
➢ States are no longer central actors.
➢ There are many non-state actors which play important role globally.
➢ States are not longer sealed units, world looks like cobweb of relations.
➢ Increasing interconnectedness has changed world political relations.
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➢ Liberals are particularly interested in the revolution in technology and

communications represented by globalization.
Marxism
➢ Globalization is a bit sham.
➢ There is nothing new in it, it is just a latest development of international
capitalism.
➢ It does not render all our existing theories.
➢ Rather than making world more equal, globalization has further deepened
the existing divides between the core, the semi-periphery and the periphery.
Constructivism
➢ They argue that globalization is not an external force acting on states.
➢ Leaders run away from responsibility by blaming ‘the way world is’.
➢ We can mould globalization in variety of ways,
➢ it offers us very real chances to create cross-national social movements
➢ Aided by modern technological forms of communication such as the Internet
Poststructuralism/ Postmodernism
➢ Globalization does not exist there.
➢ It is a discourse.
➢ They reject grand claims made by realists, liberals and Marxists about
globalization.
➢ They claims, to understand this so called ‘globalization’, we have to
understand in the context of a specific discourse.
➢ We will need to uncover the workings of power behind the discourse of
‘globalization’
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GLOBALIZATION: MYTH OR REALITY?

Globalization is a reality:

➢ Due to pace of economic globalization, state can’t control their economies.

➢ Communication has been revolutionized, events in one location can be

immediately observed on other side.

➢ The world is becoming more homogeneous. Differences between peoples are

diminishing.

➢ Time and space seem to be collapsing.

➢ A cosmopolitan culture is developing. People are beginning to 'think

globally and act locally

Globalization is a reality:

➢ Due to pace of economic globalization, state can’t control their economies.

➢ Communication has been revolutionized, events in one location can be

immediately observed on other side.

➢ The world is becoming more homogeneous. Differences between peoples are

diminishing.

➢ Time and space seem to be collapsing.

➢ A cosmopolitan culture is developing. People are beginning to 'think

globally and act locally
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26
GLOBAL GOVERNANCE AND
BRETTON WOODS SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

➢ In simple terms, Global governance is the management of global policies

in the absence of a world government.
➢ States in a global governance system cooperate voluntarily, because it is in
their interest.
➢ There is an understanding that there are number of issues which can’t be
addressed by individual states acting alone.
➢ Global governance becomes alternative to world govt, international
anarchy and global hegemony

KEY FEATURES OF GLOBAL GOVERNANCE

Polycentrism
➢ Global governance is multiple rather than singular.
➢ It has different institutional frameworks and decision-making mechanisms.

Intergovernmentalism
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➢ States and national governments retain considerable influence within the

global governance system
➢ It reflects the disposition of international org towards consensual decision
making and their weak powers of enforcement.
Mixed Actor Involvement
➢ In addition to states and international organizations,
➢ global governance embraces NGOs, TNCs and other institutions of global
civil society
Multilevel process
➢ It operates through interaction between groups and institutions at various
levels.
➢ Such as municipal, provincial, national, regional and global level.
➢ With no single enjoying dominance over others

GLOBAL GOVERNANCE: MYTH OR REALITY

➢ Liberals argue that there is irresistible trend towards global governance.

➢ The growth of international organizations provides evidence of states
cooperation and collective action.
➢ Interconnectedness has been growing to tackle global terrorism or
pandemic like issues.
➢ However, global governance is not an established system, it’s still growing.
➢ Also it is better in some part of world (Ex: EU) than the other
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ALTERNATIVE TO GLOBAL GOVERNANCE

EVOLUTION OF BRETTON WOODS SYSTEM

➢ After the world economic depression of 1929 and instable economy during
world wars,
➢ Since 1945, the need of system of global economic governance was
realized.
➢ Bretton Woods agreement was the realization of that need.
➢ It was signed so that world can emerge from policies of protectionism,
unemployment and economic insecurity.
➢ Bretton woods aimed towards establishing a framework of norms, rules so
that states could cooperate over economic matters

MAKING OF THE BRETTON WOODS SYSTEM

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➢ Bretton Woods conference formally knowns as United Nations Monetary

and Financial Conference
➢ was held in 1944 at New Hampshire, Bretton Woods, USA. The conference
was attended by 44 states.
➢ This conference established three bodies, collectively known as Bretton
woods system:
1. International Monetary Fund (IMF), 1947
2. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World bank),
June 1946.
3. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), Jan 1948

WORKING OF THE BRETTON WOODS SYSTEM

➢ This system established new monetary order through IMF.

➢ IMF aim was to maintain stable exchange rates.
➢ It was achieved by fixing all currencies to the value of US dollar
➢ With US dollar being convertible to gold at a rate of $35 per ounce
➢ World Bank was to provided loans for countries in need of reconstruction
and development.
➢ While GATT sought to advance free trade, reducing tariff levels.

USA AGENDA IN THE BRETTON WOODS SYSTEM

➢ USA had a crucial role in promoting this system.

➢ The conference was initiated by USA, took place on US soil and US was
leading force in the negotiations.
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➢ USA industrial output, full employment was increased, US needed to

ensure stable domestic growth in the postwar period.
➢ This required the construction of an open and stable international economic
system.
➢ Also, USA wanted to contain USSR. Thus, it helped Europe in recovery
through this system.

FATE OF THE BRETTON WOODS SYSTEM

➢ For at least two decades the Bretton Woods system was a success.
➢ During the ‘golden age’ of 1950s and 1960s, OECD countries witnessed
growth rate of four to five percent.
➢ But it was not a growth for all, USA contained, in 1950, 60% of all the
capitalist stock across the industrialized world.
➢ The Bretton Woods system has therefore been seen as an expression of
US hegemony.
➢ However, during period of 1970s, US economy faced some difficulties.
➢ In 1971, US abandoned the system of fixed change rate. But IMF and
World Bank continued.

INTERNATIONAL MONETRAY FUND (IMF)

➢ IMF was established in July 1944 at the United Nation Bretton Woods
Conference in New Hampshire, USA.

➢ IMF headquarter is in Washington DC. 190 countries are member of

IMF.
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➢ IMF’s primary aims are: promote international monetary cooperation,

facilitate expansion and balanced growth of international trade, promote
exchange stability, avail resources to member facing balance of payment
crisis.

IMF QUOTAS

➢ IMF is a quota-based institution. Quotas decide the financial resources a

member is obliged to contribute to IMF.

➢ Quota decide voting power in IMF decisions. It also determines member

access to finance from IMF.

➢ Members quota reflects its position in the world economy.

➢ How IMF is financed? Member quotas are the primary sources of IMF
financial resources. A member’s quota reflects its size and position in the
world economy. Quotas are reviewed at regular intervals.

Boards of Governors

➢ The Board of Governors is the highest decision-making body of IMF

consisting one governor and one alternate governor for each member
country.

➢ The governor is appointed by member country, usually is finance minister or

central bank’s governor.

➢ Board meets once a year at the IMF- World Bank annual meeting.

➢ All powers of IMF are vested in the Board of Governors.

➢ The allocation of voting rights in the board depends on the size of countries
economy.
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Special Drawing Rights

➢ SDR is a international reserve asset issued by IMF.

➢ The SDR was created by IMF in 1969 to supplement official reserves of its
member countries.

➢ The SDR is not a currency.

➢ The value of SDR is based on basket of five currencies: US Dollar, Euro,

Chinese Renminbi, Japanese Yen, British Pound Sterling.

➢ Surveillance: In order to maintain stability and prevent international

monetary crisis, IMF monitors policies of member countries and economic,
financial developments at regional and global level through a formal process
called surveillance.

➢ Financial Assistance: IMF provides loans to member countries that are

experiencing balance of payment crisis.

➢ IMF comes out with these reports: World Economic Outlook, Global
Financial Stability Report, Fiscal Monitor.

WORLD BANK

➢ The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development was founded in

1944. Later called as World Bank.

➢ World Bank’s headquarter is in Washington DC, USA.

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World Bank Group

➢ The World Bank Group comprises of five institutions; International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development, International Finance Corporation,
International Development Association, International Center for Settlement
of Investment Disputes, Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency.

World Bank

➢ The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the

International Development Association together make up the World Bank.

➢ International Bank for Reconstruction and Development: IBRD also

known as world bank was established in 1944 to help rebuild countries
devastated by world war 2.

➢ Later its focus shifted to development projects in poor countries.

➢ International Finance Corporation: IFC was founded in 1956, it supports

private sector investment in developing countries by mobilizing capital,
providing loans etc.

➢ International Development Association: IDA was launched in 1960, it

provides zero to low interest loans called credits, soft loans, grants for
development work in developing countries.

➢ International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes: ICSID was

established in 1966 for settlement of investment disputes by conciliation,
arbitration.

➢ Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency: MIGA is the newest member

of world bank group established in 1988. It provides investment insurance
against non-commercial risk such as terrorism, war in developing countries.
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Membership

➢ 189 countries are member of world bank.

➢ The members are represented by a Board of Governors who are the ultimate
policymakers.

➢ India is a member of IBRD, IDA, IFC, MIGA, it is not a member of ICSID.

➢ As per IBRD norms, to become a member of the bank a country must first
join the International Monetary Fund. Membership in IDA, IFC, MIGA are
conditional on membership in IBRD.

BOARD OF GOVERNORS

➢ Board of Governors: Member countries are represented by a Board of

Governors who are ultimate policymakers at the world bank.

➢ The board consist of one governor and one alternate governor appointed by
member states. This office is generally held by country’s finance minister,
central bank’s governor.

➢ The board is bank’s senior decision-making body and all powers of the bank
are vested in the board of governors.

➢ Board is empowered to: Admit and suspend members, increase or decrease

authorized capital stock, amend the articles of agreements, permanently
suspend bank’s operation.

➢ Voting Power: Every organization has its voting structure, broadly voting
power is equal to member’s subscription to world bank’s capital stock.
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27
NORTH-SOUTH DIALOGUE

INTRODUCTION

➢ Gaps in socio-economic, political and military developments between

North-South has initiated dialogues.
➢ Persistent North-South inequality remain responsible for debates within
international scholarship.
➢ Also there is dispute in ability of North-South Dialogue to actually achieve a
meaningful reduction in this imbalance.
➢ This dialogue took place in 1970s, on the G8, UN, Non-alignment’s
platforms

NORTH-SOUTH DIVIDE: BRANDT REPORTS

➢ The idea of ‘North-South’ divide was popularized through Willy Brandt

reports:
1. North-South: A Programme for Survival (1980)
2. Common Crisis: North-South Cooperation for World Recovery
(1983).
➢ He proposed a visual line to depict north-south divide.
➢ This line is known as Brandt Line
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Map Showing Brandt Line

EVOLUTION OF NORTH-SOUTH TERM

➢ In a 1952 article entitled ‘Three Worlds, One Planet’, Alfred Sauvy

coined the term ‘Third world’.
➢ First world- developed countries (US), second world- developing (USSR)
and Third World- underdeveloped countries (African nations).
➢ In 1955, Bandung Conference of non-alignment, Third world countries
raised the issue of ‘core’ and ‘periphery’.
➢ This expression was later developed into North and South lexicon.
➢ In 1973, the pursuit of a New International Economic Order
➢ which was to be negotiated between the North and South
➢ And it was initiated at the Non-Aligned Summit held in Algiers.
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UNDERSTANDING NORTH-SOUTH TERM

➢ North means industrialized developed countries, high wage, high

investment and technologically advance.
➢ South means underdeveloped countries, with rampant poverty, low wage,
low investment and technologically backward.
➢ The terms are essentially conceptual and theoretical rather than
geographical.
➢ Brandt reports suggest that the prosperity of the North is dependent on the
development of the South.

THEORIES AND NORTH-SOUTH DIVIDE

Marxism:
➢ North-South inequality is an outcome of the structural imbalance in
international economic order.
➢ North is exploiting South.
➢ This exploitation can be ended after the fundamental transformation of the
existing capitalist order.
Liberalism
➢ There is North-South divide because of the inability of the south to raise its
status.
➢ This divide can be ended if South imitates North
Realism
➢ North-South dialogue often fails to address inequality among states
➢ because developed states of the North always stick to retaining and
consolidating their powers
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➢ as means to influencing the economy of the South so as to facilitate their

exploitation therein.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTED TO NORTH-SOUTH DIVIDE

Slave Trade
➢ Forceful transportation of people from third world to developed societies.
➢ The trade provided the North adequate manpower for their agricultural
production at the expense of the South.
Colonialism and Neo-colonialism
➢ It remains the main factor for the disparity between north and south.
➢ Many colonialism and neo-colonialism practices transfer capital wealth from
south to north.
Globalization
➢ Globalization generate linkages and interconnections all over the world.
➢ But, this has enabled the north to extend their exploitative grip to southern
economies.
Unfair Trade Terms and Practices
➢ Trade policies and practices existing within the global market are not
favourable to the states in the southern division.
➢ Removal of tariff and barriers, demanded by IMF, WTO has made south
vulnerable to international exploitation
Military Threat
➢ Military capacities of the Northern states have served as instruments for
coercing the South to behave the way North wants it to behave.
➢ This has made exploitation and influence of the economies in the South easy
and inequality a reality.
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28
WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION (WTO)

INTRODUCTION

➢ WTO is the only international organization dealing with the rules of trades
between nations.
➢ The WTO has 164 members (including European Union) and 23 observer
governments (like Iran, Iraq, Bhutan, Libya etc).
➢ The WTO’s global system lowers trade barriers through negotiation and
operates under the principle of non-discrimination.

HISTORY

➢ In Bretton Woods Conference (1944), three institution was decided to

establish: IMF, World Bank and ITO.
➢ IMF and World Bank was established in 1947. But ITO was not
established.
➢ In Havana in 1948, the UN Conference on Trade and Employment
concluded a draft charter for the ITO, known as the Havana Charter.
➢ 53 out of 56 countries ratified Havana Charter except USA.
➢ As a result, ITO was never come into existence
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GATT

➢ Meanwhile, an agreement as the GATT signed by 23 countries in Geneva

in 1947 came into force on Jan 1, 1948.
➢ Thus, General Agreement on Tariff and Trade (GATT) regulated
international trade until the WTO established in 1995.
➢ GATT was a temporary multilateral agreement on trade.
➢ It was not an organization but an agreement. Participating countries were not
called members but ‘Contracting Parties’
➢ It was limited to removal of tariff in the trade of Goods. Trade in
Agriculture and Textile was excluded from GATT

8 ROUNDS OF GATT
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FORMATION OF WTO

➢ WTO was born with the conclusion of Marrakesh Agreement in the

Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations in 1994.
➢ The WTO came into existence on 1 Jan 1995, with a membership of 128
countries.
Why WTO replaced GATT?
➢ Lacked institutional structure
➢ Trade in services and intellectual property rights were not covered in GATT
➢ Demand to include Agriculture and Textile within international trade
regime.
➢ Weak Dispute Settlement mechanism

GATT V/S WTO

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF WTO

Reciprocity:
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➢ Mutual Lowering of trade barriers.

➢ Thus, countries that lowered their tariffs could expect their partners to do the
same.

Most Favored Nation (MFN):

➢ The MFN principle holds that the tariff preference granted to one state must
be granted to all others.

➢ In other words, there could be no ‘favored nation’

National Treatment

➢ Treating foreign goods equally with domestic goods.

➢ No advantage to domestic goods

IMPORTANT AGREEMENTS OF WTO

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT, 1994)
➢ It is an international treaty binding upon all members.
➢ It is concerned with trade in goods
➢ It aims to liberalize trade by reducing tariff and non-tariff barriers.
Agreement on Agriculture (AOA)
➢ This agreement deals with giving market access, reducing export subsidies
and government subsidies on agricultural products.
Trade-Related Investment Measures (TRIMS)
➢ This agreement forbids the host country to discriminate against investments
from abroad vis-a-vis domestic investment
➢ agreement requires investment to be freely allowed by nations.
Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
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➢ Intellectual property rights seek to protect and provide legal recognition to

the creator of the intangible illegal use of his creation.
➢ It includes patents, copyrights, geographical indications, trademarks,
industrial circuits, designs and trade secrets.
General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS)
➢ This agreement provides general obligations regarding trade in services,
➢ such as most- favored-nation treatment and transparency.
Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM)
➢ It provides the procedures for the Trade Policy Review Mechanism
➢ To conduct periodical reviews of Members’ trade policies and practices
➢ conducted by the Trade Policy Review Body (TPRB)
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THE DOHA ROUND

➢ The Round was officially launched at the WTO’s Fourth Ministerial

Conference (MC4) in Doha, Qatar, in November 2001. Semi-official
name: Doha Development Agenda.

➢ There were disagreements between developed and developing

countries.

➢ The major bones of contention were agriculture, non-tariff trade

barriers, industrial tariffs, services, and trade remedies.

➢ In case of agriculture, More market access, eliminating export

subsidies, reducing distorting domestic support were demanded.

➢ It was suspended because Japan, US and EU refuse to reduce farm

subsidies.

➢ India supported Special Safeguard Mechanism (SSM) to protect its

farmers from the import surge.

MINISTERIAL CONFERENCES OF WTO

MC1- Singapore: 1996

➢ Ministers of finance, trade, foreign, and agriculture from more than 120
countries participated

➢ the following issues were in discussion:

• trade and investment

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• trade facilitation

• transparency in government procurement

• trade and competition

➢ These are known as the Singapore Issues.

MC2- Geneva, Switzerland: 1998

➢ Discussion on the implementation of Singapore Issues.

MC3- Seattle, USA: 1999

➢ The Uruguay Round was discussed.

➢ Further discussions on agricultural and services mandated at the last

Ministerial.

MC4- Doha, Qatar: 1996

➢ The Doha Round has been discussed already.

MC5- Cancun, Mexico: 2003

➢ Discussions on the progress of the Doha Development Agenda and other

negotiations from the last Ministerial.

MC6- Hong Kong: 2005

➢ Discussions on aiming to conclude the Doha Round by 2006.

➢ Adoption of the ‘Swiss Formula’ (by the Swiss Delegation to the WTO) to
cut down tariffs on non-agricultural goods (NAMA) by both developed and
developing countries with different coefficients.

MC7- Geneva, Switzerland: 2009

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➢ This meeting didn’t revolve around the Doha Round.

➢ Ministers discussed various other ideas for further development.

MC8- Geneva, Switzerland: 2011

➢ WTO approved Montenegro, Russian Federation, and Samoa accessions.

➢ Doha Round was discussed to make the mandate more effective, operational,
and precise.

MC9- Bali, Indonesia: 2013

➢ The ‘Bali Package’ was adopted by the WTO that aimed at the following
points:

• Boosting trade in the least developed countries (LDCs)

• Higher food security provisions for developing countries

• Streamlining trade

➢ The Bali Package is a selection of issues from the broader Doha Round
negotiations.

MC10- Nairobi, Kenya: 2015

➢ The Nairobi Package was adopted by WTO that delivered beneficial

commitments to WTO’s poorest members.

MC11- Buenos Aires, Argentina: 2017

➢ Discussions on e-commerce duties, fisheries subsidies, and other

commitments to negotiations in all sectors.

MC12- Geneva, Switzerland: 2021

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➢ The 12th Ministerial Conference (MC12) will take place from 30 November
to 3 December 2021 in Geneva, Switzerland.

➢ MC12 was originally scheduled to take place from 8 to 11 June 2020 in

Kazakhstan's capital, Nur-Sultan, but was postponed due to the COVID-19
pandemic.

➢ The Conference will be chaired by Kazakhstan's Minister of Trade and

Integration, Bakhyt Sultanov
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29
G20 (Group of Twenty)

INTRODUCTION

➢ The G20 is an informal group of 19 countries and the European Union,

with Representatives from IMF and World Bank.
➢ This group represents 2/3rd world’s population, 85% of global gross
domestic product, 80% of global investment and over 75% of global trade.
➢ The G20 is an international forum of the governments and central bank
governors from 20 major economies.

G20 Members
1. Argentina,
2. Australia,
3. Brazil,
4. Canada,
5. China,
6. France,
7. Germany,
8. India,
9. Indonesia,
[Link],
[Link],
139 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

[Link],
[Link],
[Link] Arabia,
[Link] Africa,
[Link] Korea,
[Link],
[Link] United Kingdom,
[Link] United States
[Link] the European Union.
140 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

ORIGIN OF G20

➢ After the Asian Financial Crisis in 1997-1998, the need of G20 was felt.
➢ The G20 was foreshadowed at the Cologne summit of the G7 in June
1999.
➢ formally established at the G7 Finance Ministers' meeting on 26 September
1999.
➢ The first G20 Summit was held in Berlin in December 1999 and was
hosted by the finance ministers of Germany and Canada.

STRCUTURE AND FUNCTIONING G20

➢ The G20 Presidency rotates annually.

➢ For the selection of presidency, the 19 countries are divided into 5 groups,
each having no more than 4 countries.
➢ The presidency rotates between each group. Every year the G20 selects a
country from another group to be president.
➢ India is in Group 2 which also has Russia, South Africa, and Turkey.
➢ The G20 does not have a permanent secretariat or Headquarters.
➢ Instead, the G20 president is responsible for bringing together the G20
agenda in consultation with other members.
141 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

TROIKA SYSTEM

➢ Every year when a new country takes on the presidency (in this case
Argentina 2018),
➢ It works hand in hand with the previous presidency (Germany, 2017) and
➢ the next presidency (Japan, 2019)
➢ this is collectively known as TROIKA. This ensures continuity and
consistency of the group’s agenda.

ISSUES ADDRESSED BY G20

➢ It focus on issues of global importance.

➢ Mostly issue of global economy dominate the agenda
➢ It also focus on:
▪ Financial markets, tax and fiscal policy.
▪ Trade, Agriculture and Employment.
▪ Energy, climate change and Global Health.
▪ 2030 agenda for sustainable development.
▪ Fight against corruption and terrorism.

G20 SUMMIT

➢ PM Modi participated in G20 Summit held in Nov, 2020.

➢ Summit was convened by Riyadh, Saudi Arabia in virtual format.
➢ In this summit India called for a ‘New Global Index’ for post-corona world.
➢ New Global Index will be based on four pillars:
142 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

1. Talent,
2. Technology,
3. Transparency and
4. Trusteeship towards the planet.
➢ G20, 2021 summit will be held in Rome, Italy

WHAT IS G20+?

➢ G20 developing nations, also called G21/G23/G20+ is a bloc of developing

nations (23 members), estb on 20 Aug, 2003
➢ The G20+ emerged in September 2003 at the 5th ministerial conference of
the WTO held at Cancun, Mexico.
➢ They stated that major trading partners still moved by protectionist concerns
➢ Countries like Brazil, India and South Africa demanded trade liberalization.

CONCLUSION

➢ G20 does not have enforcement mechanism.

➢ Most of the decisions culminates in the form of declaration which is not
legally binding.
➢ Still, over the past few years, it has been an important forum for
international cooperation.
➢ G20 has become a rising power that can influence and contribute to the
global order
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30
BRICS

INTRODUCTION

➢ BRICS is an acronym for the world’s emerging economies.

➢ Namely, Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa.
➢ The BRICS Leaders’ Summit is convened annually.
➢ Together, BRICS accounts for about 40% of the world’s population and
➢ about 30% of the GDP (Gross Domestic Product).
➢ BRICS was established to fight against the world trading rules
➢ And, to some extent challenge the US hegemony
➢ Also, financial crisis of 2008 was one of the reasons for its formation

ORIGIN OF BRICS

➢ BRICS acronym was coined by Jim O’Neil in 2001, in a paper titled as

‘’Building Better Global Economic BRICs”.
➢ The paper predicted that BRIC economies combined would outstrip the
western dominated world order before 2039.
➢ In 2006, leaders of the BRIC countries met on the margins of a G-8
(now called G-7) summit in St. Petersburg, Russia, and BRIC was
formalized that year.
144 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

➢ South Africa joined BRIC in third summit held in Sanya, China in March
2011

STRUCTURE OF BRICS

➢ BRICS does not exist in form of organization, but it is an annual summit

between the supreme leaders of five nations.
➢ The Chairmanship of the forum is rotated annually among the members,
in accordance with the acronym B-R-I-C-S.
➢ BRICS headquarter is situated at Shanghai
➢ BRICS cooperation has expanded to include an annual programme of over
100 sectoral meetings

OBJECTIVES OF BRICS

➢ BRICS seeks to deepen the cooperation for more sustainable and mutually
beneficial development.
➢ Every member’s growth and development are considered to ensure
economic strength and to eliminate competition.
➢ Such diverse objectives allow BRICS to emerge as a Political-Diplomatic
entity that was earlier formed just to resolve the global financial issues and
reform institutions.

NEW DEVELOPMENT BANK

➢ It was discussed in the 4th BRICS Summit 2012, New Delhi.

➢ It was established in 6th BRICS Summit (2014) held in Fortaleza, China
145 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

➢ It is known as Fortaleza Declaration.

➢ The declaration stressed that the NDB will supplement the efforts of
multilateral and regional financial institutions for global development.
➢ It will work as an alternative to world bank.
➢ Since 2015, 42 investment projects worth over $11 billion have been
approved
Key Areas of operations of the NDB
1. Clean Energy
2. Sustainable Urban Development
3. Economic development among BRICS member countries
4. Agriculture development and irrigation
5. Transport infrastructure
➢ It’s headquarter is situated in Shanghai, China.
➢ The major idea behind NDB was to mobilize funds and resources
➢ NDB not only proved helpful for BRICS countries but also helped other
developing countries.

BRASILIA DECLARATION

➢ Brasilia Declaration was signed at 11 BRICS Summit 2019, held in Brazil.

➢ It was signed to uphold UN Charter, advocating multilateralism and
finding a political settlement on serious issue.
➢ It also stressed the need to strengthen and reform UN, WTO and IMF,
➢ In to address the issues faced by the developing nations of the world.
146 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

RECENT BRICS SUMMIT

➢ The 12th BRICS Summit was held virtually under the chairmanship of
Russia in Nov, 2020.

➢ which adopted the motto for the year as ‘BRICS Partnership for Global
Stability, Shared Security and Innovative Growth’.

➢ Adopted Moscow Declaration to consolidate relations of five countries

➢ Two pillars of this year's summit are the economy and counterterrorism

➢ Strategy for BRICS Economic Partnership 2020-2025 was signed:

➢ It focused on three priority areas —

1. Trade, investment and finance;

2. Digital economy;

3. Sustainable development.

UPCOMING BRICS SUMMIT

➢ India will host 13th Summit in 2021.

➢ Theme of 13th Summit: ‘BRICS @ 15: Intra-BRICS Cooperation for

Continuity, Consolidation and Consensus.’

➢ The discussion in the BRICS Summit 2021 is around three pillars:

1. Political and Security

2. Economic and Financial

3. Cultural and people to people

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31
EUROPEAN UNION

INTRODUCTION

➢ The EU is a group of 27 countries, located primarily in Europe.

➢ The United Kingdom withdrew from the European Union on 31 January
2020.
➢ 19 out of 27 countries have adopted euro currency.
➢ 22 out of 27 member states, have opened their internal borders and created a
visa free zone.
➢ EU members maintains common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries and
regional development.

HISTORY

➢ After WW2, there was a desire to integrate European countries to end

centuries of warfare.
➢ In 1946 at the University of Zurich, Switzerland, Winston Churchill went
further and advocated the emergence of a United States of Europe.
European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)
➢ ECSC was founded under Treaty of Paris (1951)
➢ By 6 countries: Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the
Netherlands.
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➢ The ECSC created a free-trade area for several key economic and military
resources: coal, coke, steel, scrap, and iron ore.
➢ European Court of Justice was also established in 1952 under Paris Treaty
European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC)
➢ It is also known as Euratom
➢ It was established by Euratom treaty (1957)
➢ Its purpose was to create a specialist market for nuclear power in Europe
European Economic Community (EEC)
➢ EEC was created by Treaty of Rome (1957).
➢ The initial aim was to create a common market and custom unions for 6
founding members.
➢ It ceased to exist by Lisbon Treaty-2007 and its activities were incorporated
in EU.
Merger Treaty (1965)
➢ It is also known as Brussels Treaty.
➢ Under this treaty all three communities (ECSC, EAEC and EEC) were
merged by creating European Communities (EC)

EXPANSION OF EUROPEAN COMMUNITY

➢ The ECs initially expanded in 1973 when Denmark, Ireland, the United
Kingdom became members.
➢ Greece joined in 1981, Portugal and Spain following in 1986.
149 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

IMPORTANT AGREEMENTS AND TREATIES

Schengen Agreement (1985)

➢ It paved the way for the creation of open borders without passport controls
between most member states.
➢ It was effective in 1995.
Single European Act (1986)
➢ Enacted by the European Community that committed its member countries
to a timetable
➢ for their economic merger and the establishment of a single European
currency and common foreign and domestic policies.
Maastricht Treaty (1992)
➢ Also known as Treaty on European Union.
➢ European Communities (ECSC, EAEC, and EEC) incorporated as European
Union.
➢ European Citizenship was created, allowing citizens to move freely between
members
➢ A common foreign and security policy was established.
➢ Single European currency – the euro was adopted.
➢ It established the European Central Bank (ECB).
A Monetary Union
➢ It was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002.
➢ and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency.
➢ These are Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany,
Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands,
Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain.
➢ In 2002, Treaty of Paris (1951) expired &
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➢ European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) ceased to exist

➢ Its activities were fully absorbed by the European Community (EC).
The Treaty of Lisbon 2007
➢ European Community (now composed only of EEC, EAEC, as ECSC
already ceased in 2002) was ceased
➢ and its activities incorporated in EU.
Noble Peace Prize 2012
➢ EU received Nobel Peace Prize in 2012

STRUCTURE OF EUROPEAN UNION BODIES

➢ There are seven principal decision-making bodies of EU:

1. European Parliament
2. Council of European Union
3. European Council
4. European Commission
5. Court of Auditors
6. Court of Justice of the European Union
7. European Central Bank

European Parliament
➢ It has 705 members, directly elected by EU citizens.
➢ It is the only parliamentary institution of the European Union (EU) that is
directly elected by EU citizens
➢ On the basis of proportional representation, Members of the European
Parliament are elected by European Union citizens every 5 years.
151 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

Council of European Union

➢ It is made up of government ministers from each member state.
➢ It has executive powers like addressing common foreign and security policy.
European Commission (EC)
➢ It is an executive body of EU.
➢ It performs day to day business of the EU.
➢ It operates as cabinet government, with 27 members, one member per state.
➢ These members are proposed by member countries and European Parliament
gives final approval on them.
➢ One of the 27 members is the Commission President proposed by the
European Council and elected by the European Parliament.
European Council
➢ It is a collective body that defines the European Union's overall political
direction and priorities.
➢ It comprises of heads of state, President of the European Council and the
President of the European Commission.
➢ European Council was established as an informal summit in 1975.
➢ However, with the enactment of the Treaty of Lisbon EC was formalized as
an institution in 2009.
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European Court of Auditors (ECA)

➢ It investigates the proper management of finances within both the EU
entities and EU funding provided to its member states.
➢ It can refer unresolved issues to the European Court of Justice to arbitrate on
any alleged irregularities.
➢ ECA members are appointed by the Council, after consulting the Parliament,
for renewable 6-year terms.
The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU)
➢ It interprets EU law, settles disputed between national govts and EU
institutions.
➢ It was established in 1952 under Paris Treaty.
Members:
➢ Court of Justice: 1 judge from each EU country (total 27), plus 11
advocates general
➢ General Court: 2 judges from each EU country
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➢ They hold office for a renewable term of 6 years.

➢ Each judge and advocate general is appointed jointly by national
governments (member country)
➢ It is located in Luxembourg
The European Central Bank (ECB)
➢ It is the central bank for the euro and administers monetary policy within the
Euro zone.
➢ It comprises 19 member states of EU.
➢ It is located in Frankfurt (Germany).
➢ General Council: It is the main decision making body of ECB. It consists of
the Executive Board plus the governors of the national central banks from
euro zone countries.
➢ Executive Board: It handles the day-to-day running of the ECB. It consists
of ECB President, Vice-President and 4 other members.

BREXIT

➢ Brexit was the withdrawal of the UK from EU at 31st Jan 2020 (Brexit
Day).

➢ The UK is the first and so far only country to have left the EU.

➢ A public vote (known as a referendum) was held in June 2016, when 17.4
million people opted for Brexit.

➢ This gave the Leave side 52%, compared with 48% for Remain.

➢ Two main reasons to leave by people of UK:

1. Principle decisions about the UK should be taken in UK

2. UK will regain control over immigration and its own borders

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32
AFRICAN UNION

INTRODUCTION

➢ AU was established in 2002 to promote unity and solidarity of African

States.
➢ Its main aim is to promote economic development and economic
cooperation.
➢ It consists of 55 members, African countries.

HISTORY

➢ The AU was announced in the Sirte Declaration in Sirte, Libya, on 9

September 1999.
➢ The bloc was founded on 26 May 2001 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and
launched on 9 July 2002 in Durban, South Africa.
➢ The intention of the AU was to replace the Organisation of African Unity
(OAU), established on 25 May 1963 in Addis Ababa by 32 signatory
governments

MAIN SUMMITS THAT ESTABLISHED AU

➢ Four summits that led to the formation African Union were:

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➢ The Sirte Extraordinary Session (1999) decided to establish an African

Union
➢ The Lome Summit (2000) adopted the Constitutive Act of the Union.
➢ The Lusaka Summit (2001) drew the road map for the implementation of
the AU
➢ The Durban Summit (2002) launched the AU and convened the 1st
Assembly of the Heads of States of the African Union.

STRUCTURE OF AU

Pan-African Parliament (PAP)

➢ It is the highest legislative body of the AU.
➢ The seat of the PAP is at Midrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
➢ The Parliament is composed of 265 elected representatives from all 55 AU
states.
Assembly of the African Union
➢ Composed of head of states
➢ Supreme governing body of AU
➢ Meets once in a year
➢ Takes Decision by 2/3rd majority
African Union Commission
➢ It is composed of 10 commissioners.
➢ AU headquarter is at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
➢ AUC is responsible for administration and coordinating AU activities
Court of Justice of the AU
➢ A protocol to set up court of justice was adopted in 2003.
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➢ It was suspended later and created African Court of Justice and Human
rights in 2004.

AFCTFTA

➢ The African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) is a free trade area
founded in 2018, with trade commencing as of 1 January 2021.
➢ It was created by the African Continental Free Trade Agreement among 54
of the 55 African Union nations.
➢ The free-trade area is the largest in the world in terms of the number of
participating countries since the formation of the World Trade Organization.
➢ Accra, Ghana serves as the Secretariat of AfCFTA

CURRENT AFFAIRS

➢ The 33rd Assembly of the African Union was held in Addis Ababa on 21st
Jan, 2020.
➢ The theme of the year 2020- ‘Silencing the Guns: creating conducive for
Africa’s Development’
➢ 34th African Union Summit was held virtually from February 6th to 7th
2021 organized by the African Union Commission (AUC).
➢ The theme of the 2021 AU Summit was “Arts, Culture and Heritage: Levers
for Building Africa We Want”.
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33
SHANGHAI COOPERATION ORGANISATION

INTRODUCTION

➢ The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) formed in 2001 in

Shanghai, China by Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, China, Tajikistan and
Uzbekistan.
➢ SCO is a permanent intergovernmental international organisation.
➢ It’s a Eurasian political, economic and military organisation aiming to
maintain peace, security and stability in the region
➢ The SCO Charter was signed in 2002, and entered into force in 2003.
➢ The SCO's official languages are Russian and Chinese.

HISTORY

➢ Before SCO, there was Shanghai Five Group.

➢ Kazakhstan, China, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan were members of the
Shanghai Five.
➢ Shanghai Five was created in 1996.
➢ It emerged from a series of border demarcation and demilitarization talk
➢ which the four former Soviet republics held with China to ensure stability
along the borders.
➢ When Uzbekistan joined this group in 2001, it was renamed as SCO.
158 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

➢ India and Pakistan became members in 2017, at a summit in Astana,

Kazakhstan.

MEMBERSHIP

➢ There are 8 members of SCO:

➢ Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, China, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, India and
Pakistan.
➢ The 4 observer countries are Afghanistan, Belarus, Iran and Mongolia.
➢ The 6 dialogue partners are Azerbaijan, Armenia, Cambodia, Nepal,
Turkey, and Sri Lanka.

STRUCTURE OF SCO

Heads of State Council

➢ It is the supreme SCO body
➢ It meets once in a year at the SCO summits
➢ and adopts guidelines and decisions on all important matters of the SCO.
Head of Government Council
➢ It is the second highest council in the SCO.
➢ This council also holds annual summits.
➢ It approves the budget, considers and decides upon issues related economic
spheres of interaction within SCO.
Council of Foreign Ministers
➢ It also holds regular meetings.
➢ where they discuss the current international situation and the SCO's
interaction with other international organisations.
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Council of National Coordinators

➢ coordinates the multilateral cooperation of member states within the
framework of the SCO's charter.
Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS)
➢ Established in Tashkent to combat terrorism, separatism and extremism.
SCO Secretariat
➢ Based in Beijing to provide informational, analytical & organisational
support.

STRENGTHS OF SCO

➢ The SCO covers 40%of the global population, nearly 20% of the global
GDP and 22% of the world’s land mass.
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➢ The SCO has a strategically important role in Asia due to its geographical
significance – this enables it to control the Central Asia and limit the
American influence in region.
➢ SCO is seen as counterweight to the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
(NATO).

CHALLENGES FOR SCO

➢ The SCO security challenges includes

• combating terrorism,
• extremism and separatism;
• drug and weapons trafficking,
• illegal immigration, etc.
➢ Despite being geographically close, the rich diversity in member’s history,
backgrounds, language, national interests and form of government, wealth
and culture
➢ makes the SCO decision making challenging.

SCO SUMMIT 2020

➢ The 20th Summit of SCO Council of Heads of State was held recently via
Video Conferencing.

➢ The Meeting was chaired by Russian President Mr. Vladimir Putin.

➢ The Republic of Tajikistan assumed chairpersonship of SCO for 2021-

22.
161 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

➢ PM Modi, talked about India’s role in infrastructure projects like Chabahar

port, International North–South Transport Corridor (INSTC).

➢ He also extended full support to observing the 20th anniversary of SCO in

2021 as the "SCO Year of Culture”
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34
ASEAN

INTRODUCTION

➢ The Association of Southeast Asian Nations is a regional organization.

➢ It was established to promote political and social stability amid rising
tensions among Asia-Pacific’s post-colonial states.
➢ The motto of ASEAN is ‘One Vision, One Identity, One Community’.
❖ ASEAN Community is comprised of three pillars:
✓ ASEAN Political-Security Community
✓ ASEAN Economic Community
✓ ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community
➢ 8th August is observed as ASEAN Day.
➢ ASEAN Secretariat – Indonesia, Jakarta.

HISTORY

➢ 1967 – ASEAN was established with the signing of the ASEAN Declaration
(Bangkok Declaration) by its founding fathers.
➢ Founding Fathers of ASEAN are: Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines,
Singapore and Thailand.
➢ 1990s – Membership doubled after the changing conditions in the region
following the end of the Vietnam War in 1975 and the Cold War in 1991.
163 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

➢ Addition of Brunei (1984), Vietnam (1995), Laos and Myanmar (1997), and
Cambodia (1999).
➢ 1995 – Members signed a deal to create a nuclear-free zone in Southeast
Asia.
➢ 1997 – Adoption of ASEAN Vision 2020.
➢ 2003 – Bali Concord II for the establishment of an ASEAN Community.
➢ 2007 – Cebu Declaration, to accelerate the establishment of ASEAN
Community by 2015.
➢ 2008 – ASEAN Charter comes into force and becomes a legally binding
agreement.
➢ 2015 – Launch of ASEAN Community.

ASEAN-LED FORUMS

➢ ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF): The Twenty-Sixth ASEAN Ministerial

Meeting and Post Ministerial Conference, which were held in Singapore on
23-25 July 1993, agreed to establish the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF).
The inaugural meeting of the ARF was held in Bangkok on 25 July 1994.
ARF is the twenty-seven-member multilateral grouping was developed to
facilitate cooperation on political and security issues to contribute to
regional confidence-building and preventive diplomacy.
➢ ASEAN Plus Three: The consultative group initiated in 1997 brings
together ASEAN’s ten members, China, Japan, and South Korea.
➢ East Asia Summit (EAS): First held in 2005, the summit seeks to promote
security and prosperity in the region and is usually attended by the heads of
state from ASEAN, Australia, China, India, Japan, New Zealand, Russia,
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South Korea, and the United States. ASEAN plays a central role as the
agenda-setter.

STRUCTURE OF ASEAN

➢ Chairmanship of ASEAN rotates annually, based on the alphabetical

order of the English names of Member States.
ASEAN Summit:
➢ The supreme policy making body of ASEAN.
➢ As the highest level of authority in ASEAN, the Summit sets the direction
for ASEAN policies and objectives.
➢ Under the Charter, the Summit meets twice a year.
ASEAN Ministerial Councils:
The Charter established four important new Ministerial bodies to support the
Summit:
1. ASEAN Coordinating Council (ACC)
2. ASEAN Political-Security Community Council
3. ASEAN Economic Community Council
4. ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community Council
Decision Making:
The primary mode of decision-making in ASEAN is consultation and consensus.

CURRENT AFFAIRS
➢ 36th, 37th Biannual ASEAN Summit 2020 was held via video conference
in Hanoi Vietnam on June 26, 2020 and 11-15 Nov 2020.
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➢ With the theme "Cohesive and Responsive ASEAN", the summit

discussed the regional comprehensive COVID-19 post-pandemic recovery
plans
➢ 38th, 39th Summit will be held in Brunei on 26-28 Oct 2021.
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35
INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM

INTRODUCTION

➢ Terrorism is a form of political violence that aims to achieve its objectives

through a climate of fear and apprehension (Goodin).

➢ Terrorism is ideologically contested term.

➢ Terrorism tends to be used as a political tool to determine the legitimacy or

illegitimacy of a group.

➢ Terrorism, however, is the weakest form of irregular warfare with which to

alter the political landscape.

➢ Terrorist groups often lack broader support for their objectives because
their goals for change are based on radical ideas

NATURE OF TERRORISM

The act and its purpose

➢ Clandestine (secret) violence is used indiscriminately in terrorism act.

➢ However, violence is not the aim of terrorism. The desire is to intimidate or

terrify people.

➢ The intention behind the act of terrorism may be complex or uncertain.

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Its victims

➢ Most of the time innocent civilians.

➢ But this does not mean attacks on military, political leaders cannot be
described as terrorism.

It’s perpetrators

➢ Non-state actors aim to influence the actions of governments and

international organisations.

➢ However, such a focus according to Laqueur called ‘terrorism from

below’

➢ By this way we ignore the much more extensive killing of unarmed civilians
through ‘terrorism from above’

➢ Such terrorism is classified as state terrorism or ‘state-sponsored

terrorism’.

TYEPES OF TERRORISM

Audrey Kurth Cronin has outlined four types of terrorist groups on the basis of
their source of motivation:

Left-wing terrorists

➢ It includes communist movements.

Right-wing terrorism

➢ It draws its inspiration from fascism

Ethnonationalist/separatist terrorism

➢ Terrorism during wave of decolonialization

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Religious or Sacred terrorist

➢ Some groups have religious agendas

➢ They have mix of motivating ideologies

Another type of terrorism was given by Ignatieff:

Insurrectionary terrorism

➢ Such terrorism aims at revolutionary overthrow of a state

➢ Ex: Anarchist and revolutionary communist terrorism

Loner or Issue terrorism

➢ It aims at the promotion of single cause

➢ Ex: bombing of abortion clinics in USA

Nationalist Terrorism

➢ Aims to overthrow colonial rule or occupation, to gain independence

➢ Ex: LTTE in Sri-Lanka

Global terrorism

➢ Aims to give damage and humiliation to a global power.

➢ Ex: al-Qaeda, 9/11 attack.

NEW TERRORISM

➢ The concept ‘new terrorism’ suggests that there has been a revolutionary
change in nature of terrorism.
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But what is new and how new is it?

➢ In new terrorism there is a religious motivation now, instead of secular

motivations in traditional terrorism.

➢ Post-1945 period terrorism was associated with nationalist and separatist

movements.

➢ Insofar nationalism terrorism was inspired by wider ideological beliefs

(Marxism-Leninism).

➢ By 1995, According to Hoffman, almost half of the 56 terrorist groups

could be classified as religious in character

➢ New terrorism has broader objectives, which makes their demands inflexible
and uncompromised.

➢ New terrorism using clandestine (secret) violence indiscriminately, i.e.

violence is being used only symbolically.

➢ New terrorists operate within unstructured international networks of loosely

connected cells and support networks.

➢ Ex: al-Qaeda is an idea than organization.

➢ Al-Qaeda’s network of cells being so loosely organized that it has been seen
as a form of ‘leaderless Jihad’ (By Sageman)

➢ New terrorism is also known as modern terrorism.

➢ Modern terrorism has sometimes been dubbed ‘catastrophic terrorism’

(Carter) or ‘hyper-terrorism’ (Sprinzak).
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THEORIS AND TERRORISM

Realism

➢ Terrorism is seen as a violent challenge to the established order by a non-

state group.

➢ Groups targets civilians and use clandestine violence because they are too
weak to challenge the state openly.

➢ The motivation behind terrorism is power seeking and are largely strategic
in character.

➢ The state’s response to terrorism should be uncompromising.

➢ Realists therefore tend to be relatively unconcerned about whether counter-

terrorist strategies infringe civil liberties;

Liberalism

➢ Like Realists, they tend to view terrorism as an act by non-state actors.

➢ For them, the motivation behind terrorism act is ideology and not power
seeking.

➢ So, the influence of political or religious ideology creates exaggerated sense

of injustice to blind perpetrators.

➢ Liberals also face ethical dilemma;

➢ They view terrorism as an attack on liberal democratic society,

➢ On the other hand, liberals tend to counter terrorism with same values i.e.
without infringement of human rights.
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Critical Theory

➢ Radical theorists like Chomsky and Falk, view terrorism as killing of

civilians;

➢ For them, it is something that is engaged in by both states and non-state

actors.

➢ State terrorism is much more significant than non-state terrorism,

➢ Because state have a far greater coercive capacity than any non-state actors.

➢ Terrorism is thus a mechanism, through which states use violence to retain

power.

➢ Chomsky calls USA, world’s ‘leading terrorist state’. He pays attention to

the role of terrorism to promote US hegemony.

Constructivism/Poststructuralism

➢ Terrorism is a social or political construct.

➢ This term is used to define certain groups and political causes as non-
legitimate

➢ By associating them with the image of immorality and violence.

➢ For example: the term ‘war on terror’ after 9/11, in which the term
‘terrorism’,

➢ Is allegedly used to de-legitimize the enemies of the dominant actors in the

modern global system.
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GLOBALIZATION AND TERRORISM

➢ Modern terrorism is portrayed as a child of globalization.

➢ Increased cross-border flow of people, goods, money have been exploited by

terrorist group.

➢ Increased international migration helped to sustain terrorist campaigns,

➢ As diaspora community become important source of funding, for instance,

Tamil Tigers.

➢ Globalization has contributed to the growth in the political militancy

generally.
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36
CLIMATE CHANGE AND ENVIRONMENT CONCERNS

INTRODUCTION

Rise of Environment as Global Issue

➢ Environment became international issue during 1960s-70s

➢ This time highlighted the environment cost of increased growth

Pioneer works of early green politics:

1. Rachel Carson’s The Silent Spring (1962)

❖ A critique of damage to wild life and human world by use of pesticides

and chemicals

2. Murray Bookchin’s Our Synthetic environment (1962)

❖ Examined how pesticides, food additives, and X-rays causing illnesses,

including cancer.

➢ This period (60s-70s) also saw the birth of a new NGOs: Greenpeace and
Friends of Earth

➢ The metaphor ‘spaceship Earth’ was particularly influence

➢ Earth, sun, other planets and stars will die someday

➢ This issue of global finiteness were also highlighted by:

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o UN report Only One Earth (1972)

o Club of Rome, The Limits to Growth (1972)

➢ Oil Crisis of 1973 reinforced this idea

MAJOR CONVENTIONS

Stockholm Conference (1972)

➢ Originally known as UN Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE)

➢ It was a first major conference to be held on environment issues at

Stockholm

➢ It led to establishment of UN Environment Programme (UNEP)

➢ UNEP is responsible for coordinating the environment activities of states

and int org

➢ It also issued 26 principles regarding environment protection

Brundtland Commission (1987)

➢ Formerly known as the World Commission on Environment and

Development (WCED)

➢ It issued a report Our Common Future

➢ This report popularized term sustainable development

➢ Sustainable development is the kind of development that meets the needs of

the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs.

Rio ‘Earth Summit’ (1992)

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➢ Formerly known as United Nations Conference on Environment and

Development (UNCED)

➢ It led to following developments:

1. Rio Declaration: contained 27 principles to guide countries for sustainable

development

2. Agenda 21: action plan for sustainable development, non binding

3. Forest Principles: conservation of all forests, non-binding

➢ The following legally binding agreements (Rio Convention) were opened for
signature:

[Link] on Biological Diversity (UNCBD)

[Link] Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

[Link] to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)

➢ It also developed the principle of Common But Differentiated

Responsibilities (CBDR)

➢ Earth Summit was also held in Johannesburg in 2002 and again at Rio de
Janeiro in 2012

➢ UNFCCC’s report would be prepared by International Panel on Climate

Change (IPCC), 1988

Conventions Related to Ozone Layer

➢ In 1985, a huge hole was discovered in the ozone layer over Antarctica.

➢ In Vienna Convention (1985) UN members recognized the importance of

curbing damage to ozone layer
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➢ Montreal Protocol was signed in 1987 to phase down use of Ozone

Depleting Substance (ODS) in a stepwise, time-bound manner

➢ First treaty to signed by all UN members

➢ The Amendment to Montreal Protocol is known as Kigali Agreement, 2016

➢ Countries expected to decrease usage of HFCs by 80-85% from their

baselines until 2047

Kyoto Protocol (1997)

➢ The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

➢ that commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions

➢ It was signed in 1997, enforced in 2005, USA never ratified

➢ It aimed to cut emissions of greenhouse gases across the developed world by

about 5 per cent by 2012 compared with 1990 levels.

➢ It was legal binding for developed countries like UK, France and voluntary
for developing countries like India and China

Paris Agreement (2016)

➢ 195 UNFCCC members signed it on 22 April 2016

➢ It was enforced in Nov, 2016

➢ The Then US President Donald Trump withdrew from the agreement by Nov
2020

➢ set a goal of limiting global warming to “well below 2 °C” Celsius

compared to pre-industrial levels.
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➢ Developed countries will raise $100 billion a year

The agreement talks about 20/20/20 targets, i.e.

1. Carbon Dioxide emissions reductions by 20%,

2. Work on increasing the renewable energy market share by 20%

3. Target to increase energy efficiency by 20%

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37
HUMAN RIGHTS

INTRODUCTION

➢ Seventy-five years ago, human rights were not a legitimate international

concern.

➢ Sovereign states were not questioned how they treated their own citizen.

➢ Even Convent of league of nations fails to mention human rights.

➢ It is only after the end of WW2, that state and civil society started taking
human rights seriously.

➢ This reflected in UN adopting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

on 10 Dec 1948. (Most countries thus celebrate 10 December as Human
Rights Day.)

DEFINING HUMAN RIGHTS

➢ Human rights are rights to which people are entitled by virtue of being
human.

Universal

➢ they belong to human beings everywhere, regardless of race, religion, gender

and other differences
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Fundamental

➢ It is so important that it can’t be removed or violated at any cost.

Indivisible

➢ that civic and political rights, and economic, social and cultural rights are
interrelated and co-equal in importance

Absolute

➢ Without them human being can’t live genuine life

THREE GENERATIONS OF HUMAN RIGHTS

➢ The division of human rights into three generations was first proposed by
Czech jurist Karel Vasak in 1977.
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INTERNATIONAL BILL OF RIGHTS

THEORIES AND HUMAN RIGHTS

Realism

➢ For Realists, human rights is a ‘soft’ issue in international relations as

contrast to ‘core’ issue like security and prosperity.

➢ Some realists are critical of thinking human rights in relation to global

politics.

➢ Because it is impossible to think international politics in moral terms.

➢ Whenever states tend focus on morality instead of national interest, states

fail to serve their own citizen.

➢ The idea of human rights involves issue of morality, which is against the
realism’s scientific credentials.

Liberalism

➢ Human rights are product of liberal political philosophy.

➢ Liberals for long have used the notion of natural or human rights to establish
the basis of legitimacy.
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➢ Social contract theorists argue that the main purpose of government is

protect a set of inalienable rights.

➢ Ex: John Locke described ‘life, liberty and property’.

➢ If government becomes tyrannical, individuals have right to protest.

Critical Perspectives

➢ Critical approaches to human rights tended to either revise the liberal view
of human rights or they have been openly hostile to the idea itself

➢ Human rights were constructed by Western states and elites to spread

Western economic and political power.

➢ And feminist critique of human rights argue that it tends to ignore women’s
human rights.

➢ Postcolonial critique questions the universal notion of human rights.

➢ Because they argue every society is different, thus requires different

conception of human rights.

HUMAN RIGHTS AND GLOBAL POLITICS

➢ Human rights invest governments with powerful obligations, affecting

their foreign as well as domestic policies.

➢ Thus, human imposes constraints on the behaviour of national

governments, both in terms of how they treat their own citizen and other
people and countries.

➢ Human rights have made conduct of war to compatible with requirements of

‘just war’.
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➢ Controversially, state may take military actions to prevent other

countries from violating human rights within their own borders.

➢ This is what is known as humanitarian intervention.

HUMAN RIGHTS REGIME

United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNHCR)

➢ The UNHCR was established in 1946 by ECOSOC.

➢ It was consisted of 53 members

➢ The term of member was 3 years.

Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR)

➢ Department of the secretariat of the UN.

➢ It was established by the World Conference on Human Rights (1993).

➢ Current High Commissioner is Michelle Bachelet, till 2022

United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC)

➢ It was established in 2006 by UN General Assembly

➢ It consists of 47 members

➢ The term of member is 3 years, not more than two consecutive term.

➢ The UNHRC holds regular sessions three times a year, in March, June and
September.
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MAJOR INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS DOCUMENTS

➢ 1215: Magna Carta by King John in England. Church Rights, Swift Justice
etc

➢ 1689: Bill of Rights, limited king power and rights were given parliament

➢ 1776: US Declaration of Independence- Right to life, liberty and the pursuit

of happiness

➢ 1789: French Declaration- Right to life, liberty and fraternity

➢ 1815: Congress of Vienna- attempts to abolish slave trade

➢ 1901: International Labour Office- attempts to improve working conditions

➢ 1907: Hague Convention- to regulate conduct of War

➢ 1948: Universal Declaration of Human Rights

➢ 1949: Geneva Conventions on the Treatment of Prisoners of War and

Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War

➢ 1950: European Convention on Human Rights (Convention for the

Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms)

➢ 1951: Genocide Convention (Convention on the Prevention and Punishment

of the Crime of Genocide)

➢ 1954: Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees

➢ 1966: International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (came into force
in 1976)

➢ 1966: International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

(came into force in 1976)
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➢ 1969: Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination

➢ 1975: Declaration on Torture 1981 Convention on the Elimination of All

Forms of Discrimination Against Women

➢ 1984: Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading
Treatment or Punishment

➢ 1990: Convention on the Rights of the Child

➢ 1993: Vienna Convention on Human Rights (Vienna Convention on the Law

of Treaties)

➢ 2000: Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union

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38
MIGRATION AND REFUGEES

INTRODUCTION

➢ According to UNHCR, at the end of 2020, 82.4 million people forcibly

displaced worldwide.

➢ Out of 82.4 million, 35 million are children below 18 years of age.

➢ 78 per cent of all refugees are in protracted refugee situations

➢ they have lived for five years or more in refugee camps in host countries

➢ that cannot or will not provide permanent residency

➢ and there are now cases where second-generation refugees are living in
the camps.

➢ During 18th and 19th century, borders got stricter.

➢ citizenship became an essential part of ‘belonging’ to a state as well as

indicating the strength of the state itself.

➢ Hence, the categorisation of those ‘outside’ the state developed as a way of

ascertaining who belonged and who did not.

➢ It’s also provided identity to the state and its people.

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BRIEF HISTORY

➢ Even before the creation of the ‘modern state’ there were attempts to
‘territorialise’ borders

➢ In order to control who could enter and could not enter.

➢ Evidence of early migration policy exists in China’s political history

from 2000 BC until 800 AD.

➢ Since 17th century states have been attempting to distinguish new entrants
from residents – foreigner, exile, alien, refugee, migrant

➢ When new states such as Canada, Australia and the US were being
industrialised and urbanised,

➢ migrants were a welcome addition – though some were considered more

preferable than others, like today.

➢ For instance, the US, UK and Canada all had Alien Laws in the 1800s and
early 1900s, which prohibited ‘undesirables’ such as Asians and Jews
from entering their state.

➢ Australia’s Immigration Restriction Act, 1901, also known as White

Australia Policy, defined annual quotas on number of Asians who could
enter per year.

TERMINOLOGY

Migrant

➢ A migrant is a person who leaves their state by choice, and whom the
receiving state accepts by choice

Illegal Migrant
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➢ An illegal migrant is a migrant who enters another state without first seeking
permission to do so, and

➢ who will often remain in the host state without a visa which allows them to
stay or work there

Forced Migrant

➢ A forced migrant is a person who did not leave their country by choice, but
nor are they eligible for refugee status under the 1951 Convention

Refugee

➢ Refugee is a person who is forced to leave his country (against his wish)
because of persecution, war or violence

➢ to enter a state without its permission and is not always welcomed in the
state in which they seek refuge.

MIGRATION AND I.R. DISCIPLINE

➢ The issue of migration was largely ignored by I.R. subject.

➢ The main focus of the subject was state and high politics.

➢ Migration was not a serious issue during cold war.

➢ Because it did not effect Balance of Power, East-West Struggle and nature of
international system.

➢ After end of cold war, migration became issue for study.

➢ Scholars has been linking migration with security.

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UNITED NATIONS HIGH COMMISSIONER FOR REFUGEES

➢ UNHCR, the UN Refugee Agency, working for the refugees, displaced and
stateless people.

➢ It was established in 1950 in the wake of mass displacements caused due to

WW2 in Europe.

➢ The chief legal document that governs the work of the UNHCR is the 1951
Refugee Convention.

➢ The UNHCR has also won the Nobel Prize for Peace twice (1954 and
1981).

➢ Its parent organisation is the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA).

➢ The UNHCR is headed by the High Commissioner for Refugees.

➢ The UNHCR gives the Nansen Refugee Award annually to people who
work in the field of refugee rights and protection.

➢ Headquarter: Geneva, Switzerland.

1951 REFUGEE CONVENTION

➢ The 1951 Refugee Convention is a UN treaty that defines who a refugee is

and establishes the rights of such persons

➢ and also of those who are granted asylum.

➢ The Convention defines a refugee:

➢ “as someone who is unable or unwilling to return to their country of origin

owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race,
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religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political

opinion.”

➢ India is not a signatory to the 1951 Refugee Convention.

1967 PROTOCOL

➢ The Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, alternatively known as

the 1967 Protocol,

➢ The 1951 convention could grant the status of refugee to only those people
who were affected by events in Europe prior to 1 Jan, 1951.

➢ 1967 protocol removed the time constraint and Euro-centricity.

➢ India is also not a signatory to the 1967 protocol.

PRESENT SITUATION

➢ There has been debate about global imbalance in the refugee intake and
resettlement numbers.

➢ Defining refugee on the basis of persecution is not enough.

➢ It ignores large number of people who are forced to flee due to economic
deprivation, natural disaster, attacks from organized criminal gangs, lack of
access to essential medicines.

➢ Such people mostly prefer developed countries. Thus, these countries need
to have annual resettlement quotas.
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39
POVERTY AND DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION

➢ Poverty has been the normal state of affairs for most of world history.

➢ Even well-organized societies had economies with simple technology,

modest production and populations were poor.

➢ It is only recently, late 18th century that western societies started to increase
productivity in ways that defied the predictions of Thomas Malthus.

➢ Malthus had warned that any improvement in productivity would simply

be nullified by population growth.

➢ But western societies avoid this Malthusian trap. But how?

➢ The answer to this question is ‘development’.

➢ Development was certainly associated with a series of innovations in

technology and organization that led to the industrial revolution.

DEFINING POVERTY

➢ Poverty refers to the deprivation of capabilities where development involves

expanding the set of capabilities.

There are two types of poverty:

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➢ Absolute poverty: rooted on the idea of ‘basic needs’. Means being

deprived of the necessities of life: This includes need for food, water,
shelter, and clothing.

➢ Relative poverty: A standard of poverty in which people are deprived of the

living conditions and amenities, which are customary in the society to which
they belong.

WORLD BANK AND POVERTY

➢ The World Bank sets the international poverty line at periodic intervals as
the cost of living for basic food, clothing, and shelter around the world
changes.

▪ The international poverty line was originally set to roughly $1 a day.

calculated on purchasing power parity (PPP)

▪ In the 2008 update, the poverty line was set at $1.25 per day.

▪ In 2015, the threshold was updated to $1.90 per day, which is where it
currently stands.

THEORIES AND DEVELOPMENT

Realism

➢ Realists have generally adopted the ideas of Mercantilism.

➢ They believe that markets need to be managed by state.

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➢ healthy and stable domestic economies rely on a strong dose of state

intervention

Liberalism

➢ They provides basis for the orthodox notion of ‘development as growth’.

➢ For development wealth is needed.

➢ Wealth can be generated through market.

➢ And market should operate freely.

➢ Self-regulating market tends naturally to promote economic prosperity.

➢ But free market is not powerful enough to ensure development.

➢ There can be some ‘development failures’ due to internal factors to the

society.

➢ There can be cultural/religious factors, self-seeking individual, authoritarian

states, corruption, tribal rivalries etc.

➢ The best way to overcome these obstacles is through market reform

(privatization, labour flexibility, tax cuts and so on).

➢ and the integration of the national economy into the global capitalist
economy (free trade and an open economy).

Critical Approaches

➢ Neo- Marxist view: development has been shaped by two main theoretical
sub-traditions- Dependency theory and world-system theory.
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➢ According to Dependency theory tradition, the post-1945 period, traditional

imperialism gave way to neo-colonialism (economic imperialism or dollar
imperialism)

➢ where developing states continued to be dependent on developed states for

economic growth.

➢ According to world-system theory tradition, core states dominate and

exploit peripheral areas

➢ that are characterized by low wages, rudimentary technology and a

dependence on agriculture or primary production.

➢ Green political theorists: economic growth must be balanced against its

ecological costs, a healthy environment being vital for meaningful
development.

➢ Feminist view: gender inequality must be seen as a key component of

development, thereby highlighting the need to change social structures,
institutions and cultural practices in the developing world.

➢ Cosmopolitan theorists- development should be understood in terms of the

larger project of advancing global justice.

DEVLOPMENT AND ROLE OF GLOBAL INSTITUTIONS

Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP)

➢ SAP are devices that the IMF and the World Bank to accelerate economic
growth in the developing world.
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➢ These institutions reflected a strong faith in economic liberalism and

government intervention in the name of the free markets and reforms.

➢ Key reforms included:

✓ Reducing government spending

✓ Removing tariffs

✓ Privatisation, Liberalisation

✓ Reducing subsidies to domestic industries

Human Development Index (HDI)

➢ In 1990, UNDP proposed to measure development progress by countries

with the Human Development Index (HDI).

➢ The HDI as such incorporates information on the level of income per person
of a country, as well as indicators measuring achievements in health and
education.

Human Poverty Index (HPI)

➢ In the 1997 HDR, UNDP presented the first multidimensional poverty

measure:

➢ the Human Poverty Index (HPI) includes long and healthy life, knowledge
and a decent standard of living, distinguishing it from ‘income poverty’.

Millennium Development Goal (MDG)

➢ The United Nations Millennium Declaration signed in September 2000.

➢ Each 8 MDG has targets set for 2015 and indicators to monitor progress
from 1990 levels. Goals related to poverty and development:-
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✓ Goal 1 - eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

✓ Goal 8 - develop a global partnership for development

The Multidimensional Poverty Index

➢ The UNDP and the Oxford Poverty & Human Development Initiative
(OPHI) launched the MPI in 2010.

➢ It replaced HPI (Human Poverty Index)

➢ MPI includes ten indicators belonging to three dimensions: health, education

and living standards

➢ The index emphasizes on measuring and monitoring progress under the

goals to reach ‘zero poverty by 2030-Goal 1 of the Sustainable Development
Goals.

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

➢ Also known as the Global Goals, adopted by the United Nations in 2015.

➢ Each 17 SDG has targets set for 2030.

➢ First goal is - Eradicating poverty in all its forms remains one of the greatest
challenges facing humanity.

KEY THEORISTS

Jagdish Bhagawati
An Indian-American economist and adviser to the UN and the WTO,
arguing that globalization have a ‘human face’, even though this needs to be
made more agreeable. His works include In Defense of Globalization
(2004) and Termites in the Trading System (2008).
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Susan George
A US political scientist, George has been a fierce critic of the ‘mal
development’ policies of the IMF and the World Bank, advancing an
uncompromising critique of the impact of capitalism on the world’s poor.
Her works include How the Other Half Dies (1976), A Fate Worse
Than Debt (1988) and Another World is Possible If (2004).

Jeffrey Sachs
A US economist, Sachs has been a leading exponent of sustainable
development, placing an emphasis on ending extreme poverty and hunger
and advising the UN on strategies for supporting the Millennium
Development Goals. His publications include The End of Poverty (2005)
and Common Wealth (2008).

Amartya Sen
An Indian welfare economist and philosopher, Sen has made a major
contribution to shifting thinking about development away from economic
models and towards ideas such as capacity, freedom and choice. His works
include Poverty and Famine (1981), Development as Freedom (1999) and
The Idea of Justice (2009).

Joseph Stiglitz
Nobel Prize-winning US economist Stiglitz is best known for his critical
views on global economic governance and on globalization. In
Globalization and its Discontents (2002), Stiglitz argued that the IMF had
imposed policies on developing countries. In Making Globalization Work
(2006), he linked globalization to ‘Americanization’, environmental
degradation, a ‘roll-back’ of democracy and a widening of development
disparities.
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40
ROLE OF RELIGION

INTRODUCTION

➢ Global Politics during the twentieth century, and especially during the Cold
War era, was dominated by ideological rivalry, politics since appears to have
been structured increasingly by issues of cultural difference.

➢ The most prominent aspect of the growing political importance of culture

has been religion and the rise of religious movements.

➢ In Huntington’s (1996) view, religion is the ‘central defining

characteristic’ of civilizations, in which case the ‘clash of civilizations’
effectively implies a clash of religions.

➢ Some of the theorists’ viewed west and its liberal ideology as ultimate
hegemonic power to the world after the Collapse of USSR.

➢ Incident like 9/11 has declared that not an economic model or not an
ideology, but the religion is a prominent factor in attempt to challenge and
displace the politico culture hegemony of west.

MEANING OF RELIGION

➢ Religion is an organized community of people bound together by a shared

body of beliefs.
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➢ Religion gives people an ultimate frame of reference as well as a moral

orientation in a world.

CONCEPT AND DIFFERENT VIEWS OF RELIGION

➢ There are two kinds of religion: good religion and bad religion

➢ ‘Good’ religion is associated with a modern ideal subject that is largely

irrelevant to politics and viewed as privatized religion.

➢ ‘Bad’ religion is associated with the violent history of the sectarian violence
of the Wars of Religion during the European Reformation and afterwards,
and today, with terrorism.

➢ Most realist, liberal, constructivist and English School approaches to IR

have picked up these definitions of ‘good’ and ‘bad’ religion, and adapted
them to their theoretical paradigms.

➢ Marx saw religion as a conservative force, which prevented social change by

creating false consciousness.

➢ Structuralist and materialist approaches to IR view that religion is seen as an

effect of fundamental material considerations, including economic interest
and power politics.

➢ Realist, liberal, English School, feminist approaches to IR treat religion as

either private, or passed off to anthropologists or scholars of religion.

➢ In recent studies, Bad religion is associated with division, violence and

intolerance.
199 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

➢ Where good religion is considered as contributor to global justice, engineer

of peacebuilding and post-conflict reconciliation, and countervailing force to
terrorism.

RELIGION AND SECULARISM

➢ Secularism means the belief that religion should not intrude into worldly
affairs, usually reflected in the desire to separate church from state.

➢ The secularization thesis has been confounded by developments from the

late twentieth century onwards.

➢ This has been evident in the emergence of new forms of religiosity,

• increasing impact of religious movements

• Closer relationship between religion and politics, (the religionization of

politics and politicization of religion.)

➢ In today’s globalizing world, Secularism and religion are co constitutive

concepts –Secularism is not the absence of religion. The secular and the
religious are concepts that can only be defined in relation to each other

➢ Secularization thesis: The advancement of secularism does not necessarily

imply the decline of religion. Rather, it is concerned to establish a ‘proper’
sphere and role for religion, in line with the liberal belief in a so-called
public/private divide.

➢ Secularist settlement: Challenges the idea that secularism is a fixed, final

achievement of modernity; instead viewing it as a historically and politically
contingent attempt to define and manage the relationship between politics
and religion.

Countries, which accept both features of secularism and a specific religion:-

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• Syria: Semi secular state with Islamic jurisprudence being used for personal
statues laws.
• Finland: Claims to be secular, but the Evangelical Lutheran Church of
Finland and the Finnish Orthodox Church have the right to collect church
tax from their members in conjunction with government income tax.
• Armenia: The constitution formally separates the church from the state;
however, it recognizes the Armenian Apostolic Church as the national
church.
• Bangladesh: The constitution designates Islam as the state religion but
upholds the principle of secularism.

RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM

➢ The term ‘fundamentalism’ was first used in debates within American

Protestantism in the early twentieth century. Between 1910 and 1915,
evangelical Protestants published a series of pamphlets entitled “The
Fundamentals”.

➢ The belief in old and traditional forms of religion who are classified as
fundamentalists reject the term as demeaning, preferring instead to describe
themselves as ‘traditionalists’ ‘conservatives’, ‘evangelicals’, ‘revivalists’
and so forth.

➢ Religious fundamentalism is characterized by a rejection of the distinction

between religion and politics.

➢ Three factors have strengthened the fundamentalist impulse in religion by

contributing to crises: Secularization, Globalization and Post colonialism.

1. Secularization has contributed to a decline of traditional religion and a

weakening of established morality.
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2. Globalization increased global flows of people, goods, ideas and images,

and disrupted traditional societies.

3. Postcolonial societies inherited a weakened sense of identity,

compounded by a debilitating attachment to western values and
institutions, particularly among elite groups.

➢ In these senses, fundamentalism represents a moral protest against

decadence and hypocrisy; it aims to re-establish the link between the human
world and the divine.

EXAMPLES OF RELIGIOUS FUNDAMENTALISM

➢ The Soviet war in Afghanistan, 1979–89, led to the growth of the

Mujahideen (an Arabic term that broadly refers to Islamic guerrillas who
engage in jihad),or a loose collection of religiously inspired resistance
groups that received financial or military support from the USA, Iran and
Pakistan.

➢ The Taliban (developed out of these Mujahideen groups), who ruled

Afghanistan, 1996–2001, wanted to restore peace and security and enforce
their own austere version of Sharia, or Islamic law.

➢ Muslim Brotherhood, transnational Sunni Islamist organization founded by

Islamic scholar Hassan al-Banna in 1928 at Ismailia, Egypt.

• The Muslim Brotherhood was seen as providing much-needed social

services, and in the 1930s its membership grew swiftly.
• In the late 1930s the Brotherhood began to politicize its outlook, and, as
an opponent of Egypt’s ruling Wafd party, during World War II it
organized popular protests against the government.
• An armed branch organized in the early 1940s was subsequently linked
to a number of violent acts,
• Muslim Brotherhood was legalized in 2011 and won several elections,
including the 2012 presidential election when its candidate Mohamed
Morsi became Egypt's first president to gain power through an election.
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• But after 1 year Egyptian army to execute what is known as a soft coup
to remove Morsi from power.

➢ Emergence of New type of terrorist: A range of new jihadi groups have

also emerged since the 1990s – the most important of which is al-Qaeda led
by Osama bin Laden – which have given expression to a particularly militant
and responsible for the 9/11 and the advent of the ‘war on terror’.

➢ Western propaganda: Islam, and especially Arab world, has consistently

been a victim of western intervention, supported by demeaning and insulting
forms of ‘Islamophobia’.

RELIGION AS PROMINENT FORM OF NATIONALISM

The Iranian revolution

➢ The Iranian revolution of 1979 saw a mass movement of diverse interests
and political groups within Iranian society come together to overthrow the
Shah.
➢ This would eventually lead to the establishment of the Islamic Republic of
Iran in April 1979 and the creation of a new constitution
➢ This brought the Ayatollah Khomeini (political and religious leader) to
power as the leader of the world’s first Islamic state.
➢ Khomeini’s Shi’a Islamic regime initially focused on a jihadi approach to
reorganizing and reshaping Iran’s domestic and foreign policy priorities.

India
➢ India has witnessed an upsurge in both Hindu nationalism and Sikh
nationalism:-
• Hindu nationalists in the BJP, the more radical World Hindu Council
and its parent body, the RSS, have sought to make Hinduism the basis
of national identity and called for the ‘Hinduization’ of Muslim, Sikh,
Jain and other communities.
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• Sikh nationalists have looked to establish ‘Khalistan’, located in

present-day Punjab, with Sikhism as the state religion and its
government obliged to ensure its unhindered flourishing.

Israel
➢ In Israel, a collection of small ultra orthodox Jewish parties and groups has
become more prominent in transforming Zionism into a defense of the
‘Greater Land of Israel’.
➢ This has often been expressed in a campaign to build Jewish settlements in
territory occupied in the Six Day War of 1967 and then formally
incorporated into Israel.

STATE RELIGION AND STATE WITH A PREFERRED RELIGION

➢ State religion or official religion: A religion established by law as the

only official religion of a state.

➢ Islam is the world’s most common official religion. 27 countries name

Sunni Islam, Shia Islam or just Islam in general as their official faith.
(Afghanistan, Iran, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Somalia, Maldives etc)

➢ Christianity is the second most common official religion around the

world. 13 countries declare Christianity, to be their official state religion.
(United Kingdom, Denmark, Monaco, Iceland, Costa Rica etc)

➢ Buddhism is the official religion in two countries, Bhutan and Cambodia.

➢ Israel is the only country in the world with Judaism as its official state
religion.

➢ No country names Hinduism as its official state religion – though India and
Nepal are the two Hindu majority countries and India has a powerful Hindu
political party.
204 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

➢ Indonesia recognizes 6 official religions namely Islam, Protestantism,

Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism and Confucianism with the right of
freedom of religion.

➢ States with a preferred or favored religion have government policies or

actions that clearly favor one religion over others (but not as the official state
religion)

➢ Christianity is the most commonly favored religion.

➢ Buddhism is the second most commonly favored religion.( Burma, Laos,

Mongolia and Sri Lanka)

➢ Sudan, Syria and Turkey – favor Islam but do not declare it as the state
religion.

➢ Russia recognizes multiple “traditional” religions, but favors Orthodox

Christianity
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41
Culture and Identity Politics

INTRODUCTION

➢ International relations are primarily studied with reference to politico-

diplomatic, economic and security oriented realities that consistently shape
them.

➢ Politics during the twentieth century, especially during the Cold War era, was
dominated by ideological rivalry.

➢ The end of the Cold War, and developments such as September 11 and the
‘war on terror’, has altered a new thinking about global order which is appears
to be increasingly shaped by new forces, related to identity and culture.

➢ Francis Fukuyama and Samuel P Huntington have blazed a new trail in

International relations by analyzing the impact of cultural aspects in
International relations.

➢ Fukuyama’s central argument was that there was no viable alternative to

liberal democracy and capitalism, which was seen as western culture after the
end of cold war.

➢ Huntington viewed; it is not ideological conflict but the conflict among

diverse civilizations that will shape the destiny of humankind. The dominating
source of conflict was going to be cultural.
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MEANING OF CULTURE AND IDENTITY

➢ Identity: A relatively stable and enduring sense of selfhood; identity may be

personal (unique to an individual), social (shared with a group) or human
(shared with all people).

➢ Identity can be shaped by many principles – gender, culture, ethnicity, religion

and so on.

➢ Culture, in its broadest sense, is the way of life of a people; their beliefs,
traditions, languages, literatures, religion, values and practices.

➢ Cultural factors invisibly operate in the policymaking processes of all

countries. It has the capacity to design social and economic structures and
shape attitudes and worldviews.

DIFFERENT VIEWS ON IDENTITY

➢ Realist view: Realists tend to assume that identity is forged through the
overlapping ties of nationality and citizenship.

➢ Liberal view: for them individualism has important implications for any
theory of social or collective identity. Race, religion, culture, gender and
social class are of secondary importance: they are not ‘core’ to human
identity.

➢ Social constructivists: identities are the basis of interests’. Individuals can

thus adopt different identities in different cultural and ideational
circumstances.

➢ Feminist view: egalitarian feminists have been concerned to reduce or

remove gender differences; so-called difference feminists have argued that
gender is the very root of identity.
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WESTERNISATION AS MODERN CULTURE

➢ The end of the cold war and collapse of communist bloc has ended the acute
ideological rivalries and the western capitalism emerged as the only mode of
production and a world system.
➢ Western civilizations have rested essentially on materialism also generated
scientific and well-structured knowledge systems that laid claims to
universality.

➢ Westernization had significant economic, political and cultural implications.

➢ The political face of westernization took the form of the advance of liberal
democracy.

➢ Most of the countries have grappled to maintain their own balance between
traditions or indigenous ways of organizing societies while adapting
themselves to the phenomena of modernization, which was the mirror of
westernization.

➢ Globalization appeared to be bringing about the universalization of the

western economic model together with the spread of the values and appetites
of consumer capitalism.

How Westernisation or Modernisation Affects Culture And Identity:

➢ Above-mentioned forces have been associated with the emergence of a new

politics of identity, in which identity is linked to culture, ethnicity, locality
and religion.

➢ As liberal societies tend to espouse universal values and emphasize the

importance of personal autonomy and freedom of choice, they are often seen
to weaken cultural bonds and identities.

➢ Since the 1980s, all forms of identity politics view liberal universalism as a
source of oppression, even a form of cultural imperialism that marginalizes
and demoralizes subordinate groups and peoples.
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➢ The growth of consumerism and materialism, and the ‘multiculturalization’ of

national cultural traditions has been seen in many parts of the world as a
threat to their national culture, and traditional forms of identity.

➢ Religious revivalism can be seen as a consequence of the larger upsurge in

identity politics, religion has proved to be a particularly potent means of
regenerating personal and social identity in modern circumstances.

CHALLENGES TO THE WESTERN CULTURE

Post colonialism:-

➢ Anti-colonialism emerged in the inter-war period, but it reached its high

point of influence in the post-1945 period against European empires.

➢ Anti-colonialism was based on the same principle of national self

determination.

➢ The characteristic feature of post colonialism is that it sought to give the

developing world a distinctive political voice separate from the Universalist
pretensions of liberalism and socialism.

➢ Bandung Conference of 1955, newly independent African and Asian

countries, including Egypt, Ghana, India and Indonesia, led to establishment
of the Non-Aligned Movement.

➢ A militant form of third world politics emerged from the Tricontinental

Conference held in Havana in 1966. For the first time, this brought Latin
America (including the Caribbean) together with Africa and Asia.
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Asian Culture:-

➢ By the emergence of Japan as an economic superpower and the success

of the so-called Asian ‘tiger’ economies – Hong Kong, South Korea,
Thailand and Singapore the idea of Asian culture and beliefs constituted
an alternative to western gained momentum during the 1980s and 1990s.

➢ The Bangkok Declaration of 1993, when Asian state representatives from

Iran to Mongolia, meeting in preparation for the World Conference on
Human Rights in Vienna, issued a statement in favor of ‘Asian values’.

➢ It means Individualism had been emphasized over the interests of the

community; rights had been given preference over duties; and civic and
political freedoms had been extolled above socio-economic well-being.

➢ The idea of Asian values was dealt a damaging blow by the Asian
financial crisis of 1997–98.

➢ The rise of China and India has revived interest in the idea of Asian
values.

Islamic Culture:-

➢ Islam is the world’s second largest religion and its fastest growing.

➢ The rise of political Islam, and particularly 9/11 and the advent of the
‘war on terror’, created the image of a deep, and perhaps civilization,
clash between Islam and the West.

➢ Buruma and Margalit (2004) portrayed Islamism as a form of

Occidentalism. From this perspective, western society is characterized by
individualism, secularism and relativism. Occidentalism offers the
prospect of organic unity, moral certainty and politico-spiritual renewal.
210 Visit our website for Test Series, Courses and Study material: [Link]

➢ Political Islam committed to the expulsion of western influences from the

Muslim world and maybe to the overthrow of western secularism.

THINKERS RELATED TO CULTURE AND IDENTITY POLITICS

➢ Francis Fukuyama (1952): Fukuyama’s writings propounded in his famous

thesis of “the end of history and the last man” Fukuyama’s central argument
was that there was no viable alternative to liberal democracy and capitalism.
When the former Soviet Union was undergoing existential strains and
eventually disintegrated in 1991.
➢ Samuel P Huntington (1927 –2008): An American political scientist came
out initially with much more catchy arguments built around the clash of
civilizations in Foreign Affairs in 1993. Huntington further elaborated and
developed his argument on the clash civilizations (1996) Huntington view, it
is not ideological conflict but the conflict among diverse civilizations that will
shape the destiny of humankind. (The dominating source of conflict was going
to be cultural). He was particularly concerned about the inevitable clash
between the Islamic and western/Christian civilizations.
➢ Frantz Fanon (1925-1961): emphasized the link between anti-colonialism
and violence. His book Black Skin, White Masks (1952) is a multidisciplinary
analysis of the effect of colonialism on racial consciousness. Fanon was
naturally critical of the institutions of colonialism. His other famous work is
“The Wretched Of The Earth” (1961)
➢ Edward Said (1935–2003): the most influential postcolonial theorist, He
developed, a humanist critique of the western Enlightenment that uncovered
its links to colonialism and highlighted ‘narratives of oppression’, cultural and
ideological biases that disempower colonized peoples by representing them as
the nonwestern ‘other’, particularly applying this to the Middle East. He is
best known for the notion of ‘Orientalism’, which operates through a
‘Eurocentric prejudice against Arab-Islamic peoples and culture’. Said’s key
works include Orientalism ([1978] 2003) and Culture and Imperialism (1993).

______________________________________________________________
 IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF GOVERNANCE Student Notes:

Contents
1. Governance ................................................................................................................................ 2

1.1. Good Governance ............................................................................................................... 3

2. Governance in India ................................................................................................................... 5

2.1. Governance Issues in India.................................................................................................. 6

2.2. Good Governance Initiatives in India .................................................................................. 8

3. Tools to implement Good Governance .................................................................................... 10

3.1. People’s Participation ........................................................................................................ 11

3.2. Sevottam Model ................................................................................................................ 13

3.2.1. Citizen Charter............................................................................................................ 15

3.3. Social Accountability ......................................................................................................... 18

3.3.1. Social Audit................................................................................................................. 19

3.4. E-Governance .................................................................................................................... 22

4. Previous Year UPSC Questions ................................................................................................. 30

Copyright © by Vision IAS

All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without prior permission of Vision IAS.

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1. Governance Student Notes:

What is Governance?

Governance is the way rules, decisions, and The United Nations Development Programme
actions are made and implemented in an (UNDP), 1997, defined governance as “the
organisation or a country to manage and exercise of economic, political and
control its affairs effectively. administrative authority to manage a
A key distinction between government and country’s affairs at all levels. It comprises the
governance is the involvement of mechanisms, processes and institutions,
institutions beyond the state in managing through which citizens and groups articulate
public affairs. While the state wields power their interests, exercise their legal rights, meet
and is the principal actor in government, their obligations and mediate their differences.”
governance involves the entire society in
managing public affairs.
Characteristics of Governance: Context Specific and Value Neutral
1. Context-specific: Governance can look different in different places or situations because it
depends on the conditions and needs.
• For instance, it applies to various domains such as in polity as good governance, local
governance, ethical governance, e-governance etc; in the economic sphere as corporate
governance, at world level as international governance etc.
2. Value-neutral: Governance itself doesn't have a moral value; it's just a way of managing
things. How good or bad it is depending on how it's used. It can be positive or negative:
• Positive: If used well, governance can help people live better lives.
• Negative: If used poorly, it can harm people or make things worse.
In simple words, governance is like a tool that can be used in many ways, and whether it does
good or bad depends on how it's used.

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 Student Notes:

Stakeholders of Governance
Typically, the stakeholders of governance at national level can be categorized into three broad
categories – State, Market and Civil Society.
1. The State includes Legislature, Judiciary
and Political Executive, bureaucracy/
civil servants etc.
2. The Market includes the private sector.
3. The Civil Society includes Non-
Governmental Organizations (NGOs),
Voluntary Organizations (VOs), media
organizations/associations, trade unions, religious groups, pressure groups etc.

1.1. Good Governance

Good governance means managing and running an organisation or country in a fair, transparent,
and effective way, ensuring that the needs and interests of the people are met.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) recognizes eight core characteristics of good
governance as mentioned in the table below:
Participation • Participation of citizens to take part in decision-making, implementation
and monitoring of government activities.

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 Consensus • Good governance involves finding common ground among different Student Notes:
oriented views to decide what's best for everyone and planning for the citizens’
sustainable future.
Rule of Law • Good governance requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced
impartially.
Transparent • Transparency means information is freely available in easily
understandable forms and directly accessible to those who will be
affected by such decisions and their enforcement.
Accountable • Accountability is the acknowledgment and assumption of responsibility
for actions, products, decisions, and policies.
• In general, an organization or an institution is accountable to those who
will be affected by its decisions or actions.
Responsive • Redressal of citizen grievance, citizen orientation, citizen friendliness and
timely delivery of services are key components of responsive
governance.
Effective and • Good governance includes optimum use of resources at their disposal
Efficient with sustainable use of natural resources and the protection of the
environment.
Equitable and • This requires all groups, particularly the most vulnerable, to have
Inclusive opportunities to improve or maintain their well-being.
"Many sources include “Strategic
Vision” also as a 9th principle of
Good Governance. A strategic
vision refers to a clear, long-term
plan that guides how a
government aims to improve and
manage its services and
responsibilities.
Hence, Good governance as a
concept is used to represent the
interest of all the groups in the
society and stressed on the
promotion of social cohesion,
integration and wellbeing of its
population.
Strategies for Good Governance
To foster an environment of good governance the following strategies aim to streamline
governmental operations and enhance public welfare:
• Redirecting State Priorities: Focus on aligning state investments towards essential human
needs to ensure comprehensive development.
o For example: Swachh Bharat Abhiyan prioritizes sanitation and public health
• Social Protection for Vulnerable Groups: Establish robust social safety nets to support the
poor and marginalized segments of society.
o For example: National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP) provides financial assistance
to the elderly, widows, and persons with disabilities.
• Fortification of State Institutions: Enhance the strength and efficiency of state institutions to
improve governance.
o For example: Election Commission of India through the use of Electronic Voting
Machines (EVMs).

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• Legislative Reforms: Implement necessary reforms to boost the functionality and efficiency Student Notes:
of government.
o For example: Modernizing laws and regulations, promoting transparency, and ensuring
accountability in governmental processes.
• Civil Services Enhancement: Advance the capacity of the Civil Services through reform
measures that tie performance to accountability.
o For example: Mission Karmayogi scheme to build future-ready civil servants
• Collaborative Governance Framework: Develop a new cooperative framework between the
government, the civil society organisations and business sector to promote mutual growth
and good governance.
o For example: The partnership with local NGOs in the Midday Meal Scheme has been
crucial in improving educational outcomes and child nutrition.
o For example: The Smart Cities Mission in India exemplifies a collaborative approach
between the government and private sectors.

2. Governance in India
Evolution of Governance in India
Governance in India has transformed through distinct historical phases. Under the British Era,
administration focused on consolidating power for the Empire, laying the groundwork for future
systems.
After independence, the focus shifted to nation-building, emphasizing social justice, economic
development, and the establishment of a democratic framework with more focus on land
reforms and public sector enterprises.
The 1991 economic reforms introduced a market-driven economy, reducing direct government
intervention and promoting private investment, while strengthening civil organizations and
decentralizing governance through the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments.
Since 2014, India's governance landscape has seen substantial transformations with a focus on
digitalization, transparency, and enhanced citizen engagement.
• The government launched Minimum Government, Maximum Governance (MGMG)
numerous initiatives aimed • It emphasized that government needs to be as small in
at leveraging technology to size but big in activity.
streamline government • It focusses on streamlined government structure that
operations minimizes bureaucratic red tape.
• These made public services • It leads to increase its efficiency and effectiveness and
more accessible to the enhances public service delivery.
general populace. • It ensures government interventions are both citizen-
• The concept of "Minimum centric and development-oriented
Government, Maximum
Governance" popularized during this time.

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 Student Notes:

Over time, the way governance

works in India has changed based
on what was needed during
different periods. Each of these
phases has helped shape how the
government works today, and it
continues to change as new
challenges and opportunities
come up.
Dimensions of Governance in
India
The Department of
Administrative reforms and
Public grievances (DARPG) in its
report “State of Governance – A
framework of assessment” has
broken down governance into five
dimensions viz. political, legal &
judicial, administrative,
economic and social &
environmental dimensions as shown in the diagram below:

2.1. Governance Issues in India

India faces a range of governance related
issues in political, economic,
administrative, social and legal domain.
Some factors attributable to poor
governance are:
Political Issues:
• Criminalization of Politics: Data
provided by Association of Democratic
Reforms (ADR) highlights the growing
influence of criminal elements within

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 political institutions. It raises concerns when individuals who are subject to legal scrutiny Student Notes:
become lawmakers themselves.
• Misuse/Abuse of Political Power: Misuse of government machinery for electoral benefits or
to suppress dissent remains a significant concern.
Legal and Judicial Issues:
• Delayed Justice, Issue of Under Trials: There are approximately 45.2 million pending cases in
India across various courts and levels. This leads to prolonged detention for undertrials, with
some spending more years in prison than their potential maximum sentence.
• Lack of Accountability in Judiciary: The opacity in the appointment and transfer of judges
and the absence of a robust system to address judicial misconduct highlight ongoing
accountability issues.
Administrative Issues:
• Lack of Sensitivity, Transparency, and Accountability: There are frequent reports of
insensitivity in public service delivery, such as the mismanagement in relief operations during
natural disasters.
• Bureaucratic Delays: As indicated by the World Bank's Ease of Doing Business rank in 2020,
India was placed 163 out of 190 countries in terms of enforcing contracts, illustrating the slow
bureaucratic process.
• Decentralization More in Letter, Less in Spirit: Despite policies promoting decentralization,
the actual devolution of powers to local bodies often remains on paper more than in practice,
limiting effective local governance.
• Corruption: India scored 39 out of 100 on the Corruption Perceptions Index 2023, ranking
93rd out of 180 countries, indicating significant corruption problems.
Economic Issues:
• Poor Management
of Economy: Events
such as the 2016
demonetization
were criticized for
poor planning and
execution,
impacting the
economy widely.
• Persisting Fiscal
Imbalances: The
Indian government
has consistently
missed the fiscal deficit targets set by the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management
(FRBM) Act.
• Regional Disparities: There is a significant economic inequality, as seen with the GDP per
capita in Bihar being considerably lower than in more prosperous states like Maharashtra.
Social and Environmental Issues:
• Denial of Basic Services: Despite various programs, a significant portion of India’s population
remains below the poverty line, struggling with access to basic services like clean water and
sanitation.
• Marginalization and Exclusion: The 2011 Census showed that scheduled castes and tribes,
making up about 25% of India’s population, are still underrepresented in higher education
and formal employment.

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• Voiceless Poor: The low literacy rates and limited civic engagement among India's lower- Student Notes:
income populations highlight their continued struggle to access legal and administrative
systems.
• Deterioration of the Physical Environment: Rapid urbanization has exacerbated pollution
and waste management issues, particularly in cities like Delhi, which faces severe air quality
problems regularly.

Impact of Coalition Governments on Governance in India

Coalition governments, where multiple political parties come together to form a government,
have a significant impact on governance in India, as follows:
1. Consensus Building
• In a coalition government, decisions are made through consensus among various
parties.
• This often leads to more inclusive and balanced policies, as different perspectives are
considered.
• However, it can also result in slow decision-making due to prolonged negotiations.
2. Policy Stability and Continuity
• Coalition governments sometimes face challenges in maintaining policy stability and
continuity.
• Frequent disagreements among coalition partners can lead to policy reversals or
delays in implementation.
• This can affect long-term projects and economic reforms.
3. Checks and Balances
• Coalition governments provide a system of checks and balances, preventing any single
party from having absolute power. This can promote transparency and accountability
in governance, reducing the risk of authoritarianism.
4. Regional Representation
• Coalition governments often include regional parties, ensuring that the interests of
various states and regions are represented in national policy-making. This can lead to
more equitable development across the country.
5. Compromise and Compromise
• Coalition governance necessitates compromise, which can dilute strong policy
measures.
• Sometimes, to keep the coalition intact, parties might agree to policies that are less
effective or beneficial.
While coalition governments in India can promote inclusivity and balance, they also pose
challenges related to stability and efficiency in governance. Effective coalition management
and strong leadership are essential to harness the benefits and mitigate the drawbacks of
coalition politics.

2.2. Good Governance Initiatives in India

Good governance is an ongoing process aiming to serve the people better—this commitment to
service underpins the core philosophy of a democratic government. Some of the reforms to
improve the governance are mentioned below:
• E-Governance and Use of ICT Tools: Enhance the reach and efficiency of government
services, making them more accessible to citizens.
• Citizen’s Charters: Aim to improve the quality of public services and ensure accountability.
• Social Audits: Tools for ensuring public accountability in the implementation of projects and
schemes.
• Mission Karmayogi: Civil Services reform and capacity building (covered in the next chapter)

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Some Schemes/Initiatives that promotes good governance are as follows: Student Notes:
Schemes/Initiatives Details
Digital India: Seeks to transform India into a digitally empowered society and
knowledge economy.
Pradhan Mantri Jan Offers financial inclusion by providing bank accounts, insurance,
Dhan Yojana: and pension facilities to the economically weaker sections.
Goods and Services Tax Streamlines multiple indirect taxes into a single tax, enhancing tax
(GST): administration efficiency. (Details are covered in the Economy
section).
Direct Benefit Transfer: Aims to transfer subsidies directly to people through their bank
accounts, reducing leakage and corruption.
Swachh Bharat Mission: Promotes cleanliness, sanitation, and waste management across
rural and urban areas.
Right to Information Act: Empowers citizens to request information from the government,
enhancing transparency and accountability. (covered in Paper 4)
Decentralization and Enhanced through the 73rd and 74th Constitutional
People’s Participation: Amendments, fostering local governance (covered in Polity
section).
Financial Management Ensuring fiscal discipline and transparency (covered in Paper 3).
and Budget Sanctity:
These efforts collectively reflect a concerted push towards creating a more transparent, efficient,
and participatory governance framework.

Good Governance Index World Bank’s Worldwide Governance Indicators (WGI)

The Good Governance Index The World Bank's Worldwide Governance Indicators
(GGI) is a comprehensive (WGI) assess governance perceptions across over 200
framework designed to assess countries and territories from 1996 to 2022. The six key
the state of governance across indicators are:
Indian states and union Voice and Accountability Measures citizens' ability to
territories (UTs). It enables the participate in decision-
ranking of states and districts making and hold
based on common indicators. governments accountable.
Political Stability and Evaluates political stability
The Index was launched by
Absence of and the risk of violence.
Department of Administration
Violence/Terrorism
Reforms and Public Grievances
Government Assesses the efficiency and
(DARPG) The ranking is updated
Effectiveness competence of government
and published every two years
institutions.
and the most recent report was
Regulatory Quality Examines the effectiveness
released in 2021.
of regulations and their
Good Governance Day: impact on economic
Instituted in 2014, observed activities.
annually in India on December Rule of Law Reflects the extent to which
25th, marking the birth laws are enforced fairly and
anniversary of former Prime predictably.
Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee. Control of Corruption Gauges the prevalence of
corruption within public
institutions.
In India, the Department of Administrative Reforms
and Public Grievances is the nodal department
responsible for overseeing these indicators.

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 Student Notes:

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3. Tools to implement Good Governance Student Notes:

The implementation of good governance can be

achieved through various tools and Letting Go is Part of Good Governance
mechanisms, including people's participation, The Economic Survey 2023-24 emphasizes
the Right to Information (RTI), the Sevottam that letting go is crucial for good
model, Citizen Charters, and e-governance. governance. As the world faces potential
conflicts and challenges, the Indian state
3.1. People’s Participation must focus on critical areas by reducing its
People's participation is a vital component of grip on non-essential sectors.
good governance, reflecting the principle that Licensing, inspection, and compliance
governance should be for the people, by the requirements continue to burden
people, and with the people. businesses, particularly small and medium
• Active involvement of citizens in the enterprises. This excessive regulation stifles
decision-making process ensures that their growth and holds the country back.
governance is not only representative but also responsive to the needs and aspirations of
the community.
• This participatory approach enhances the legitimacy, accountability, and effectiveness of
governance.
Forms of People's Participation Case Study: Community-led Water Governance
(Economic Survey 2023-24)
1. Electoral Participation: Navanagar, a village in Gujarat, faced a severe water
• Voting: The most crisis with deep water tables and high Total Dissolved
fundamental form of Salts, making agriculture unprofitable. The Water
participation is voting in Resource Department and Gujarat Green Revolution
elections. By casting their Company (GGRC) helped rejuvenate the village pond
votes, citizens choose their using water from a nearby canal.
representatives who will The village cooperative, with the Gram Panchayat,
make decisions on their deepened the pond, built a sump, and installed pumps
behalf. and piping. Farmers bore the costs and adopted drip
• Running for Office: In India irrigation under the Per Drop More Crop (PDMC)
all posts are open to citizens, initiative. This led to a 30% increase in productivity,
allowing them to engage in reduced fertilizer and power use, and crop
governance. By running for diversification to profitable fruits and vegetables.
political office, they directly
contribute to the decision-making process.
2. Consultative Mechanisms:
• Public Consultations: Governments hold consultations to seek the views and opinions of
citizens on various policy matters. This is done through public meetings, surveys, and
focus group discussions.
o For example, the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) process requires public
hearings to gather local community inputs.
• Advisory Committees: Forming advisory committees with citizens’ participation help in
gathering diverse perspectives and making informed decisions.
o For example, the National Startup Advisory Council includes various stakeholders to
advise the government on measures needed to build a strong startup ecosystem.
3. Participatory Planning and Budgeting:
• Community Involvement: Involving community members in the planning and budgeting
process ensures that the allocation of resources reflects the actual needs and priorities
of the community.
o Kerala's People's Plan Campaign is a notable example.

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 • Local Governance Bodies: Panchayati Raj institutions and municipal bodies in India are Student Notes:
examples where local self-governance allows for direct citizen participation in decision-
making.
4. Social Audits:
• Social audits involve citizens in the monitoring and evaluation of government programs
and projects.
• This helps in ensuring transparency, accountability, and effective utilization of resources.
(details are discussed later)
5. Right to Information:
• The RTI Act empowers citizens to seek information from public authorities.
• This enables them to participate more effectively in governance by being informed about
government actions and decisions and hence promotes transparency and accountability.
Benefits of People's Participation
1. Enhanced Legitimacy:
• When citizens are actively involved in the governance process, decisions made are more
likely to be accepted and respected, thereby enhancing the legitimacy of the
government.
2. Improved Accountability:
• Participation increases transparency and accountability as citizens can hold their
representatives and public officials accountable for their actions and decisions.
3. Better Decision-Making:
• Incorporating diverse perspectives leads to more comprehensive and informed decision-
making, ensuring that policies and programs are more effective and inclusive.

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4. Empowerment: SEVEN SINS OF PEOPLE'S PARTICIPATION Student Notes:
• Participation empowers citizens by The concept of the "seven sins of citizen
giving them a voice in governance participation," introduced by Andrea Cornwall,
and enabling them to influence highlights common pitfalls in participatory
decisions that affect their lives. development and governance. These issues
• This fosters a sense of ownership arise when participation is superficial or
and responsibility towards manipulated, rather than inclusive and
community development. empowering. The seven sins are:
5. Social Cohesion: 1. Cosmetic Labeling:
• Active participation promotes • Participation is a token gesture with no real
social cohesion by bringing influence on decision-making, creating an
together diverse groups to work illusion of inclusiveness.
towards common goals, fostering a 2. Paternalism:
sense of unity and collective effort. • Decision-makers control the process,
Challenges to People's Participation assuming they know what's best for
people, limiting genuine input.
1. Lack of Awareness: 3. Politicization:
• Many citizens are unaware of their • Participation is used to advance political
rights and the mechanisms agendas rather than addressing people's
available for participation, which actual needs.
limits their engagement in the 4. Poor Representation:
governance process. • The process lacks diverse stakeholder
2. Socio-Economic Barriers: involvement, allowing certain groups to
• Socio-economic disparities can dominate while marginalizing others.
hinder participation, as 5. Instrumentalization:
marginalized and disadvantaged • Participation is used to achieve pre-decided
groups may lack the resources and goals, like securing funding, rather than
opportunities to engage valuing the process and outcomes equally.
effectively. 6. Fragmentation:
3. Institutional Constraints:
• Lack of coordination among participatory
• Bureaucratic red tape, lack of initiatives leads to duplication, confusion
responsiveness, and inadequate and weakening overall impact.
infrastructure can pose significant 7. Overloading:
barriers to effective citizen
• Participants, especially from community
participation.
organizations or civil society, can become
4. Political Will:
overwhelmed, leading to fatigue and
• Genuine participation requires disengagement.
political will and commitment Addressing these issues requires a genuine
from those in power to create and commitment to inclusivity, transparency, and
maintain inclusive and empowerment to ensure meaningful and
participatory governance impactful participation.
mechanisms.
People's participation is indispensable for achieving good governance. It ensures that
governance is not only representative but also responsive, transparent, and accountable. A
participatory approach to governance strengthens democracy and promotes sustainable
development.

3.2. Sevottam Model

What is the Sevottam Model?
The Sevottam model has been developed with objective of improving the quality of public service
delivery in the country. It is a combination of two words Seva (service) and Uttam (excellence).

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It provides a framework for organizations to Student Notes:
assess and improve the quality-of-service
delivery to citizens. The model was
suggested by 2nd ARC in its 12th report
Citizen Centric administration.
The model has three modules:
• Citizen Charter
• Public Grievance Redress mechanism
• Service Delivery Capability
Organizations adopting Sevottam model for
service delivery need to comply with seven
steps:
1. Define services and identify clients.
2. Set standards and norms for each
service.
3. Develop capability to
meet the set standards.
4. Perform to achieve the
standards.
5. Monitor performance
against the set standards.
6. Evaluate impact through
an independent
mechanism.
7. Continuous improvement
based on monitoring and
evaluation
Implementation of Sevottam
framework in the government
departments was started in
2009.
Significance of the Model
Some success stories of Sevottam framework
• It guides them through Department of Post (India Post)
systematic initiatives for • India Post, with its vast network of post offices,
sustainable improvements in embraced Sevottam.
service delivery • They improved services like speed post, parcel
• The framework enables delivery, and savings accounts.
implementing organizations to Indian Railways:
undertake a systematic, credible • The lifeline of India, Indian Railways, implemented
and authenticated self- Sevottam across various services—ticket booking,
assessment (or ‘gap analysis’) for cleanliness, and passenger amenities.
citizen-centric service delivery. Passport Offices:
• Using this analysis, practical • Sevottam transformed passport services.
solutions are gradually and • Citizens now encounter streamlined processes,
systematically incorporated into faster issuance, and improved customer support.
the organization’s day-to-day
routine thereby ensuring sustainable results.

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3.2.1. Citizen Charter Student Notes:
As per 2nd ARC, Citizen Charter is a public statement that defines the entitlements of citizens to
a specific service, the standards of the service, the conditions to be met by users, and the
remedies available to the latter in case of non-compliance of standards.
Origin and the Concept of Citizen Charter
• The concept was first articulated and implemented in the United Kingdom in 1991.
• Originally, six principles of the Citizens Charter movement are framed. (Refer infographic)

Citizen Charter in India

• India adopted citizen’s charter in 1997.
o The Department of Administrative International Examples
Reforms and Public Grievances • Belgium - Public Service Users’ Charter,
(DARPG) initiated the task of 1992
coordinating, formulating and • Spain - The Quality Observatory, 1992.
operationalising Citizen's Charters. • Malaysia - Client Charter, 1993
o The Right of Citizens for Time Bound • Canada - Service Standards Initiative, 1995
Delivery of Goods and Services and Redressal of their Grievances Bill, 2011 (Citizens
Charter) seeks to create a mechanism to ensure timely delivery of goods and services to
citizens. However, it lapsed due to the dissolution of the Lok Sabha in 2014.
Significance of Citizen Charter
• It is a tool to achieve good governance.
• It provides
services to the
people in a time
bound manner,
redressing their
grievances and
improving their
lives.
• It enshrines the
trust between
the service
provider and its
users and
empowers the citizen in relation to public service delivery.

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 Model Panchayat Citizens Charter framework Student Notes:
The Ministry of Panchayati Raj (MoPR) in collaboration with National Institute of Rural
Development and Panchayati Raj (NIRDPR) has released a Model Panchayat Citizens Charter
framework in 2021.
• The basic objective is to empower the citizens in relation to public services and to
improve the quality of services without any prejudice, and in accordance with the
expectations of the citizens.
• The standards committed by the Panchayats are useful yardsticks for monitoring and
evaluation of service delivery.
• It will help in making the citizens aware of their rights on the one hand, and to make the
Panchayats and their elected representatives directly accountable to the people, on the
other hand.
• It has been prepared for delivery of the services across the 29 sectors, aligning actions
with localised Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Challenges in implementing Citizens Charter (CC)
• Issues with respect to design of CC:
o Difficult language: Often, the citizen charter is published in a difficult language which is
not easily understandable.
o Rarely updated: Citizens Charters are rarely updated which makes it a one-time exercise,
frozen in time.
o Devoid of participative mechanisms: In most of the cases, it is not formulated through a
consultative process with staff who will finally implement it. End-users, Civil society
organizations and NGOs are not consulted either when citizens’ charters are drafted.

• Issues related to Implementation of CC:

o Non-Adoption of CC: CC has still not been adopted by all Ministries/Departments.
o Standards of delivery: Measurable standards of delivery are rarely defined that makes
it difficult to assess whether the desired level of service has been achieved or not.
o Uniform CC for all agencies: There is a tendency to have a uniform citizen’s charter for
all agencies under the same parent organization.
• Issue related to citizens:
o Information asymmetry: There is lack of awareness regarding the charter.
o Lack of interest: Organizations are generally disinterested in following through with the
standards committed in the CC since these is no incentive or motivation to enforce it on
their employees.
• Issue related to grievance redressal:
o Lack in Accountability: In case of most organisations, no reporting and periodic review
mechanism has been evolved to assess the implementation of Charter. Even the Annual
Report does not include a review of Charter implementation or plans for implementation.

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• Issues related to human resource: Student Notes:
o Lack of trained staff: In many cases, the concerned staff were not adequately trained.
o Transfer of staff: Sometimes, transfers and reshuffles of concerned officers at the crucial
stages of formulation/implementation of the Citizen's Charter in an organization severely
undermines the strategic processes.
Strengthening Citizen Charters
• Clarity and Precision in Standards: it is important to include precision into standards and
commitments to address the ambiguous vision and mission statements.
• Participatory Structures: An effective monitoring system ensures regular performance
reviews, making the organization more participatory, responsive, and accountable.
• Easy Language: Effort should be made to use local language while formulating the Citizen
Charter.
• Capacity-Building Workshops: For enhancing the capacity of trainers, staff, effective
implementation of charter, capacity building workshops should be organized.
• Technology upgradation and incorporation for smooth implementation of rules and
guidelines of the Citizen’s Charters.

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3.3. Social Accountability Student Notes:

What is Social Accountability?

Social accountability
refers to a wide
range of actions and
mechanisms that
the citizens,
communities,
independent media
and civil society
organizations can
use to hold public
officials
accountable.
Common tools of
Social Accountability
at various stages of
service delivery
involves the
following:

Challenges and Vulnerabilities Inherent to Social Accountability Efforts

• Lack of Transparency: Withholding crucial information or providing inadequate information,
such as budget documents, necessary for social accountability initiatives.
• Complacency on part of citizens: Citizens not speaking up against corruption and refusing to
cooperate in social accountability efforts.
• Disruption by powerful vested interests: Threats and coercion result in communities
becoming hesitant to participate in social accountability initiatives.
• Lack of effective grievance redressal: Strict and unfailing follow-up action on social
accountability findings is lacking.
Key Elements of Effective Social Accountability
• Effective Decentralization: Empower local governments, such as panchayats and
municipalities, by providing them with the necessary resources and authority to implement
schemes and programs based on the "principle of subsidiarity."

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• Information and Student Notes:
Awareness: Enhance
Section 4 of the RTI Act
to promote the
proactive disclosure of
relevant and accurate
information.
• Capacity Building and
Community
Mobilization:
Regularly train officials
and citizens, and
involve local NGOs,
SHGs, and community
groups to increase
awareness and
encourage
participation in
schemes.
• Mandatory Social
Accountability: Require social audits in programs with significant public impact to ensure
accountability.
3.3.1. Social Audit
Supply-side Accountability and Demand-side
What is Social Audit? Accountability:
Social audit is a process where a Supply-side Accountability: Refers to mechanisms and
public agency shares details of institutions within the government that uphold
resources used in development accountability through traditional, legal, and
initiatives with the public, often hierarchical structures.
through public platforms. This allows Demand-side Accountability: Emphasises the role of
end users to scrutinize the citizens and external bodies in ensuring accountability,
effectiveness of developmental often through more modern, participatory, and
programs. horizontal approaches.
Social audit serves as an instrument Supply-side Accountability Demand-side
for the measurement of social Accountability
accountability of an organization. Accountability upheld Accountability with
Why Social Audit? from Government People’s participation
The government has focused more Traditional Method Modern method
on supply-side accountability. Top-Down Bottom-Up
Improving this is a long-term
Internal External
process. However, enhancing
demand-side accountability can Legal Diagonal
quickly improve the overall system. Hierarchical Horizontal
To do this, we need to:
Example: Legislature, Example: Social Audit,
• Promote social audits of CAG, CIC, CVC, SC RTI, Citizens Charter
development programs.
• Strengthen Gram Sabhas, which are closest to the beneficiaries.
Evolution of Social Audit
Below is an overview of the evolution of social audits, highlighting key events and milestones:

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 Year/ Initiative/ Key Developments Impact Student Notes:
Period Contributor
1976 Charles Medawar Introduced the concept of social Pioneered the use of
accountability in the social audits for
pharmaceutical sector. transparency and
accountability in
business practices.
1970s TESCO, Conducted social audits as part Emphasized the role of
Jamshedpur of corporate social responsibility businesses in ensuring
(CSR) activities. social responsibility and
accountability.
1990s MKSS (Mazdoor Initiated public hearings (Jan Empowered citizens to
Kisan Shakti Sunwai) in Rajasthan to audit hold government
Sangathan), Jan public expenditure. accountable, forming
Sunwai the basis for
institutionalised social
audits in governance.
2000s MGNREGA Introduced a legal mandate for Made social audits a
social audits under the Mahatma mandatory process for
Gandhi National Rural monitoring government
Employment Guarantee Act. schemes and public
funds.
2011 and CAG (Comptroller Developed and updated Provided a structured
2016 and Auditor comprehensive guidelines for and standardized
General of India) conducting social audits. framework for social
audits in various
government
programmes.
2015 Meghalaya Became the first Indian state to Established a legal
legally mandate social audits for framework for regular
all government schemes. social audits, setting an
example for other
states.
Ongoing Rajasthan, Developed institutional Reinforced the role of
Andhra Pradesh, mechanisms and formal social audits in
and Other States structures for conducting social promoting good
audits. governance and public
accountability.
Significance of Social Audit
Its significance can be appreciated through several key aspects:
• Boosts Accountability and Transparency: Social audits help deter corruption by ensuring
proper use of funds and builds public trust. For example In Rajasthan, social audits of the
NREGA uncovered fraud and discrepancies in labor records and wage payments. This led to
the recovery of misused funds and stricter program management,
• Strengthens Governance and Community Engagement: These audits empower local
communities by strengthening participatory platforms like Gram Sabhas, which are crucial
for democratic engagement and decision-making.
• Enhances Program Design and Delivery: Social audits reveal any discrepancies between
program goals and actual outcomes, providing valuable data that can lead to policy changes
and program improvements.
o This data-driven approach helps in refining program designs to meet community needs

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 more effectively. Student Notes:
o Social audits help organizations set specific goals to improve effectiveness and align
operations with public expectations. For example: In Odisha, social audits were
conducted across 240 Gram Panchayats that led to improvement of delivery of state
nutrition-related services.
Limitations of Social Audit
Social audits are a critical tool for assessing the effectiveness and impact of various community-
based programs. However, despite their importance, these audits come with several limitations
that can hinder their comprehensive application and effectiveness:
• Localized Scope: Social audits are highly localized, focusing only on selected aspects and not
broadly applicable across different regions or the entire population.
o It’s findings are context-specific and not universally applicable, as they reflect unique
local conditions and stakeholder feedback specific to the area audited.
• Inconsistency and Ad Hoc Nature: These audits often occur sporadically and lack a formal,
continuous monitoring process.
• Program-Specific Challenges: Each program faces unique challenges, and social audits may
not always be effective. For instance, adult literacy programs for migrants need migration
data, which might not be covered in a typical social audit.
• Lack of Trained Auditors: There is a notable shortage of professionals trained specifically to
conduct effective social audits as audit require a distinct set of skills and knowledge.

• Inaction on Audit Findings: Often, there is no subsequent action taken on the findings and
recommendations of social audits, limiting their effectiveness and impact.
Improving auditor training, broadening the audits' scope, and ensuring actions are taken based
on findings are vital for enhancing their effectiveness. These improvements can make social
audits stronger tools for community development and governance.

Social Audits and CAG (CAG+1)

Social audits can significantly enhance CAG audits by providing an outcome orientation that
broadens the scope—referred to as CAG+1—focusing on performance outputs, and supplying
vital data, reports, and findings.
• The CAG has directed all state Auditors General (AGs) to support the institutionalization
of social audits.
• Notably, social audit standards were established for MGNREGA in 2016, and AGs have
been instructed to attend social audits and incorporate their findings into CAG
performance audits.
• CAG has emphasized the importance of AGs assisting in strengthening social audits by
providing inputs, advising social audit teams in gram sabhas, panchayats, and NGOs on
report making, data collection, and ensuring policy implementation.
To further institutionalize the relationship between CAG and social audits, it is proposed to
create a dedicated portal at the state level under a responsible department to manage all
social audits, making it accessible to the CAG.
This integrated approach, called CAG+1, is expected to significantly strengthen the auditing
system.

Strengthening Social Audit in India

1. Enhancing Legal and Institutional Frameworks
• Enact a National Social Audit Act: A National Social Audit Act would help check and
improve government services all over the country. For example, in line with Meghalaya's
Community Participation and Public Services Social Audit Act (2017).

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 • Establish Independent Audit Units: Create autonomous social audit units with sufficient Student Notes:
staffing and resources, modeled after successful examples like Andhra Pradesh’s Society
for Social Audit, Accountability, and Transparency.
2. Promoting Standardization and Transparency
• Develop Standardized Guidelines: Implement uniform guidelines and methodologies
for conducting social audits across various sectors to ensure consistency and reliability
of audit outcomes.
• Online Accessibility and Proactive Disclosure: Develop frameworks for online access to
audit reports and encourage proactive disclosure of information to facilitate public
engagement and transparency.
3. Improving Social Audit Processes
• Integrate Advanced Tools: Explore the integration of AI tools to enhance the efficiency
and effectiveness of social audits.
• Active Stakeholder Participation: Ensure that all community members, civil society
organizations, and marginalized groups are involved in the social audit process to
increase inclusivity and accountability.
4. Effective Monitoring and Enforcement
• Robust Monitoring and Enforcement Mechanisms: Set up systems for monitoring
compliance with social audit standards, including periodic checks and penalties for non-
compliance to deter violations and promote adherence.
• Whistleblower Protection: Implement strong protections for whistleblowers to
encourage the reporting of irregularities and ensure the safety and security of those
who highlight issues.
5. Recognition and Incentivization
• Rewards and Recognition: Acknowledge and reward individuals and communities who
actively contribute to the strengthening of social audits and improved service delivery,
fostering a culture of accountability and excellence.
6. Strengthening Auditor and PRI Capacities:
• Increase training for social auditors and build the institutional capacity of Panchayati Raj
Institutions at block and district levels for better data management and audit processes.
These comprehensive steps aim to revitalize the social audit mechanism in India, ensuring it not
only checks compliance but also drives meaningful improvements in governance and public trust.

3.4. E-Governance E- Governance is about bringing SMART

Governance viz:
What is E-governance?
• S - Simple: Simplification of rules and
According to the World Bank, “E- procedures of Government making it user-
Governance refers to the use by friendly.
government agencies of information • M-Moral: Infusing ethics and morals into
technologies (such as Wide Area officers again since anti-corruption and
Networks, the Internet, and mobile vigilance agencies are improving.
computing) that have the ability to • A- Accountable: ICT helps set standards of
transform relations with citizens, performance and efficiently measures it.
businesses, and other arms of • R- Responsive: Efficient service delivery and
government”. government that is in tune with the people.
The framework of e-governance is • T - Transparent: Information confined to
often described through the "5C" secrecy is out in the public domain bringing
model, as identified by Miglani in 2001, equity and rule of law in public agencies.
which includes:

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 Component Description Student Notes:
Computer Encompasses all necessary hardware and software for government functions.
Connectivity Relates to systems that handle data transmission, including bandwidth and
other information carriers.
Content Refers to the information exchanged within the system among users.
Consumer Includes all individuals and their proxies who access and utilize this content.
Confidence Consists of measures aimed at enhancing citizen trust in the e-governance
Building system, encouraging their engagement in e-transformation.
Potential of e-governance
• Fast, Convenient and Cost-Effective
Service Delivery: With the advent
of e-Service delivery, the
government can provide
information and services at lesser
costs, in reduced time and with
greater convenience.
• Transparency, Accountability and
Reduced Corruption:
Dissemination of information
improves the awareness levels of
citizens about their rights and powers. It helps to reduce the discretionary powers of
government officials and curtail corruption.
• Expanded Reach of
Governance:
Expansion of
telephone network,
spread of internet
and strengthening of
other
communications
infrastructure
facilitated delivery of
a number of public
services.
• Empowering people
through information:
Increased
accessibility to
information has empowered the citizens and has enhanced their participation.
• Improve interface with Ease of Governance
Business and Industry: ● As per this idea, the main aim of e-governance should be
Industrial development in ‘ease of governance’ leading to ‘ease of living’ of people.
India has been hampered This is essential for the emergence of a ‘New India’.
in the past with complex ● Ease of Governance essentially means Ease of access to
procedures and governance where public policies are people centric with
bureaucratic delays. E- empathetic and responsive government mechanisms.
governance aims to
expedite the various processes important for industrial development.

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 E-governance and JAM Trinity Student Notes:

The JAM Trinity, comprising Jan Dhan, Aadhaar, and Mobile connectivity, has revolutionized
governance in India. Jan Dhan facilitates financial inclusion and direct benefits transfer,
reducing leakages. Aadhaar provides unique IDs to authenticate identities and ensure benefits
reach the right people. Mobile connectivity enables digital transactions and improves service
delivery.

“For every rupee

targeted towards
welfare and poverty
alleviation only a
fraction, 15 paise,
reached the intended
beneficiary.” Rajiv
Gandhi (1980s).
“The amount that reaches the poor has reached 50%.” Montek Singh Ahluwalia (2007).

This implementation of JAM trinity enhances efficiency and transparency. Direct Benefits
Transfer (DBT) through Jan Dhan accounts reduces corruption and ensures timely subsidies.
Aadhaar minimizes fraud, while mobile connectivity streamlines processes for easier access to
services.

Models of e-governance
E-Governance services can be shared between citizens, businessman, government and
employees. These four models of e-governance are:
Models Services/Information Shared Initiatives/Examples
Government to • Payment of online bills such as • Computerisation of Land
Citizen (G2C) electricity, water, telephone Records
bills etc. • Bhoomi Project in Karnataka
• Online registration of aimed at digitizing land records
applications • Project FRIENDS in Kerala aimed
• Online copies of land-record at providing multiple public
• Online filling of complaints services through a single
• Availability of any kind of online window system.
information etc • Digital Locker System etc.
Government to • Government document• Khajane Project in Karnataka
Government exchange aimed at streamlining and
(G2G) • Finance and budget automating the state's treasury
management etc. operations.
Government to • Tax collection • e-Procurement Project in
Business (G2B) • Patent approvals and rejections Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat
• Bill and penalty payments • SWIFT (Single Window Interface
• Information and rule sharing for Facilitating Trade) initiative
etc. to streamline and simplify
international trade processes.
etc.
Government to • Data submissions (attendance, • Mission Karmayogi/ Integrated
Employees employee records) Government Online Training-
(G2E) • Complaint filing iGOT Karmayogi platform etc.
• Sharing rules and regulations
• Payment and work records etc.

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Recent Development in India regarding e-governance Student Notes:
Digital India Mission
• It was launched by the Government of India in 2015.
• It aims to transform India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy.
• This initiative focuses on three core areas: creating digital infrastructure, delivering services
digitally, and promoting digital literacy.
• A key component of the mission is the Common Service Centres (CSCs), which provide
essential government services and digital access to citizens in rural and underserved areas.
NeGP 2.0 or E-Kranti (Electronic Delivery of Services):
• It aims to provide electronic delivery of services to citizens in various sectors such as
healthcare, education, agriculture, and justice.
• For instance, e-Hospital services allow online appointment bookings and access to medical
records.
Enhancements in Governance: NeGP vs. NeGP 2.0 (e-Kranti)
The National e-Governance Plan (NeGP), launched in 2006, aimed to make government
services accessible electronically but faced issues like lack of needs analysis, interoperability
problems, and adapting to new technologies.
NeGP 2.0 (e-Kranti), introduced in March 2015 under Digital India, addresses these limitations
to enhance governance. Here’s how:
• Integrated Approach
o Combines cloud computing, mobile platforms, and geospatial systems for better
coordination and resource use.
• Outcome-Oriented
o Focuses on achieving real impacts rather than just completing tasks, ensuring
initiatives are effective and beneficial.
• Fast and Agile
o Adapts quickly to technological changes, allowing for faster implementation and
efficient service delivery.
NeGP 2.0 (e-Kranti) significantly advances e-governance by integrating systems, focusing on
real outcomes, and being agile, thus improving governance and service delivery.
BHIM (Bharat Interface for Money) UPI (Unified Payments Interface):
• The BHIM UPI has revolutionized digital payments in India, making transactions quick, easy,
and secure.
Case Study
• The UPI system has seen
Education and E-Governance: India’s E-Learning Revolution
exponential growth, with
• SWAYAM: An open online platform with over 13,140
billions of transactions
courses, including AI and machine learning, serving 4.3
processed monthly,
crore users.
reflecting the country's
• SWAYAM PRABHA: A 24x7 DTH service with 48 channels
shift towards a cashless
offering UG/PG content, reaching 1.2 million students.
economy.
• SWAYAM Plus: IIT Madras-led platform offering
IndiaStack: industry-relevant courses for credit, aimed at upskilling
• A set of APIs (Application in Tier 2 and Tier 3 cities.
Programming Interfaces) • SAMARTH: E-governance tool streamlining higher
that allows governments, education processes, adopted by over 3,500 institutions.
businesses, startups, and • PM e-VIDYA: Integrates digital education through
developers to utilize DIKSHA (3.5 lakh e-contents) and SATHEE (2000 video
India's digital lectures), enhancing access to educational resources.
infrastructure to deliver
services.

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• Components like Aadhaar, eKYC, eSign, and DigiLocker form the backbone of IndiaStack. Student Notes:
These components streamline service delivery, reduce paperwork, and enhance accessibility for
citizens. By leveraging this digital infrastructure, governments, businesses, and developers can
provide faster, more reliable public services.

National Data Governance Framework Policy (NDGFP)

The NDGFP is an initiative by the Government of India aimed at creating a robust framework
for managing and utilising data across various sectors.
• Launched in 2022, the policy seeks to promote the ethical use of data while ensuring
privacy, security, and transparency.
Key objectives
1. Data Accessibility: To enhance the availability and accessibility of data for public good,
ensuring that it is used effectively for governance and decision-making.
2. Data Privacy and Security: To establish guidelines for protecting sensitive data, ensuring
compliance with privacy laws, and safeguarding citizens' information.
3. Interoperability: To promote interoperability among different data systems, facilitating
seamless data exchange and integration across government departments and agencies.
4. Encouraging Innovation: To foster a data-driven ecosystem that encourages research,
innovation, and the development of new technologies, enhancing service delivery and
efficiency.
5. Capacity Building: To build institutional capacity and expertise in data management,
enabling government officials and agencies to leverage data effectively.
Key Components
• Data Sharing and Collaboration: Promoting collaboration among government
departments, private entities, and research institutions to create a cohesive data
ecosystem.
• Open Data Initiatives: Encouraging the release of non-sensitive government data to the
public to promote transparency and stimulate innovation.
• Data Governance Bodies: Establishing bodies and frameworks for overseeing data
governance practices, ensuring compliance with the policy's objectives.
Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI)
Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) refers to the foundational digital systems and platforms that
support the delivery of public services and facilitate governance in a digital environment. DPI
encompasses a range of technologies and frameworks designed to enhance accessibility,
efficiency, and transparency in government operations.
How DPI Helps in E-Governance:
• Core Digital Systems: Identity management (e.g., Aadhaar), payment systems (e.g., UPI),
and digital storage solutions (e.g., DigiLocker) form the backbone of e-governance,
enabling seamless service delivery.
• Interoperability Frameworks: Standards and protocols ensure different government
systems can communicate and exchange data efficiently, improving coordination and
reducing redundancy.
• Open Data Initiatives: Platforms that make non-sensitive government data available to
the public foster transparency, encourage innovation, and enable informed decision-
making.
• User-Centric Services: Digital platforms provide easy access to government services,
ensuring citizens can interact effectively with the government, enhancing user experience
and satisfaction.

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 Advancing Data Governance in India: DGQI 2.0 Student Notes:
DGQI (Data Governance Quality Index) is an initiative by the Government of India to assess
the data management practices of various Ministries and Departments. It aims to improve
data quality, promote healthy competition, and encourage the adoption of best practices for
better governance.

What is DGQI 2.0?

DGQI 2.0 is the upgraded version of the original DGQI. It enhances the framework by:
1. Comprehensive Evaluation: It includes more detailed criteria for assessing data
preparedness and management practices.
2. Interoperability Focus: Emphasizes improving data sharing and interoperability across
different government departments.
3. Actionable Insights: Provides more actionable recommendations for improving data
governance.
4. Benchmarking Best Practices: Encourages peer learning and the adoption of best
practices from top-performing departments.

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Challenges Student Notes:
There are a large number of obstacles in implementation of e-Governance in India. These can be
categorized under the following:
1. Digital Infrastructure:
• Limited Broadband Connectivity: Many rural and remote areas still lack high-speed
internet access, making it difficult to provide consistent e-governance services across the
country.
• Power Supply Issues: Frequent power outages and unreliable electricity supply in rural
areas can disrupt the functionality of digital infrastructure.
2. Interoperability:
• Fragmented Systems: Different government departments use various legacy systems
that are not always compatible with each other. This lack of standardization hinders
seamless data sharing and coordination among agencies.
• Integration with Legacy Systems: Upgrading and integrating old systems with new
technologies is complex and costly.
3. Data Security and Privacy:
• Cybersecurity Threats: With increasing digitization, the risk of cyberattacks and data
breaches has also increased. Ensuring robust cybersecurity measures is essential to
protect sensitive government and citizen data.
• Data Privacy Concerns: There are significant concerns regarding the protection of
personal data, especially in the absence of a comprehensive data protection law.
4. Digital Literacy:
• Low Digital Literacy Rates India Inequality Report 2022 by Oxfam
and Digital Divide: A • Among the poorest 20% of households, only
significant portion of the 2.7% have access to a computer, and 8.9% have
population, particularly in internet facilities.
rural areas, lacks the basic • Only 38% of households in the country are
digital skills needed to access considered digitally literate.
and utilize e-governance • The richest 60 per cent Indians are four times
services effectively. more likely to use digital payment facilities than
• Lack of trained Government the poorest 40 per cent.
Employees: Ensuring that
government employees at all levels are adequately trained to handle and manage e-
governance tools and
platforms is a IndEA 2.0: Enhancing Digital Governance in India
continuous challenge. IndEA 2.0 (India Enterprise Architecture) is a framework
5. Technical Support and designed to improve digital governance by creating a
Maintenance: coherent structure for government IT systems.
• Inadequate Technical Key Features of IndEA 2.0:
Support: Ensuring that • Unified Architecture: Provides a cohesive structure
there is sufficient for government IT systems, ensuring all components
technical support for work together seamlessly.
maintaining and • Interoperability: Establishes standards and protocols
troubleshooting e- that enable different government systems to
governance systems is communicate and share data efficiently.
crucial. Many regions • Efficiency: Optimizes resource utilization, reducing
lack skilled personnel for duplication of efforts and ensuring cost-effective
ongoing system support solutions.
and maintenance. • Enhanced Service Delivery: Focuses on improving the
• Scalability Issues: As the quality and accessibility of government services to
user base grows, citizens through integrated digital platforms.

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 ensuring that the systems can scale without performance degradation is a technical Student Notes:
challenge.
7. Cost and Funding:
• High Implementation Costs: The initial cost of setting up digital infrastructure,
maintaining systems, and training personnel is substantial. Securing sustained funding
for these activities is often challenging.
• Cost of Advanced Technologies: Implementing cutting-edge technologies such as AI and
blockchain can be prohibitively expensive for widespread deployment.
8. User Accessibility and Inclusivity:
• Language Barriers: India is a diverse country with multiple languages. Ensuring that e-
governance services are accessible in all major languages is necessary for inclusivity.
• Accessibility for Differently-Abled: Ensuring that digital services are accessible to
differently-abled individuals requires additional technical considerations and
implementations.
Addressing these challenges requires a multi-faceted approach involving government
commitment, public-private partnerships, continuous technological upgrades, and inclusive
policy-making.
Recommendations of 2nd ARC on e-governance
Following is some of the important recommendations of 2nd Administrative Commission on e-
governance:
• Building a Congenial Environment: Building a congenial environment is a sine-qua-non for
successful implementation of e-Governance initiatives. This should be achieved by:
o Creating and displaying a will to change within the government
o Providing political support at the highest level
o Incentivising e-Governance
o Creating awareness in the public with a view to generating a demand for change.
• Business Process Re-engineering: Governmental forms, processes and structures should be
re-designed to make them adaptable to e-Governance, backed by procedural, institutional
and legal changes.
• Developing Technological Solutions: Develop a national e-Governance ‘enterprise
architecture’ framework as has been done in some countries.
• Monitoring and Evaluation: Monitoring of e-Governance projects should be done by the
implementing organization during implementation.
• Public-Private Partnership (PPP): Several components of e-Governance projects lend
themselves to the Public-Private Partnership (PPP) mode through a transparent process.
• Protecting Critical Information Infrastructure Assets: There is need to develop a critical
information infrastructure
assets protection strategy. SVAMITVA (Survey of Villages and Mapping with
This should be supplemented Improvised Technology in Village Areas) scheme
with improved analysis and • Launch: April 24, 2020
warning capabilities as well • Ministry: Ministry of Panchayati Raj
as improved information Purpose:
sharing on threats and • Aims to provide an integrated property validation
vulnerabilities. solution for rural India.
• The Common Support • Utilizes drone technology to map rural residential
Infrastructure: The State land.
Data Centres (SDCs) should • Integration of the maps and property data with the
be maintained by Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme
Government agencies such (DILRMP).
as NIC as it involves handling
of sovereign data. Further, all data centres at the State level should be subsumed in the SDCs.

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• Mission Mode Project on Computerization of Land Records: Surveys and measurements Student Notes:
need to be carried out in a mission mode utilizing modern technology.
• Legal Framework for e-Governance: A clear road map with a set of milestones should be
outlined by Government of India.
• Knowledge Management: Union and State Governments should take proactive measures for
establishing Knowledge Management systems as a pivotal step for administrative reforms in
general and e-Governance in particular.
• Capacity Building and Creating Awareness: Capacity building efforts must attend to both the
organizational capacity building as also the professional and skills up gradation of individuals
associated with the implementation of e-Governance projects.
Conclusion
The e-governance stands as a transformative force in modern governance, offering unparalleled
potential to drive human development and foster inclusive development. By leveraging digital
technologies, it enhances transparency, accountability, and efficiency in public service delivery,
ensuring that essential services reach all citizens equitably.
Despite challenges such as the digital divide, cybersecurity risks, and the need for capacity
building, the strategic implementation of e-governance can bridge socio-economic gaps and
empower marginalized communities.
As we move forward, continued investment in digital infrastructure, education, and inclusive
policies will be crucial to harnessing the full benefits of e-governance, ultimately leading to a
more informed, engaged, and equitable society.

4. Previous Year UPSC Questions

1. Discuss the utility of e-governance in the Indian context. (2004).
2. E-governance initiatives by the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC). (2011)
3. Though Citizens’ charters have been formulated by many public service delivery
organizations, there is no corresponding improvement in the level of citizens’ satisfaction and
quality of services being provided Analyse. (2013)
4. ‘A national Lokpal, however strong it may be, cannot resolve the problems of immorality in
public affairs.’ Discuss. (2013).
In the light of Satyam Scandal (2009), discuss the changes brought in the corporate
governance to ensure transparency and accountability. ( 2015)
“Effectiveness of the government system at various levels and people’s participation in the
governance system are inter-dependent”. Discuss their relationship in the context of India.
(2016)
5. E-governance in not only about utilization of the power of new technology, but also much
about critical importance of the ‘use value’ of information. Explain. (2018)
6. Implementation of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) based
Projects/Programmes usually suffers in terms of certain vital factors. Identify these factors,
and suggest measures for their effective implementation. (2019)
7. The emergence of Fourth Industrial Revolution (Digital Revolution) has initiated e-
Governance as an integral part of government”. Discuss. (2020)
8. Has digital illiteracy, particularly in rural areas, coupled with lack of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) accessibility hindered socio-economic development?
Examine with justification. (2021)
9. e-governance, as a critical tool of governance, has ushered in effectiveness, transparency and
accountability in governments. What inadequacies hamper the enhancement of these
features? (2023)
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