CHAPTER – 9

RAY OPTICS
LIGHT: Light is a form of energy which produces sensation to eyes enabling to see the
object.

REFLECTION LIGHT: The phenomenon of bouncing back of light in the same medium
when it strikes a surface is called reflection of light.

LAWS OF REFLECTION: There are two laws of reflection

1. Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. i.e.

∠i = ∠r
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the
point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.

SPHERICAL MIRRORS:A spherical mirror is a part cut off from the surface of a hollow
spherical glass which has been made smooth and polished on one side.

There are two types of spherical mirrors: (1) Convex mirror (2) Concave mirror

1. Convex mirror: A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is curved outwards, is

called a convex mirror.
2. Concave mirror: A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is curved inwards, is
called a concave mirror.

REFLECTION OF LIGHT BY SPHERICAL MIRRORS

SIGN CONVENTIONA set of sign convention, called the New Cartesian Sign Convention,
is used to determine the position of object, position of the image, size of the object and
size of the image in which pole ‘P' of the mirror is taken as the origin andprincipal axis of
the mirror is taken as the x-axis(X'X) of the coordinate system. The convention are as
follows:

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1. All distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the pole of the mirror.
2. The distances measured in the direction of incident light is taken positive whereas
those measured opposite the direction of incident light is taken negative.
3. Distances measured perpendicular to and above the principal axis are taken positive.
4. Distances measured perpendicular to and below the principal axis is taken negative.

FOCAL LENGTH OF SPERICAL MIRRORS

Let C and F be the centre of curvature and focus of the concave mirror.

Let ′𝜃′ be the angle of incidence and MD be the perpendicular from M on principle axis.

Then, < MCP = 𝜃 and < MFP = 2𝜃

In right angle triangles, ∆MDC and ∆MFD ,

MD MD
tan θ = and tan 2θ =
CD FD

For small θ, tan θ ≈ θ,

Therefore,
MD MD
Θ≈ and 2θ ≈
CD FD
R
MD
So, FD =2
MD
or, FD =
CD
or, f=
CD 2
2

THE MIRROR FORMULA:

Suppose an object AB is kept beyond C of a concave mirror so that its real and inverted
image A’B’ is formed between C and F.

For large radius of curvature AB is nearly parallel to MP.

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In right angled triangles, ∆A’B’F and ∆MFP, corresponding angles are same, so they are
similar triangles. Therefore, we can write

A′ B′ B′ F A′ B′ B′ F
= or, = …………………… (1)
MP FP AB FP

Similarly, ∆A’B’F and ∆ABP are also similar triangles.

A′ B′ B′ P
Therefore, = ……………… (2)
AB BP

Equating (1) and(2), we get,

B′ F B′ P B′ P−FP B′ P
= or, = ………..(3)
FP BP FP BP

Using sign convention, we have

FP = -f, BP = -u and B’P = -v

Substituting in equation (3), we get,

−v−(−f) −v −v+f v
= −uor, =u
−f −f 1 1 1
=u+v
Or, -uv +uf = -vf or, (u + v)f = uv or, f

This formula is true for convex mirror also.

MAGNIGICATION:

The extent up to which the image of an object is magnified is called magnification.

It is also defined as the ratio of size of the image to the size of the object.

If h and h’ are the size of the object and the size of the image respectively, then
magnification is given by

h′
m=
h

A′ B′ B′ P
From equation (2), we have =
AB BP

h′ −v
Using sign convention, this becomes - =
h −u

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Or, h′ v
m= =-
It is a number. It has no unit. h u

*Magnification is positive for virtual image whereas it is negative for real image.

**Magnification of a concave mirror is always positive.

***[Mirror and magnification formula are valid for all the cases of reflection by a spherical
mirror (concave or convex) whether the image formed is real or virtual. We can use
following ray diagrams for virtual image formed by a concave and convex mirror to prove
above equations.]

REFRACTION OF LIGHT

The phenomenon of bending of light at the interface of two media, when it travels from
one medium to another medium, is called refraction of light.

When light travels from rare to dense medium, it bends towards the normal at the point
of incidence.

When light travels from dense to rare medium, it bends away from the normal at the point
of incidence.

LAWS OF REFRACTION

There are two laws of refraction:

1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the interface of two transparent
media at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane.
2. The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is a constant
for a given colour and for a given pair of media.

If ‘i' is the angle of incidence and ‘r' is the angle of refraction, then Snell’s law can be
written as

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Sin i
= constant = n21
Sin r

This constantn21 is called the refractive index of the

second medium with respect to the first medium and is
a characteristic of the pair of media (and also depends
on the wavelength of light), but is independent of the
angle of incidence.

If n21> 1, r < i, i.e., the refracted ray bends towards the normal. In such a case medium
2 is said to be optically denser (or denser, in short) than medium 1. On the other hand,
if n21<1, r > i, the refracted ray bends away from the normal.

*Optical density: Optical density of a medium is the ability of the medium to refract the
light. It is different from mass density. It is not necessary that an optically denser medium
may have greater mass density. For example, kerosene having higher refractive index,
is optically denser than the water, although its mass density is less than the water.

If n21 is the refractive index of medium 2with respect to medium 1 and n12 the refractive
index of medium 1 with respect to medium 2,then we can write

1
n21 =
n 12

**Refractive index for three media: If there are three media of refractive indices n 1, n2
and n3, then, we can write

n12 x n23 x n31 = 1

where, n12 = n1/n2,n23 = n2/n3 and n31 = n3/n1

REFRACTION THROUGH A RECTANGULAR GLASS SLAB

When a ray of light travels through a rectangular glass slab, it suffers two refractions, one
at the air-glass interface and another at glass-air interface. The ray entering glass, bends
towards the normal and the ray emerging out of the glass bends away from the normal.

If incident ray is elongated, it is observed that the emergent ray is parallel to the incident
ray but laterally shifted. That is, angle of incidence is equal to the angle of emergence.

If ‘n' is the refractive index of the glass slab and 1 is the

refractive index of the air, then

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For the first refraction,

Sin i
= n2/ n1 = n/1 ............(1)
Sin r

For the second refraction,

Sin r
= n2/ n1 = 1/n ….........(2)
Sin e

From (1) and (2), we can write

Sin i Sin e
Sin r
= Sin r
Or, Sin i = Sin e or, i = e

Lateral shift: The perpendicular distance between the incident ray and the emergent ray
is called lateral shift. Lateral shift depends on the following factors:

1. Angle of incidence of the incident ray.

2. Refractive index of the material of the glass slab.
3. Thickness of the glass slab.

REAL AND APPARENT DEPTH

The bottom of a tank filled with water appears to be

raised. Similarly, depth of swimming pool filled with
water appears to be less than that when it is empty and
a stick dipped in water appears to be bent. All these
phenomena are because of refraction of light.

If h1 and h2 are the apparent and real depths

respectively, the refractive index of the liquid medium
is given by

Real depth h2
Refractive index of the liquid =
Apparent depth
= h 1

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

The phenomenon of partial reflection in the same medium and partial refraction to the
second medium, when a ray of light travels from an optically denser medium to a rarer
medium, is called total internal reflection.

Conditions for total internal reflection

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1. Light must travel from denser to rarer
medium.
2. Angle of incidence must be equal to or
greater than critical angle of incidence ic
(which is determined by the refractive index
of the denser medium with respect to the
rarer medium)

When light gets reflected by a surface, normally some fraction of it gets transmitted and
the reflected ray, therefore, is always less intense than the incident ray, howsoever
smooth the reflecting surface may be. In total internal reflection, on the other hand, no
transmission of light takes place.

Critical Angle: The angle of incidence corresponding to an angle of refraction 900 is

called the critical angle (ic) for the given pair of media.

If n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the rare and denser medium respectively, then
Sin i n2
according to Snell’s law =
Sin r n1

At critical angle of incidence, i = ic and r = 900

Sin ic 1
Let n1 = n (For dense medium) and n2 = 1 (For air), then =
Sin 90 n

Sin ic 1
=n or, Sin ic =
1
Sin 90 n
This indicates that the critical angle is inversely proportional to the refractive index of the
denser medium with respect to rarer medium.

Diamond has the highest refractive index, therefore, the critical angle of incidence for
diamond is the smallest.

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION IN NATURE AND ITS TECHNOLOGICAL

APPLICATIONS

(A) MIRAGE:A mirage is an optical phenomenon that creates the illusion of water and
results from the refraction of light through a non-uniform medium. Mirages are most
commonly observed on sunny days when driving down a roadway.

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The air near the ground becomes hotter than the air at higher level on hot summer days.
Hotter air is less dense, and has smaller refractive index than the cooler air. The cold air
at high level has higher refractive index. When sunlight striking from a tall object such as
a tree, passes through a medium whose refractive index decreases towards the ground,
successively bends away from the normal and undergoes total internal reflection, if the
angle of incidence for the air near the ground exceeds the critical angle. To a distant
observer, the light appears to be coming from somewhere below the ground. The
observer naturally assumes that light is being reflected from the ground, say, by a pool of
water near the tall object. Such inverted images of distant tall objects cause an optical
illusion to the observer. This phenomenon is called mirage. This type of mirage is
especially common in hot deserts.

(B) DIAMONDS

The brilliance or sparkling of diamonds is mainly due to the multiple total internal reflection
of light inside them. Naturally occurring diamonds rarely exhibit sparkling. It is the
technical skill of a diamond cutter which makes diamonds to sparkle so brilliantly. By
cutting the diamond suitably, multiple total internal reflections can be made to occur. The
critical angle for diamond-air interface (≅ 24.4°) is very small, therefore once light enters
a diamond, it is very likely to undergo multiple total internal reflection inside it.

(C) PRISM

There are some prisms designed to bend light by90º or

by 180º making use of total internal reflection. Such
aprism is also used to invert imageswithout changing
their [Link] the first two cases, the critical angle ic for
the material of the prism must be less than 45º.

(D) OPTICAL FIBERS:

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Optical fibers are fabricated with high quality
composite glass/quartz fibers. Each fiber consists of a
core and cladding. The refractive index of the material
of the core ishigher than that of the cladding. The
optical fiber works on the principle of total internal
reflection.

When a signal in the form of light is directed at one end of the fiber at a suitable angle, it
undergoes repeated total internal reflections along the length of the fiber and finally
comes out at the other end. Since light undergoes total internal reflection at each stage,
there is no appreciable loss in the intensity of the light signal. Optical fibers are fabricated
such that light reflected at one side of inner surface strikes the other at an angle larger
than the critical angle. Even if the fiber is bent, light can easily travel along its length.

A bundle of optical fibers can be put to several uses.

1. Optical fibers are extensively used for transmitting and receiving audio and video
signals. These signals are first converted into electrical signals by suitable transducers
before transmission.
2. Optical fibers can also for medical diagnosis. For example, these are used as a ‘light
pipe’ to facilitate visual examination of internal organs like esophagus, stomach and
intestines.

In silica glass fibers, it is possible to transmit more than 95% of the light over a fiber length
of 1 km.

Advantages of Optical Fiber Communication

(a) Economical and cost-effective

(b) Thin and non-flammable
(c) Less power consumption
(d) Less signal degradation
(e) Flexible and lightweight

REFRACTION AT SPEHRICAL SURFACES AND BY LENSES

Refraction at a spherical surface

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Consider a spherical surface separating two media having refractive indices n 1 and n2
respectively. A point object is kept at O in the first medium, whose image is formed in the
second medium at I. The ray from the object is incident on the surface at N.

Let us consider that the aperture of the surface is of large radius of curvature but smaller
in size in comparison to the distances of object, image etc. so that small angle
approximation can be taken.

Now, for ΔNOC, i is the exterior angle.

Therefore, i = ∠NOM + ∠NCM ……. (1)

Similarly, r = ∠NCM – ∠NIM …….. (2)

Applying Snell’s law, we get

Sin i
= n2/ n1 or, n1 Sin i = n2 Sin r
Sin r

Or, for small angles n1 i = n2 r ……. (3)

In triangles, ΔNOM, ΔNCM, ΔNIM
MN MN MN
tan ∠NOM = , tan ∠NCM = and tan ∠NIM =
OM MC MI

MN MN MN
For small angles, ∠NOM = , ∠NCM = and ∠NIM =
OM MC MI

Therefore, equation (1) & (2) become

MN MN MN MN
i= + and r= -
OM MC MC MI

Substituting these values in equation (3), we get

MN MN MN MN n1 n2 n2 −n1
n1 ( + ) = n2 ( - ) or, + =
OM MC MC MI OM MI MC

Applying sign convention, OM = - u, MI = v and MC = R, we get

n2 n1 n2 −n1
- =
Lens maker’s and lens formulasv u R
Assumptions:
Following assumptions are made in the derivation of lens maker’s formula:

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a) The lens is so thin that distances measured from the poles of its surfaces can be taken
as equal to the distances measured from the optical centre of the lens.
b) The aperture of the lens is small.
c) The object is a point object on the principal axis.
d) The incident and refracted rays make small angles with the principal axis.

Consider a point object ‘O’ lying on the principal axis of the lens. A convex lens consists
of two convex spherical surfaces, so a ray starting from O suffers two refractions. The
first surface forms the image I1 of the object ‘O’, which serves as the virtual object for the
second surface and forms the final image at I.

For the refraction from the first interface ABC,

n1 n2 n2 −n1
+ = …………………..(1)
OB BI1 BC1

Similarly, for the second interface ADC,

n n1 n2 −n1
− DI2 + = ……………….(2)
1 DI DC2

(Here, ray is travelling from n2 to n1 and DI1 is negative as the distance is measured
against incident light)

Adding equations (1) and (2), we get

n1 n2 n n1 1 1
+ − DI2 + = (n2 − n1)(BC - DC )
OB BI1 1 DI 1 2

(Since BI1 = DI1 for thin lens)

n1 n1 1 1
Therefore,
OB
+ DI
=(n2 − n1 )(BC - DC ) …………….(3)
1 2

If the object is infinity, image is formed at focus, therefore, substituting OB = ∞ and DI =

f in equation (3), we get

n1 n1 1 1
+ =(n2 − n1)(BC - DC )
∞ f 1 2

n1 1 1
Or, =(n2 − n1)( - )..….(4)
f BC1 DC2

Using sign convention BC1 = R1 and DC2 = -R2,

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 n1 1 1
We get, =(n2 − n1 )(R - R )
f 1 2

1 1 1
Or, =(n21 − n1 )(R - R )
f 1 2
n2
Where n21 =
n1

This is known as Lens maker’s formula.

If the object is not at infinity, then OB = -u and DI = +V. Therefore, from equation (3), we
get

n1 n1 1 1
+ =(n2 − n1)( - )………………(6)
−u v BC1 DC2

Equating equation (4) and (6), we get

n1 n1 n1 1 1 1
+ = Or, ……………… (7)= -u
−u v f f v

This is called Thin Lens formula.

Both the above formulae are correct for1 concave

= - lens also.
1 11
f v uf
MAGNIFICATION: =
1
-
1
v u
Magnification produced by a lens is the ratio of size of the image to that of object.
1 1 1
h′f =v -
m= = uv u ………………..…………(8)
h
1 1 1
‘m’ is positive for erect and virtual image =formed
- by either lens and negative for real and
f v u
inverted image.

POWER OF A LENS:

Power of a lens is the measure of the degree of convergence or divergence.

It is also defined as the reciprocal of focal length.

The power of a lens of focal length ‘f’ is givenby

1 100
P= or, P =
f(in m) f(in cm)

S.I. unit of power is Diopter (D). Power is positive for convex lens and negative for
concave lens.

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COMBINATION OF THIN LENSES IN CONTACT:

Suppose two lenses of focal length f1 and f2 are kept in contact with each other. Let an
object ‘O’ be placed on the principal axis. The first lens produces real image I 1 at a
distance v1 from the lens. It serves as virtual object for the second lens and final image is
formed at ‘I’ at distance ‘v’.

Lens formula for first lens gives

1 1 1
= -u …………….(1)
f1 v1

Lens formula for second lens gives

1 1 1
= -v …………….(2)
f2 v 1

1
If the two lens-system is regarded as equivalent to a single lens of focal length ‘f’, then
f
1 1
= -u …………………………. (3)
v

Adding equations (1) and (2), we get

1 1 1 1
- = + ………………… (4)
v u f1 f2
1 1 1
From equation (3) and (4), we get
=f +
f 1 f2

This formula can be extended for a number of lenses of either nature.

1 1 1 1 1
=f + + f + …………….+ f
f 1 f2 3 n

(If‘d’ is the separation between two lenses then formula is modified as below)

1 1 1 d
=
If P1, P2, P3, are the power of lenses + +
f f1 in combination,
f2 f1 f2 then net power of lens system is
given by P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ……
Similarly, if m1, m2, m3…. are the magnifications of indidual lens, then total magnification
of the combination is
m = m1 x m2 x m3 x ……

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REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM:

A ray of light suffers two refractions on passing through a prism and hence deviates from
its original path.

Let ‘i’ and ‘r1’ be the angles of incidence and refraction or face AB and let ‘r 2’ and ‘e’ be
the angle for incidence and angle of emergence for refraction through for face AC
respectively.

The angle between the incident ray PQ and emergent ray RS is called angle of deviation
‘𝛿’.

In quadrilateral AQNR,

∠ A + ∠ QNR = 1800 ……………………….(1)

From the triangle ∆QNR,

r1 + r2 + ∠ QNR = 1800 …………………(2)

Comparing (1) and (2), we get

r1 + r 2 = ∠ A ………………………….(3)

Since angle ‘𝛿 ′ is exterior angle of triangle MQR,

therefore, we can write𝛿 = ∠MQR + ∠MRQ

Or, 𝛿 = (i-r1) + (e-r2)

Or, 𝛿 = i + e – (r1 + r2)

Or, 𝛿 = i + e – ∠A ………………(4)

As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of deviation decreases and reaches to a
minimum value, after which it increases with increases with increase in the angle of
incidence.

At the angle of minimum deviation ‘𝛿 m’, the refracted ray inside the prism becomes parallel
to the base and we have

At, 𝛿 = 𝛿 m, i = e and r1 = r2

Therefore, equation (3) and (4) reduce to

A A+δm
2r = ∠ A or, r= and𝛿 m = 2i – A or, i=
2 2

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Now, if ‘n’ is the refractive index of the prism with respect to air, then applying Snell’s law,
we get A+δm
Sin 2
n= A n2 n
Sin 2 (Since n21 = = 1 = n)
n1

This is the formula is used to determine refractive index of the material of the prism.

Dependence of ‘𝜹m’ on ‘n’:

For small angle prism, 𝛿 m is also very small, so

A+δm A+δm
Sin A+δm
n= 2
A ≈ 2
A ≈ A
⟹ A + δm = nA or, δm = (n-1) A
Sin
2 2

Thus, the angle of deviation is directly proportional to the refractive index.

c
Also, refractive index is n= v

Thus, refractive index for red colour is minimum and that for the violet colour is minimum.

Therefore, the red colour bends least, while violet colour bends the most following the
relation δm = (n-1) A

OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS:

(A) SIMPLE MICROSCOPE:

A simple microscope is a converging lens of small focal length. The convex lens is used
as simple microscope in two ways:
a) The object is kept within the focal length of the lens in such a way that its virtual, erect
and magnified image is formed at D = 25cm from the lens.
b) The object is kept slightly less than the focal length of the lens so that virtual, erect
and magnified image closer than infinity is obtained.

Although the closest comfortable distance for viewing the image is when itis at the near
point (D= 25cm) but it causes some strain on the eye.

Therefore, the image formed at infinity is often considered most suitable for viewing by
relaxed eye.

Case (1) When eye focused on near point.

The linear magnification in this case is given by

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 v 1 1 v
m= =v( − ) = (1- )
u v f f
D
But here v = -D, therefore, m=1+
f

Case (2) When eye focused at infinity.

The angular magnification in this case is given by the ratio of angle subtended at the eye
by the image to the angle subtended at the eye by the object.

𝜃𝑖
That is m =
𝜃0

h
In the first figure, tan𝜃0 = and
D

h
In the second figure,tan𝜃𝑖 = f

For small angles, tan𝜃 ≈ 𝜃, therefore,

h h
𝜃0 ≈ D and 𝜃𝑖 ≈ f

h/f D
So, m = or, m=
h/D f

(B) COMPOUND MICROSCOPE:

A simple microscope has limited magnification (~ 10). Therefore, we use compound
microscope having larger magnification.
A compound microscope consists of two convex lenses called objective and eyepiece, on
compounding the effect of the other.
The lens near the object, called objective forms real, inverted and magnified image of the
object which serves as the object for the second lens, called eyepiece being near to the
eye. Eyepiece acts as a simple microscope producing final image which is virtual and
enlarged.

The linear magnification due to objective is given by

h′
m0 =
h

From figure,

h h′
tan𝛽 = =
f0 L

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 L
Therefore, m0 =
f0

*Now, when the eyepiece is adjusted in such a way that final image is formed by eyepiece
at D, then angular magnification due to it is given by

D
me = 1 +
fe

Therefore, total magnification is

L D
L D m= (1 + f )
m = m0 xme = (1 + ) i.e. f0 e
f0 fe

**When the eyepiece is so adjusted that final image is formed closer to the infinity, then
angular magnification is

D
me =
fe

Therefore, total magnification is

L D L D
m = m 0 x me = or, m=
f0 fe f0 fe

(C) TELESCOPES:
a) REFRACTING TELESCOPE:
A telescope is used to observe far away objects. Astronomical telescope is used to
observe astronomical bodies whereas terrestrial telescope, which has in addition a pair
of inverting lenses to make final image erect, is use to observe distant objects on the
earth’s surface.
A refracting astronomical telescope consists of an objective and an eyepiece. The
objective has large focal length and much larger aperture (to gather large light from the
distant object) than the eyepiece.

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Light from the distant objet enters the objective and a real image is formed in the tube at
its second focal point. The eyepiece magnifies this image producing a final inverted image
(virtual). The magnifying power in this case is the ratio of the angle ‘𝛽′ subtended by final
image at the eye to the angle ‘𝛼’ which object subtends at the lens or the eye. Hence
β
m≈α
h h
From figure, tan𝛼 = and tan𝛽 =
f0 fe
h h
For small angles, 𝛼 ≈ f and 𝛽 ≈f
0 e
f
Therefore, m≈
h h
/ or,
m ≈ f0
fe f0 e

And the tube length is L = fo + f e

The largest refracting type telescope with the largest objective of diameter 40 inches
(~1.02m) is situated at Yerkes’s observatory in USA.

DRAWBACKS OF REFRACTING TELESCOPE:

1. Large sized heavy objective lens of this type of telescope requires a heavy mechanical
support.
2. It is expensive.
3. If suffers from chromatic aberration as peripheral parts of the lens disperses the
peripheral rays and colored image is obtained.
4. It suffers from spherical aberration due to non-perfectly spherical shape of the
objective due to its large radius of the curvature.

b) REFLECTING TELESCOPE:

A reflecting telescope overcomes all these drawbacks as it uses a concave mirror of large
focal length and large aperture with a hole at the centre forming one end of the telescopic

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tube and a convex mirror(small) and small focal length inside the tube to focus the rays
to the eyepiece.
The rays from infinity fall on the reflecting surface of concave mirror of large aperture,
from where these are reflected back to a convex mirror of small focal length situated
inside the tube. This mirror diverges out the reflected ray falling on it, to the eyepiece,
which can be adjusted to observe the final image.

ADVANTAGES OF REFLECTING TELESCOPE OVER REFRACTING TELESCOPE:

1. It uses mirrors which are much lighter than the lens. Therefore, light mechanical
support is required and is easily movable.
2. Cost of mirror is less than lens. So, it is cheaper than refracting telescope.
3. It uses parabolic mirror; therefore, spherical aberration is removed.
4. It uses mirrors, so there is no chromatic aberration.

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