energies

Article
Heat Transfer Enhancement of TiO2/Water Nanofluids
Flowing Inside a Square Minichannel with a Microfin
Structure: A Numerical Investigation
Budi Kristiawan 1, * , Agung Tri Wijayanta 1, *, Koji Enoki 2 , Takahiko Miyazaki 3,4 and
Muhammad Aziz 5
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Universitas Sebelas Maret,
Kampus UNS Kentingan, Jl. Ir. Sutami 36A Kentingan, Surakarta 57126, Indonesia
2 Deparment of Mechanical Engineering and Intelligent System,
University of Electro-communications, 1-5-1 Chofugaoka, Chofu, Tokyo 182-8585, Japan
3 Department of Energy and Environmental Engineering,
Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Engineering Sciences, Kyushu University, 6-1 Kasuga-koen,
Kasuga-shi, Fukuoka 816-8580, Japan
4 International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku,
Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
5 Institute of Industrial Science, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8505, Japan
* Correspondence: budi_k@[Link] (B.K.); agungtw@[Link] (A.T.W.); Tel.: +62-271-632163 (A.T.W.)




Received: 1 July 2019; Accepted: 3 August 2019; Published: 7 August 2019


Abstract: A combination of two passive heat transfer enhancement techniques using a microfin
structure and nanofluids was investigated numerically. TiO2 /water nanofluids flowing inside a square
minichannel with a microfin structure (SMM) were observed as a practical application. Increased
heat transfer performance was investigated by observing the Nusselt number, friction factor, and
performance evaluation criterion (PEC). Velocity and temperature profiles were also demonstrated at a
laminar developing flow regime. The SMM used in this work had six microfins (N = 6) and TiO2 /water
nanofluids with various nanoparticle concentrations of 0.005, 0.01, and 0.1 vol.%. By combining
nanofluids as working fluids and SMM as a passive heat transfer enhancement, the maximum PEC
value of 1.2 was achieved at Re = 380 with a volume fraction of 0.01 vol.%. It is obvious that compared
to water flowing inside the square minichannel microfin, the heat transfer can be increased by using
only a nanofluid with a volume fraction of 0.01%. The combination of a microfin and nanofluids as
working fluids is strongly recommended due to its excellent performance in terms of heat transfer
and economic considerations.

Keywords: titania; nanofluids; mixture model; square minichannel; microfin

1. Introduction
Many efforts have been made to improve the heat transfer performance in heat exchangers, such as
reducing the geometry of the hydraulic diameter, generating turbulence (using insert devices, winglets,
turbulators, etc.), and using nanofluids [1–5]. In addition, the rate of convective heat transfer can be
increased significantly by generating turbulence, thinning the thermal boundary layer, or improving
the thermophysical properties, such as the thermal conductivity of the working fluid. Dispersion of
nanoparticles into conventional fluids, such as water, ethylene glycol, and oil, referred to as nanofluids,
is one of the innovative ways to increase thermal conductivity. Higher thermal performance compared
to conventional fluids has led to a strong interest in examining nanofluids more deeply. In recent years,

Energies 2019, 12, 3041; doi:10.3390/en12163041 [Link]/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 3041 2 of 21

nanofluids composed of nanoparticles and conventional fluids have been widely used in many fields,
such as physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering.
Nanoparticles have been dispersed into base fluids, such as water, ethylene glycol and mineral
oil, at a low concentration to make nanofluids. Nanofluids were first introduced, named, and
formulated by Choi in 1995 who worked on enhancing thermal conductivity heat transfer fluids
augmented with nanoparticles [6]. This study found that incorporation of nanoparticles into a fluid
can increase the thermal conductivity of the base fluid. Nanofluids have superior thermal properties,
particularly thermal conductivity, compared to conventional fluids due to the existence of nanoparticles.
Therefore, the accomplished thermal conductivity of nanofluids plays a vital role in heat transfer
enhancement. As reported from previous studies, there are four proposed possible mechanisms for the
dramatic enhancement of the thermal conductivity in nanofluids. Brownian motion of nanoparticles,
particle clustering, the formation of an interface layer around the nanoparticle, and the natural heat
transport in the nanoparticles might be what is responsible for this anomalous thermal conductivity
enhancement [7–11]. On the other hand, the enhanced thermal conductivity could enhance the heat
transfer rate. A mechanism of thermal dispersion was proposed to explain the enhancement of the
heat transfer coefficient. The four alternative mechanisms to explain this phenomenon are thermal
dispersion, particle migration, Brownian diffusion and thermophoresis [10]. Slip mechanisms between
nanoparticles and the base fluid are caused by two key parameters, that is, Brownian diffusion and
thermophoresis. The enhanced convective heat transfer can especially be described with the shear
thinning behavior of the laminar sublayer due to the viscosity reduction phenomenon.
Nanoparticles tend to form an agglomeration that causes not only sedimentation and clogging
of the channel but also a decline in thermal conductivity of the nanofluid [12]. Therefore, stability
becomes an important issue that affects the properties of nanofluids in many applications. There are
several methods to evaluate the stability of nanofluids, such as sedimentation method, zeta potential,
and spectral absorbency analysis. The zeta potential method is an advanced technique that can
quantitatively analyze the stability of nanofluids. The zeta potential value is associated with the
reliability of colloidal dispersions; therefore, a high nanofluid zeta potential value, in either a positive
or negative direction, is electrically stable. Nanofluids have a stable behavior if the zeta potential value
is more than +60 mV [13].
Nanofluids have been used to solve many practical problems, therefore, many researchers have
become interested in nanofluids for both numerical and experimental work. Actually, heat transfer
enhancement is one of the most important nanofluid applications because of their excellent performance
in this area. Currently, there is a lot of research on the process of replacing nanofluids in order to
determine the reasons behind increasing the thermal conductivity of nanofluids. Many studies on the
heat transfer enhancement of nanofluids have been conducted to clarify these reasons. A better heat
transfer rate can be achieved by reducing the ratio of the area to the thermal device volume, which
is one of the most important factors in thermal design, and which can be achieved by, for example,
microchannel heat sinks (MCHS). Several studies have shown that mini/microchannel heat exchangers
are effective for thermal enhancement [14–16]. Due to the advances in microfabrication technology,
microchannels and microtubes have been successfully adopted in a wide variety of industries, such as
microelectronics, aerospace, biomedicine, robotics, telecommunications, and automotive. The main
reasons for the development of miniature and lightweight heat exchangers include space and size
reserves, energy and material savings, ease of unit handling, the growing need for heat transfer
augmentation with increased energy demand, and microelectronic application requirements.
A higher surface area to volume ratio is one method for designing heat transfer devices.
For example, pipes that are upgraded using microfin have been widely adopted because of their ability
to expand the heat transfer surface and produce turbulence in fluid flow. This technique has the
potential to improve heat transfer performance. The characteristics of fluid flow and heat transfer in
the microfin pipe have been reported in previous studies [17–22]. The previous results showed that
heat transfer in the microfin pipe was 190% higher than that in the smooth pipe in turbulent flow.
Energies 2019, 12, 3041 3 of 21

Although there was an increase in pressure drop, the heat transfer of the microfin pipe was still 80%
higher than the smooth tube [17]. The technique of heat transfer enhancement by combining a microfin
and nanofluids to improve the thermal performance of single phases on micro/minichannels has been
investigated in previous studies [23–25]. It was concluded that a microfin inside a micro/minichannel
conduit is very promising for high heat flux dissipation. For microfin structures, many studies have
reported that this technique can significantly improve the heat transfer performance [26–28].
Zhang et al. experimentally investigated the heat transfer of a TiO2 /water nanofluid under the
boundary condition of constant heat flux [29]. TiO2 nanoparticles with an average diameter of 10 nm
and with nanoparticle concentrations of 0.005%, 0.01%, and 0.1 vol.%, were used in their experiment.
The Nusselt numbers and friction factors of nanofluid samples flowing through microfin structures
increased with an increasing number of fins. The Nusselt numbers and friction factors also increased
compared to samples without microfin structures. Furthermore, the performance of Al2 O3 /DI water
nanofluids flowing inside the micro-finned tube with tube helical inserts for different twist ratios has
been investigated experimentally [30]. It was found that the thermal performance of the micro-finned
tube with a tube insert was higher than a plain tube in which the maximum performance attained was
with a microfin tube with a left-right twist with a nanofluid concentration of 0.2%.
The previous study numerically investigated the convective heat transfer of CuO/water
nanofluids [31]. Two-phase mixture and single-phase model were performed and compared to
the results of experimental values. The results showed that the mixture model is more precise
than the single-phase model. In addition, numerical convective heat transfer analysis of Cu/water
nanofluids by comparing single-phase and two-phase models under conditions of constant surface
temperature has also been conducted [32]. The models were used to predict temperature, flow, and
heat transfer coefficients. The comparison of the results showed that the two-phase model resulted in a
better consistency with experimental data compared to a single-phase model with an error value of
8%. ZnO/water nanofluids have been studied numerically in terms of their hydraulic and thermal
characteristics inside the microfin heat sink (MFHS) using static and dynamic single-phase models.
For the dynamic single-phase model, the effects of Brownian motion on thermal conductivity and
viscosity were taken into consideration in this study [33].
The Buongiorno model revealed primary slip mechanisms for nanofluids such as Brownian
diffusion and thermophoresis. Due to the changes in temperature gradient within the thermal boundary
layer, nanofluid properties might vary significantly. This phenomenon results in a thermophoresis
effect causing nanoparticle migration, where they move away from the wall. Consequently, viscosity
decreased significantly within the thermal boundary layer. This might be a reason why this phenomenon
contributes to heat transfer enhancement [34]. A new predictive method for single-phase nanofluids
has been conducted experimentally by considering the micro convection and micro diffusion effects of
the dispersed nanoparticles. A new empirical correlation of the convective heat transfer for nanofluids
inside a tube has been proposed to correlate experimental data [35]. Potential alternative uses of
nanofluids have been reported, such as solar energy systems such as solar collectors, photovoltaic
cells, solar stills, thermal energy storage, phase change materials (PCM), cooling of electronics, chillers,
refrigerators, grinding, and thermal absorption systems [36–42].
In the numerical investigation, there are two approaches to modeling the convective heat transfer
of nanofluids, which are the single- and two-phase approaches [43]. Some researchers consider that the
heat transfer enhancement is due to nanoscale random particles in the main stream. Some of the factors
that influence the continuing processes, such as gravity, fluid friction with solid particles, Brownian
force, Brownian diffusion, dispersion, and sedimentation, have also been assessed and found to affect
the heat transfer enhancement [44]. Based on the numerical research results in the preliminary work,
we circulated titania nanofluids inside a square minichannel with a microfin structure [45]. In this
study, the effect of adding nanofluids with different volume fractions and a microfin structure with
a square minichannel on heat transfer enhancement was numerically investigated. Titania (TiO2 )
nanoparticles (~21 nm in nominal diameter) dispersed into water with three different concentrations
Energies 2019, 12, 3041 4 of 21

were used in this numerical investigation. In the present work, a heat transfer dual (or hybrid) passive
enhancement technique, that is, using nanofluids and a microfin structure inside a square minichannel,
was for the first time investigated numerically, in order to measure effective performance increase.

2. Data Analysis

2.1. Data Reduction

The hydraulic diameter (Dh ), a commonly used term when handling flow in non-circular tubes
and channels, is defined as four times the cross-sectional area of the channel divided by the wetted
perimeter. In the square channel with a microfin structure, the fin area and the amount of fin must be
considered to determine the hydraulic diameter. The aspect ratio is defined as the ratio of width to
height of the channel. Because of the square channel, the width and height of the channel are the same
magnitudes as when the value of α is 1. The hydraulic diameter and aspect ratio of a channel with a
microfin structure are as follows [29].
 
4A 4 Hc Wc − A f in
Dh = =   (1)
c 2Hc + 2Wc + N L f in − W f in

Wc
α= (2)
Hc
Afin , Lfin and Wfin are total wetted area, length, and width of the fin, respectively, whereas Wc and
Hc are the width of the channel and the height of the curve channel, respectively. In addition, the heat
obtained by the heated fluid throughout the test section is expressed as follows.
.  
Q = mCp T f , out T f , in (3)

Fluid temperature at longitudinal position x can be calculated by

Q
T f (x) = T f , in + . x (4)
mCp, f (x)L

The local heat transfer coefficient is formulated as follows.

q
h(x) = (5)
Tw (x) − T f (x)

The local Nusselt numbers can be calculated by

h ( x ) Dh
Nu(x) = (6)
k f (x)

Therefore, the average Nusselt number is expressed as

10
X
Nu = Nun (7)
n=1

The friction factor can be calculated by [46].

∆P
f =   ρv2  (8)
L
Di 2

The empirical correlation used in this study are as follows.

Energies 2019, 12, 3041 5 of 21

Darcy’s friction factor equation [47]:

64
f = (9)
Re
Shah and London equation [48]:
x x
Nu = 4.364 + 0.0722Re · Pr for Re · Pr ≤ 33.3 (10)
D D
x 1/3 x
Nu = 1.953(Re · Pr ) for Re · Pr ≥ 33.3 (11)
D D

2.2. Thermophysical Properties of Nanofluids

The thermophysical properties of nanofluids play an important role in the heat transfer
enhancement. The loading, shape, size, and material of nanoparticles are the important parameters,
in addition to the properties of the base fluids, including the base fluid type, additives, temperature
and pH [49]. In this work, the thermophysical properties of nanofluids were approximated based on
mixed liquid properties, especially effective density and effective specific heat [50].
The effective density of nanofluids containing dispersed metallic nanoparticle particles can be
predicted based on the mixing theory as follows.

ρn f = (1 − φ)ρb f + φρnp (12)

The effective specific heat of nanofluids with a certain concentration volume can be estimated
as follows.
(1 − φ)(ρcp )b f + φ(ρcp )np
Cp,n f = (13)
(1 − φ)ρb f + φρnp
where Cpnf is the heat capacity of the nanofluid. Cpbf and Cpnp are the heat capacity of the base fluid
and the nanoparticles.

2.3. Dynamic Viscosity

The viscosity of the nanofluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation at a given rate. It
directly influences the pressure drop and pumping power. The influencing factors of nanofluids are
morphology, volume concentration, shear rate, and temperature [49]. In this study, the following
equation is used to approximate the empirical viscosity of nanofluids [51].
 
µn f = µb f 199.21 φ2 + 4.62 φ + 1.0 (14)

where µnf and µbf are the dynamic viscosities of the nanofluid and base fluid, respectively. The effective
dynamic viscosity as a volume fraction function at 22 ◦ C was reported in the previous work [43].
Generally, it is found that viscosity of nanofluids increases with an increase in nanoparticle concentration
and decreases following an increase in temperature.
Furthermore, the empirical thermal conductivity equation can be calculated as follows [3].

kn f (T ) = kb f (T ) · (a + bφ) (15)

where a and b are constants with the values of 1.0191 and 0.00352, respectively. Using the extrapolation
technique, these constant values were developed from experimental data reported from the published
literature [52]. It was clear that Equation (16) is in good agreement with the experimental data of
thermal conductivity from the previous work.
Energies 2019, 12, 3041 6 of 21

3. Numerical Method

3.1. The Two-Phase Mixture Model

The two-phase mixture model is used to analyze the dynamics and thermals of nanofluids, which
are considered to be a single fluid with two phases and particles following the flow. This model, based
on the Eulerian approach, refers to the multiphase flow, and the relationship between the continuous
phase and the dispersed phase is strong. The two phases are assumed to be interpenetrating, which
means that each phase has its own velocity vector field, and in the set volume, there is a volume
fraction of the base fluid and nanoparticles.
The two-phase mixture model completes three different entities in the governing equations, that
is, continuity, momentum, and energy conservation equations for the mixed phase, volume fraction
for the concentration of nanoparticles, and algebraic expressions for the relative velocities. Algebraic
expressions can only be used to determine the relative velocity if the phase moves at a different velocity.

3.2. Governing Equations

Fundamental laws can be used to derive the governing differential equations that are solved in
a computational fluid dynamics study (CFD), that is, conservation of mass, conservation of linear
momentum (Newton’s second law), and conservation of energy (first law of thermodynamics). In this
case, nanofluids will be treated as continuum fluids. The three primary unknowns that can be obtained
by solving these equations are velocity vector (x, y, and z-direction), pressure, and temperature.
Conservation of Mass
∂ρm ∂(ρum ) ∂(ρvm ) ∂(ρwm )
+ + + =0 (16)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂y
For steady state flow: ∂ρm /∂t = 0 and incompressible fluid: ρ = constant, Equation (16) can be
reduced as follows:
∂um ∂vm
= =0 (17)
∂x ∂y
where vm is the average velocity of mass flow rate.
Pn →
→ k=1 φk ρk v k
vm = (18)
ρm

where ρm is the density of the mixture.

ρm = (1 − φ)ρk + φ ρp (19)

where φ is the volume fraction.

Conservation of Momentum
Conservation of momentum for a mixture model can be expressed by assuming: (1) steady-state
flow, ∂(ρm , vm )/∂t = 0, (2) ignoring gravity ρm , g = 0, and (3) ignoring body force, F = 0. It can be
expressed as follows:
   2 
ρm u ∂u
∂x
m
+ v ∂um
∂y
+ w ∂um
∂z
= − ∂P
∂x
+ µ ∂ um ∂2 u m
m ∂x2 + ∂y2 +
∂2 um
∂z2
 
∂u
 
∂u
 
∂u
 (20)
+ρk ∅ uk ∂xdr,k + vk ∂ydr,k + wk ∂zdr,k
   
ρm u ∂v + v ∂v+ w ∂v∂zm = − ∂P + µm ∂∂xv2m + ∂∂yv2m ∂2 vm
2 2
m m
∂x ∂y ∂y
+ ∂z2
 
∂v
 
∂v
 
∂v
 (21)
+ρk ∅ uk ∂xdr,k + vk ∂ydr,k + vk ∂zdr,k
Energies 2019, 12, 3041 7 of 21

   2 
ρm u ∂w
∂x
m
+ v ∂wm ∂wm
∂y
w ∂z
= − ∂P
∂z
+ µm
∂ wm
∂x
∂2 wm
2 + ∂y2 +
∂2 w m
∂z2
 
∂w
 
∂w
 
∂w
 (22)
+ρk ∅ uk ∂xdr,k + vk ∂ydr,k + vk ∂zdr,k

where n is the number of the phase and vdr,k is the drift velocity for the dispersed phase k. µm is the
mixture viscosity expressed as follows.
n
X
µm = φk µk (23)
k =1

Conservation of energy

∂T ∂T ∂T ∂T ∂ T ∂2 T ∂2 T
" # " 2 #
ρcp φ +u +v +w = ke f f + 2 + 2 (24)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x2 ∂y ∂z

where keff is the effective thermal conductivity of a mixture that is expressed as follows.

n
X
ke f f = φk (kk + kt )
k =1

3.3. Boundary Condition

In the model geometry, the test section was a square mini channel with a horizontal microfin along
450 mm and 2 mm in width of the square channel. The constant flux boundary condition of 1000 W/m2
was applied along the wall channel. The structure microfin of this minichannel had a fin number, N = 6,
fin width, Wfin = 0.28 mm, and fin height, Hfin = 0.24 mm. Nanofluids entered in the mini channel,
while determining the specified mass flow rate and Reynold’s number. Because the nanofluids flowed
through a horizontal channel, gravity and body force were neglected as mentioned in the section,
Conservation of Momentum. Pressure outlet boundary conditions were applied in this numerical
study as a reference pressure. In this study, the reference pressure was set to 0 Pa when the dynamic
pressure changes were significant compared to the absolute pressure level at atmosphere pressure.

3.4. Numerical Procedure and Simulation Condition

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software ANSYS FLUENT 19.0 was used to solve the
governing equation in Equations (17), (21) and (23). The second order upwind scheme was used to
distinguish the convection, diffusion terms and other quantities generated by the governing equation.
Pressure and velocity were coupled by using the semi-implicit method for pressure-linked equations
(SIMPLE). The pressure interpolation scheme used in this work was the pressure staggering option
(PRESTO) scheme. Convergences of iteration completion was ascertained by determining all residual
variables. The residual values of the continuity and momentum equations was 10−3 , whereas the
energy equation was 10−6 . Furthermore, the number of iterations was set to 1000.

4. Grid Optimization
The 3-D configuration was applied to a plain square minichannel and a square minichannel with
a microfin structure. The grid was tested on three different grid types to ensure that the calculation
results were grid-independent. The selected grids are shown in Figures 1 and 2. The bias factor of
225 was applied to all axial directions. The number of nodes and elements was 925,650 and 872,407,
respectively. The parameters used in this study are shown in Table 1.
4. Grid Optimization
The 3-D configuration was applied to a plain square minichannel and a square minichannel with
a microfin structure. The grid was tested on three different grid types to ensure that the calculation
results were grid-independent. The selected grids are shown in Figures 1 and 2. The bias factor of 225
Energies 2019, 12, 3041 8 of 21
was applied to all axial directions. The number of nodes and elements was 925,650 and 872,407,
respectively. The parameters used in this study are shown in Table 1.

Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER

Figure [Link]
The configuration of the 3-D grid for a plain square minichannel. 8 of 20
Figure 1. The configuration of the 3-D grid for a plain square minichannel.

Figure 2.
Figure The configuration
2. The configuration of
of the
the 3-D
3-D grid
grid for
for aa square
square minichannel
minichannel with
with aa microfin
microfin structure.
structure.
Table 1. Numerical investigation parameters.
Table 1. Numerical investigation parameters.
Parameters Value Unit
Parameters Value Unit
Length, L 0.45 m
Length, L
Channel width, Wc 0.002
0.45 mm
Channel
Bias factor width, W c 225 0.002 m-
Bias factor(nominal diameter)
Nanoparticles 225
TiO2 (21 nm) --
Nanoparticles thermal conductivity,
Nanoparticles (nominal diameter) Knp 13.7
TiO2 (21 nm) Wm-−1 K−1
Volume fraction, ∅ thermal conductivity, Knp0.05; 0.01;13.7
Nanoparticles 0.1 Wmvol.%
−1K−1
Density of nanofluids Equation (12) Kg m−3
Volume fraction, ∅ 0.05; 0.01; 0.1 vol.%
Specific heat specific of nanofluids, Cp,n f Equation (13) J Kg−1 K−1
Density
Viscosity of nanofluids
of nanofluids, µn f Equation
Equation (14) (12) KgPams−3
Specific
Effective heatconductivity,
thermal specific of nanofluids,
keff 𝐶 , Equation
Equation
(15) (13) JWm −1 K−1
Kg−1 K −1
HeatViscosity of nanofluids, 𝜇
flux, q 1000
Equation (14) WPa s−2
m
Reynold’s number,
Effective Re conductivity, keff
thermal 150Equation
to 1750 (15) Wm−1 - K−1
Heat flux, q 1000 W m−2
5. Results and Discussion
Reynold’s number, Re 150 to 1750 -
The size of the domain used in this work was 22,108 mm in hydraulic diameter (Equation (1)) and
5. Results and Discussion
450 mm in length. The boundary conditions on the domain were mass flow inlet, wall channel, and
pressure 2 and a no slip wall condition
The outlet.
size of For
the the wall used
domain channel, a uniform
in this heat22,108
work was flux ofmm
1000
inW/m
hydraulic diameter (Equation (1))
and 450 mm in length. The boundary conditions on the domain were mass flow inlet, wall channel,
and pressure outlet. For the wall channel, a uniform heat flux of 1000 W/m2 and a no slip wall
condition were applied. Numerical validation was conducted by comparing the simulation results
with the established theories and correlations. Laminar flow modeling was performed using the
various nanoparticle concentrations of 0.005, 0.01, and 0.1 vol.%. The numerical simulation was
Energies 2019, 12, 3041 9 of 21

were applied. Numerical validation was conducted by comparing the simulation results with the
established theories and correlations. Laminar flow modeling was performed using the various
nanoparticle concentrations of 0.005, 0.01, and 0.1 vol.%. The numerical simulation was conducted on
a square minichannel with a microfin structure at a Reynold’s number range of 150–1750.

5.1. Numerical Validation

Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 20
To verify the accuracy and reliability of the numerical method, pure water was used before the
results was
nanofluid at compared
laminar [Link] the Shah and London
Hydrodynamic equationvalidation
and thermal [48] for a infully-developed
this study waslaminar
carried flow
out byin
the [Link] empirical correlations for laminar flow and the results of the numerical calculations.
comparing
𝑓𝑅𝑒equation
The empirical = 96(1 − used as a𝛼correlation
1.3553 + 1.9467𝛼was − 1.7012
the Shah 𝛼 and
+ 0.9564
London𝛼 correlation
− 0.2537𝛼[48] ) for the friction
(23)
whereand
factor α isNusselt
the aspect ratio, b/a (0 < α < 1). The resulting pressure drop from the numerical solution
number.
was The
validated
frictionbyfactor
calculating thetoestablished
is related friction
surface shear factor
stress, which equation in Equation
is associated with a (8).
decrease in velocity
on theAssurface
shownofinthe Figure 3, theThe
channel. resulting numerical
comparison resultdata in thisnumerical
between work wasdatafoundin to bestudy
this in reasonably
and the
good agreement
established withcorrelation
empirical the empirical correlation
is illustrated proposed
in Figure 3. The byfriction
the Shah and
factor London
from correlation
the numerical [48]
results
andcompared
was the Darcy–Weisbach equation
to the Shah and London [46]equation
with less than
[48] forabout ±0%, particularly
a fully-developed laminarat flow
a higher Reynold’s
in the channel.
number. However, it can be seen that at a lower Reynold’s number, the numerical  results give a
2 3
·Re =±20%
higher error of fabout − 1.3553·α +
96 1 compared the Shah −and
to 1.9467α 1.7012·α
London 0.9564·α4 − Darcy’s
+correlation. 0.2537·α5equation failed (25)
to
predict the friction factor of the numerical data. The square channel and developing flow might be
where α is the
the reason for aspect
these unsuitable < α < as
ratio, b/a (0results 1).Darcy’s
The resulting
equationpressure drop from
is generally usedthefor numerical solution
a circular tube and
was validated by calculating the
hydrodymically fully-developed flow. established friction factor equation in Equation (8).

Figure 3. Validation
Figure 3. Validation of
of the
the friction
friction factor
factorcompared
comparedto
tothe
thewell-known
well-knowncorrelation.
correlation.

As shown in Figure 3, the resulting numerical data in this work was found to be in reasonably
The Nusselt number was performed by comparison with the Shah–London correlation as shown
good agreement with the empirical correlation proposed by the Shah and London correlation [48] and
in Equations (10) and (11) at thermally developing flow. The comparison of the Nusselt number
the Darcy–Weisbach equation [46] with less than about ±0%, particularly at a higher Reynold’s number.
calculation between the numerical result and the Shah–London correlation is shown in Figure 4.
However, it can be seen that at a lower Reynold’s number, the numerical results give a higher error
Figure 4a shows that the simulation results are close to the Shah–London correlation at a Reynold’s
of about ±20% compared to the Shah and London correlation. Darcy’s equation failed to predict the
number of 500 with an error bar of 10%. In Figure 4b, it is clear that the Nusselt number versus various
friction factor of the numerical data. The square channel and developing flow might be the reason for
Reynold’s numbers demonstrates a similar pattern. The highest Reynold’s number exhibits the
these unsuitable results as Darcy’s equation is generally used for a circular tube and hydrodymically
highest Nusselt number along the axial direction. Therefore, it can be said that the setup of the
fully-developed flow.
laminar flow simulation in a minichannel is valid when compared to the reference equation. Unlike
The Nusselt number was performed by comparison with the Shah–London correlation as shown
the microchannel, there was a slip velocity and temperature jump that significantly affected the
in Equations (10) and (11) at thermally developing flow. The comparison of the Nusselt number
velocity and temperature profiles. A higher value of the slip coefficient corresponds to a lower
calculation between the numerical result and the Shah–London correlation is shown in Figure 4.
Nusselt number and a higher slip velocity and temperature jump [53].
Figure 4a shows that the simulation results are close to the Shah–London correlation at a Reynold’s
number of 500 with an error bar of 10%. In Figure 4b, it is clear that the Nusselt number versus
various Reynold’s numbers demonstrates a similar pattern. The highest Reynold’s number exhibits
the highest Nusselt number along the axial direction. Therefore, it can be said that the setup of the
Energies 2019, 12, 3041 10 of 21

laminar flow simulation in a minichannel is valid when compared to the reference equation. Unlike the
microchannel, there was a slip velocity and temperature jump that significantly affected the velocity
and temperature profiles. A higher value of the slip coefficient corresponds to a lower Nusselt number
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20
and a higher slip velocity and temperature jump [53].

14
Shah and London corr. (Eq. 10, 11)
Local Nusselt number 12 Present study

10

2
0 50 100 150 200 250
x/Dh

(a)
16
Re = 500 Re = 750
Local Nusselt number

Re = 1000 Re = 1250
12 Re = 1500 Re = 1750

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
x/Dh
(b)

Figure4. [Link]
Figure Thermalvalidation
validationofofthe
thelocal
localNusselt
Nusseltnumber.
number.(a) (a)The
Thelocal
localNusselt
Nusseltnumber
numberversus
versus
dimensionallength
dimensional = =500
lengthatatReRe 500(b)
(b)Numerical
Numericalresult
resultofofthe
thelocal
localNusselt
Nusseltnumber
numberversus
versus dimensional
dimensional
length
length atat = =500
ReRe 500toto1750.
1750.

5.2.
[Link]
FrictionFactor
Factorwith
withananEnhancement
EnhancementTechnique
Technique
Figure
Figure5 5shows
showsthatthatthe
thefriction
frictionfactors
factorsinina asquare
squareminichannel
minichannelwith
witha amicrofin
microfinusing
usingnanofluids
nanofluids
exhibit
exhibit a higher value than when using water. The friction factor also increases withthe
a higher value than when using water. The friction factor also increases with theincrease
increaseinin
nanoparticle
nanoparticleconcentration.
[Link] Thisflow
flowbehavior
behaviorcould couldbebeattributed
attributedtotothe
thehigher
higherbulk
bulkfluid
fluidvelocity
velocity
boundary layer caused by the nanoparticles existence. Another reason for the increase
boundary layer caused by the nanoparticles existence. Another reason for the increase in friction in friction factor
isfactor
the more significant disturbance in the flow caused by the fin structure [29].
is the more significant disturbance in the flow caused by the fin structure [29]. The The characteristics of
the friction factorof
characteristics in the
the minichannel
friction factor with
in athe
microfin structure
minichannel along
with the axial direction
a microfin structure were
alongproposed
the axial
bydirection
Zhang etwereal. [54] by the following expression.
proposed by Zhang et al. [54] by the following expression.

.
𝐻H .!0.178𝑊 !−0.491
. .
𝑆 !−0.293
𝑓 = 1.139𝑅𝑒 −0.54 f W S (24)
f = 1.139Re 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 (26)
Dh Dh Dh
However, the proposed correlation in Equation (26) failed to predict the friction factor in this
present work. The earlier transition regime exhibited from the experimental data might be
responsible because the numerical study cannot solve the governing equations for the transition flow
regime.
The hydrodynamic characteristics of laminar developing flow are vital parameters in most
noncircular duct geometries found in heat exchanger applications. The prediction of the friction
factor–Reynolds product (f Re) for developing and fully-developed flows has been studied by means
 Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 20

Energies 2019, 12, 3041

length [55]. The numerical results for the decline in friction factor obtained in our present11 work
of 21

support the asymptotic results developed by previous studies.

[Link]
Figure Frictionfactor
factorversus
versusReynold’s
Reynold’snumber
numberofofTiO2 /water
TiO 2/waternanofluids.
nanofluids.

5.3. However,
Comparisonthe proposed
of Heat correlation
Transfer in Equation
Performance (26) failed
between Numerical andtoExperimental
predict the friction
Studies factor in this
present work. The earlier transition regime exhibited from the experimental data might be responsible
becauseFigure 6 demonstrates
the numerical the comparison
study cannot of the Nusselt
solve the governing number
equations obtained
for the from
transition flowtheregime.
numerical
analysis and the experimental
The hydrodynamic data. In this
characteristics figure, alldeveloping
of laminar volume concentrations
flow are vital of 0.001 (Figurein6a),
parameters 0.05
most
(Figure 6b), and 0.1 vol.% (Figure 6c) exhibit a discrepancy in the Nusselt number
noncircular duct geometries found in heat exchanger applications. The prediction of the friction when the Reynold’s
number is higher
factor–Reynolds than 1200.
product (f Re)Itfor
can be understood
developing that nanofluidsflows
and fully-developed encounter an earlier
has been studied transition
by meansin
the minichannel with a microfin structure, even though the Reynold’s
of scaling analysis. Models were proposed using the asymptotic results for both the hydrodynamicnumber is up to 1200.
Therefore, numerical analysis cannot predict the Nusselt number in the transition
entrance length and the fully-developed flow length, which is related to the hydrodynamic entrance flow regime
because
length there
[55]. Theare no facilities
numerical of for
results thethe
transition
decline flow regime
in friction set-up
factor available
obtained in the
in our ANSYS
present work Fluent.
support
the asymptotic results developed by previous studies.
5.4. The Nusselt Number with an Enhancement Technique
5.3. Comparison
Figures 6 ofand
Heat
7 Transfer
present Performance between
the correlations of Numerical
the Nusselt andnumbers
Experimental Studies
of the observed nanofluids
flowing inside a square minichannel with a microfin structure compared
Figure 6 demonstrates the comparison of the Nusselt number obtained from to the previous empirical
the numerical
results. and
analysis The the
empirical equations
experimental used
data. in this
In this work
figure, allare as follows.
volume concentrations of 0.001 (Figure 6a), 0.05
(Figure
Zhang 6b), and [54]
equation 0.1 vol.% (Figure 6c) exhibit a discrepancy in the Nusselt number when the Reynold’s
number is higher than 1200. It can be understood 𝐻 that
. nanofluids
𝑊 . encounter
𝑆 . an earlier transition in the
.
𝑁𝑢 = 0.0412𝑅𝑒
minichannel with a microfin 𝑃𝑟 . though the Reynold’s number is up to 1200. Therefore,
structure, even (25)
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
numerical analysis cannot predict the Nusselt number in the transition flow regime because there are
Kays and Crawford equation [56]
no facilities of the transition flow regime set-up available in the ANSYS Fluent.
𝑁𝑢 = 8.235(1 − 1.883⁄𝛼 + 3.767⁄𝛼 − 5.814⁄𝛼 + 5.361⁄𝛼 − 2⁄𝛼 ) for Re < 2200 (26)
Equation (28) is for fully-developed laminar flow in a rectangular duct with a constant heat flux
condition, where α is the aspect ratio (= channel height/channel width).
Stephen equation [54]
0.068(𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟𝐷⁄𝐿) .
𝑁𝑢 = 4.364 + for 0.7 < Pr < 7 (27)
1 + 0.1𝑃𝑟(𝑅𝑒𝐷⁄𝐿) .
Condition for simultaneously developing flow with constant wall heat flux.
It can be seen that the numerical results in this study agree well with the Stephen equation,
although this correlation does not use nanofluids as the working fluid. The condition of
simultaneously developing flow for the boundary condition of constant wall heat flux might be
responsible for the similar convective heat transfer characteristics.
Energies 2019, 12, 3041 12 of 21
Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 20

50
0.005 vol.% - Exp. Data [22]
40 0.005 vol.% - Numerical analysis

Nusselt number
Pure water SMM
30

20

10

0
100 1000
Reynold’s number

(a)
50
0.01vol.% - Exp. Data [22]
40 0.01 vol.% - Numerical analysis
Nusselt number

Pure water SMM

30

20

10

0
100 1000
Re

(b)
50
0.1% - Exp. Data [22]
40 0.1% - Numerical analysis
Nusselt number

Pure water SMM

30

20

10

0
100 1000
Reynold’s number

(c)

[Link]
Figure ComparisonofofthetheNusselt
Nusseltnumber
numberversus
versusthe
theReynold’s
Reynold’snumber
numberbetween
betweenthethenumerical
numerical
resultand
result andthethe experimental
experimental data
data fromfrom the previous
the previous study.
study. (a) Nanoparticle
(a) Nanoparticle concentration
concentration of 0.005ofvol.%.
0.005
vol.%.
(b) (b) Nanoparticle
Nanoparticle concentration
concentration of 0.01(c)
of 0.01 vol.%. vol.%. (c) Nanoparticle
Nanoparticle concentration
concentration of 0.1 vol.%.
of 0.1 vol.%.

As shown in the figure, all Nusselt numbers of the nanofluids with a volume concentration of
0.01% have higher values than those of the others at the laminar flow regime. The Nusselt number
increases with the increase in nanoparticle concentration for a volume fraction less than 0.01%,
whereas the Nusselt number decreases with the increase in nanoparticle concentration. This indicates
that the optimal heat transfer performance is at the volume fraction of 0.01%. This phenomenon is in
 Energies 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 20

good agreement with the results of previous experiments [29]. However, there is a difference between
this result
Energies and
2019, 12, the other empirical result as shown in this figure. This might be due to the difference
3041 13 of 21
in geometry and boundary conditions between the previous published experiment and this study.
Figure 6 shows that the numerical study in this work failed to predict the Nusselt number at the
5.4. The Nusselt
transition flow Number with an Enhancement
regime because Technique
there is an early transition flow phenomenon in a square minichannel
withFigures
a microfin structure at Re = 1200, as revealednumbers
6 and 7 present the correlations of the Nusselt from the previous
of the observedexperiment. This is
nanofluids flowing
understandable
inside because there
a square minichannel is no
with transition
a microfin flow model
structure to solve
compared the previous
to the governingempirical
equationsresults.
in the
ANSYS software. Therefore, experimental results
The empirical equations used in this work are as follows. with the transition flow regime are more
trustworthy than the numerical data.
16

14
Average Nusselt number

12

10

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Reynold’s number

Water 0.005%
0.01% 0.1%
Zhang (Eq. 27) Stephen (Eq. 29)
Kays and Crawford (Eq. 28)

[Link]
Figure Comparisonbetween thethe
between Nusselt number
Nusselt in theinpresent
number study study
the present and theand
previous empirical
the previous results.
empirical
results.
Zhang equation [54]
H f 0.205
! !−0.491 !−0.177
This phenomenon is considered0.68 to be due W combined
to the S effect of increasing thermal
Nu = 0.0412Re Pr0.1 (27)
conductivity and viscosity. Increasing particle Dh concentration
Dh Dhresults in increased thermal
conductivity
Kays and Crawfordandequation
viscosity. At the beginning, increasing particle concentration can strengthen heat
[56]
transfer but it can also
 weaken the thermal performance due to the increasing  thickness of the thermal
2 3 4 4
boundary Nu layer.
= 8.235 At 1a−volume
1.883/α + concentration of 0.01%,
3.767/α − 5.814/α the positive
+ 5.361/α − 2/α effect for
of Re < 2200 thermal
increasing (28)
conductivity in this study is higher than the negative effect of viscosity. The exchange of energy
Equation
among (28) is forasfully-developed
nanoparticles, well as between laminar flow inchannel
nanoparticle a rectangular duct with
walls from a constant of
the movement heat flux
chaotic
condition, where α is the aspect ratio (= channel height/channel width).
nanoparticles, increases the heat transfer performance. On the other hand, the opposite case applies
at a particle concentration of more than 0.01%. As volume concentration increases, there are more
Stephen equation [54]
nanoparticles per unit volume. In this work, the energy exchange weakens with increasing
nanoparticle concentration at0.068 a certain volume
(Re·Pr·D/L fraction because the higher concentrations can limit
)1.33
Nu = 4.364 +
the chaotic movements of nanoparticles. for 0.7 < Pr < 7 (29)
1 + 0.1Pr(Re·D/L)0.83
Heat transfer enhancement can occur through using nanofluids as working fluids, and using a
microfin structure.
Condition Even though nanofluid
for simultaneously developingflow waswith
flow at aconstant
laminar regime,
wall heat a greater
flux. disturbance to the
flowItoccurred with the microfin structure, which contributed
can be seen that the numerical results in this study agree well with the to generating an Stephen
intenselyequation,
irregular
movement
although thisofcorrelation
the nanoparticles.
does not The stronger chaotic
use nanofluids as the movement
working [Link] nanoparticles
The conditionwas responsible for
of simultaneously
awakening flow
developing a stronger
for theenergy
boundarytransport between
condition nanofluids
of constant wallandheatthe channel
flux might wall that improved
be responsible the
for the
heat transfer performance. Therefore,
similar convective heat transfer characteristics. heat transfer enhancement in a laminar region is more
remarkable
As shown [54]. On figure,
in the the other hand, nanofluids
all Nusselt numbers ofplay a key rolewith
the nanofluids in increasing the heat transfer
a volume concentration of
coefficient. The mechanism for heat transfer enhancement was the
0.01% have higher values than those of the others at the laminar flow regime. The Nusselt number interactions between
increases with the increase in nanoparticle concentration for a volume fraction less than 0.01%, whereas
Energies 2019, 12, 3041 14 of 21

the Nusselt number decreases with the increase in nanoparticle concentration. This indicates that the
optimal heat transfer performance is at the volume fraction of 0.01%. This phenomenon is in good
agreement with the results of previous experiments [29]. However, there is a difference between this
result and the other empirical result as shown in this figure. This might be due to the difference in
geometry and boundary conditions between the previous published experiment and this study. Figure 6
shows that the numerical study in this work failed to predict the Nusselt number at the transition flow
regime because there is an early transition flow phenomenon in a square minichannel with a microfin
structure at Re = 1200, as revealed from the previous experiment. This is understandable because
there is no transition flow model to solve the governing equations in the ANSYS software. Therefore,
experimental results with the transition flow regime are more trustworthy than the numerical data.
This phenomenon is considered to be due to the combined effect of increasing thermal conductivity
and viscosity. Increasing particle concentration results in increased thermal conductivity and viscosity.
At the beginning, increasing particle concentration can strengthen heat transfer but it can also weaken
the thermal performance due to the increasing thickness of the thermal boundary layer. At a volume
concentration of 0.01%, the positive effect of increasing thermal conductivity in this study is higher
than the negative effect of viscosity. The exchange of energy among nanoparticles, as well as between
nanoparticle channel walls from the movement of chaotic nanoparticles, increases the heat transfer
performance. On the other hand, the opposite case applies at a particle concentration of more than
0.01%. As volume concentration increases, there are more nanoparticles per unit volume. In this work,
the energy exchange weakens with increasing nanoparticle concentration at a certain volume fraction
because the higher concentrations can limit the chaotic movements of nanoparticles.
Heat transfer enhancement can occur through using nanofluids as working fluids, and using a
microfin structure. Even though nanofluid flow was at a laminar regime, a greater disturbance to
the flow occurred with the microfin structure, which contributed to generating an intensely irregular
movement of the nanoparticles. The stronger chaotic movement of nanoparticles was responsible
for awakening a stronger energy transport between nanofluids and the channel wall that improved
the heat transfer performance. Therefore, heat transfer enhancement in a laminar region is more
remarkable [54]. On the other hand, nanofluids play a key role in increasing the heat transfer coefficient.
The mechanism for heat transfer enhancement was the interactions between nanoparticles, chaotic
particle movements, increased transfer of thermal energy from the wall to the nanofluid flow, and
the characteristics of the dispersion properties. In addition, the increased thermal conductivity and
collisions between particles also play an important role in the mechanism of heat transfer enhancement.

5.5. Velocity and Temperature Profile in the Radial Direction

The velocity and temperature profile in the radial direction along the axial length for a nanoparticle
concentration of 0.01 vol.% and a Reynold’s number of 1000 is illustrated in Figure 8. The velocity
profile is demonstrated between hydrodynamically developing flow and when fully-developed flow
occurred, as shown in Figure 8a. The developing flow region is shown by changing of the flattened
shape to a parabolic shape until there is no change in the velocity profile at u/Uin = ~3.8 and x = 0.1785 m.
The fully-developed flow region is also demonstrated thermally by the temperature profile as illustrated
in Figure 8b. It can be observed that the nanofluids reached thermally-developed flow at more than
0.473 m. It needs longer to reach thermally-developed flow than hydrodynamically-developed flow.
developed flow occurred, as shown in Figure 8a. The developing flow region is shown by changing
of the flattened shape to a parabolic shape until there is no change in the velocity profile at u/Uin =
~3.8 and x = 0.1785 m. The fully-developed flow region is also demonstrated thermally by the
temperature profile as illustrated in Figure 8b. It can be observed that the nanofluids reached
Energies 2019, 12, 3041 15 of 21
thermally-developed flow at more than 0.473 m. It needs longer to reach thermally-developed flow
than hydrodynamically-developed flow.

(a) Velocity profile

(b) Temperature profile

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Radial
Radial distribution
distribution of
of velocity
velocity (a)
(a) and
and temperature
temperature (b)
(b) in
in the
the radial
radial direction
direction for
for 0.01
0.01 vol.%
vol.%
and a Reynold’s number of 1000.
and a Reynold’s number of 1000.

Brownian diffusion and thermophoresis influence particle movement from the wall to the centerline.
This movement causes an increase in viscosity and thermal conductivity of nanofluids near to the
centerline [47]. As a consequence of these incremental thermophysical properties of nanofluids, velocity
and temperature profiles are flattened, as denoted in Figure 8. The flattened velocity and temperature
profiles cause the flow of nanofluids to reach hydrodynamically and thermally fully-developed flow
faster. It can be stated that the faster hydrodynamically and thermally fully-developed flow constitutes
the effect of faster boundary layer thickening on the wall channel. Boundary layer thickening was due
to the effect of increasing the viscosity of the nanofluids. The region that was not affected by the effect
of viscosity was called as an inviscid region. This region will result in flattening of both the velocity
and temperature. Although the faster boundary layer thickening on the wall channel was caused by
the negative effect of increasing the viscosity of the nanofluids, thermal conductivity enhancement
also occurred. The faster the boundary layer thickening occurred on the wall channel, the faster
the hydrodynamically and thermally fully-developed flow. This phenomenon might be a possible
mechanism for convective heat transfer enhancement of nanofluids. Other numerical studies of forced
region that was not affected by the effect of viscosity was called as an inviscid region. This region will
result in flattening of both the velocity and temperature. Although the faster boundary layer
thickening on the wall channel was caused by the negative effect of increasing the viscosity of the
nanofluids, thermal conductivity enhancement also occurred. The faster the boundary layer
thickening occurred
Energies 2019, 12, 3041 on the wall channel, the faster the hydrodynamically and thermally 16 fully-
of 21
developed flow. This phenomenon might be a possible mechanism for convective heat transfer
enhancement of nanofluids. Other numerical studies of forced convection heat transfer characteristics
convection
in microchannelsheat transfer characteristics
have used the thermalinlattice
microchannels
Boltzmannhave used(TLBM)
method the thermal lattice Boltzmann
[53]. Unlike the macro
method (TLBM) [53]. Unlike the macro flows, it was observed that the maximum
flows, it was observed that the maximum velocity (Umax) at the fully-developed region wasvelocity (Umax ) atthan
less the
fully-developed region was less than 1.5.
1.5.
5.6. Temperature Distribution in the Axial Direction
5.6. Temperature Distribution in the Axial Direction
Figure 9 shows the temperature distribution of the nanofluid at Re = 1000 and a nanoparticle
Figure 9 shows the temperature distribution of the nanofluid at Re = 1000 and a nanoparticle
concentration of 0.01 vol.%. The nanofluid is heated from the channel wall section and the temperature
concentration of 0.01 vol.%. The nanofluid is heated from the channel wall section and the
gets hotter along the axial distance of the pipe. In the heating process, high temperatures are reached
temperature gets hotter along the axial distance of the pipe. In the heating process, high temperatures
on the wall section of the channel instead of the low temperature on the channel axis. The nanofluid
are reached on the wall section of the channel instead of the low temperature on the channel axis. The
temperature at a nanoparticle concentration of 0.01% is lower than the others. This phenomenon occurs
nanofluid temperature at a nanoparticle concentration of 0.01% is lower than the others. This
because, at a volume concentration of 0.01%, the positive effect of increasing thermal conductivity is
phenomenon occurs because, at a volume concentration of 0.01%, the positive effect of increasing
higher than the negative effect of viscosity.
thermal conductivity is higher than the negative effect of viscosity.

Figure 9. Temperature distribution at Re = 1000 and volume fraction 0.01%.

Figure 9. Temperature distribution at Re = 1000 and volume fraction 0.01%.
5.7. Performance Evaluation Criterion (PEC)
5.7. Performance Evaluation Criterion (PEC)
To observe how large the effect of thermal conductivity and viscosity was, the performance
To observe
evaluation how(PEC)
criterion large was
the used
effectinofthis
thermal
[Link]
PEC is defined andasviscosity
the ratiowas, theenhanced
of the performance
heat
evaluation criterion (PEC)
transfer performance to the was used
energy in this
losses. work.
This PEC isgives
parameter defined as the performance
an overall ratio of the enhanced heat
comparison to
transfer performance to the energy losses. This parameter gives an overall performance
obtain the performance features of the enhanced heat transfer in nanofluids flowing inside a square comparison
to obtainwith
channel the performance features of
a microfin structure the enhanced
based heat transferofinpumping
on the consumption nanofluids flowing
power. Theinside a square
performance
channel
evaluationwith a microfin
criterion can bestructure based
expressed on the consumption of pumping power. The performance
as follows.
evaluation criterion can be expressed as follows.
Nun f ,SMM /Nuwater
PECn f =  1/3 (30)
fn f ,SMM / fwater

Figure 10 demonstrates the PEC values of nanofluids at different volume concentrations. It was
found that the baseline data was the result of testing on a plain minichannel. As shown in this figure,
the PEC value has an irregular magnitude at each Reynold’s number. In addition, all PEC values
were higher than 1.0, indicating that adding nanofluids into a square minichannel with a microfin
structure increased the heat transfer. Among the observed nanofluids, a nanoparticles concentration of
0.01 vol.% had the highest PEC value of 1.23 at Re = 1750. In general, all nanofluids demonstrated
enhancement of heat transfer without a large decrease in pumping power. It can be concluded that
although using nanofluids as the working fluid in a square minichannel with a microfin structure can
increase the Nusselt number, it is also accompanied by a high pressure drop.
the PEC value has an irregular magnitude at each Reynold’s number. In addition, all PEC values were
higher than 1.0, indicating that adding nanofluids into a square minichannel with a microfin structure
increased the heat transfer. Among the observed nanofluids, a nanoparticles concentration of 0.01
vol.% had the highest PEC value of 1.23 at Re = 1750. In general, all nanofluids demonstrated
enhancement of heat transfer without a large decrease in pumping power. It can be concluded that
Energies 2019, 12, 3041 17 of 21
although using nanofluids as the working fluid in a square minichannel with a microfin structure can
increase the Nusselt number, it is also accompanied by a high pressure drop.
1.30

1.20

PEC 1.10

PEC = 1
1.00

0.90
0 500 1000 1500 2000

Re
0.005 vol.% 0.01 vol.% 0.1 vol.%

Figure 10. The PEC value of nanofluids versus Reynold’s number at various nanoparticle concentrations.
Figure 10. The PEC value of nanofluids versus Reynold’s number at various nanoparticle
concentrations.
Dispersion of nanoparticles will change the thermophysical properties of the nanofluids. As a
consequence, this influences the ratio of heat transfer enhancement to pumping power, called the
Dispersion of nanoparticles will change the thermophysical properties of the nanofluids. As a
performance evaluation criterion (PEC) [57]. If the PEC value is lower than 1, then the thermal system
consequence, this influences the ratio of heat transfer enhancement to pumping power, called the
is not feasible for use in heat transfer enhancement, as the heat transfer enhancement is less than the
performance evaluation criterion (PEC) [57]. If the PEC value is lower than 1, then the thermal system
pumping power needed. If the PEC magnitude is equal to 1, then the thermal system does not have an
is not feasible for use in heat transfer enhancement, as the heat transfer enhancement is less than the
impact on increasing heat transfer. If the PEC is higher than 1, then the thermal system is feasible for
pumping power needed. If the PEC magnitude is equal to 1, then the thermal system does not have
use in practical applications. This is because the heat transfer enhancement is higher than the pumping
an impact on increasing heat transfer. If the PEC is higher than 1, then the thermal system is feasible
power required.
for use in practical applications. This is because the heat transfer enhancement is higher than the
The above-mentioned results revealed that the dynamics and heat transfer analysis, as well as
pumping power required.
thermal performance enhancement, inside a hybrid thermal system that combines nanofluids and a
The above-mentioned results revealed that the dynamics and heat transfer analysis, as well as
microfin structure inside a square minichannel, can be investigated by numerical study. The comparison
thermal performance enhancement, inside a hybrid thermal system that combines nanofluids and a
between the numerical result in this work and experiment data from previous studies has been discussed
microfin structure inside a square minichannel, can be investigated by numerical study. The
and shows a very good agreement at the laminar flow regime, including the PEC value. This numerical
comparison between the numerical result in this work and experiment data from previous studies
study failed to predict the Nusselt number at the transition flow regime because there was an early
has been discussed and shows a very good agreement at the laminar flow regime, including the PEC
transition flow phenomenon in the square minichannel with a microfin structure at a Reynold’s number
value. This numerical study failed to predict the Nusselt number at the transition flow regime
of approximately 1200, as reported by Zhang and co-workers [29].
because there was an early transition flow phenomenon in the square minichannel with a microfin
structure
6. at a Reynold’s number of approximately 1200, as reported by Zhang and co-workers [29].
Conclusions
Two passive heat transfer enhancement techniques using a microfin structure and nanofluids
6. Conclusions
were investigated numerically. The Eulerian two-phase mixture approach was used in this work to
Twothe
analyze passive heatand
dynamics transfer enhancement
thermal techniques
transport of using
nanofluids. By ausing
microfin structure
the CFD and the
software, nanofluids
second
were investigated numerically. The Eulerian two-phase mixture approach was used in this
order upwind scheme was used to distinguish the convection, diffusion terms and other quantitieswork to
analyze the
generated bydynamics and thermal
the governing transport
equation. Pressureofand
nanofluids. By using
velocity were the CFD
coupled software,
by using the second
the semi-implicit
method for pressure-linked equations (SIMPLE). The pressure interpolation scheme used in this work
was the pressure staggering option (PRESTO) scheme. To ensure the accuracy of the numerical result,
hydrodynamic and thermal validation was conducted.
According to the numerical test for the friction factor, the Nusselt number, and the performance
evaluation criterion, the key findings can be concluded as follows. Using a TiO2 /water nanofluid as a
working fluid can not only enhance heat transfer performance but also the pressure drop. Compared
to water flowing inside the microfin square-minichannel conduit, using only the nanofluid with
a volume fraction of 0.01% can increase the heat transfer. The enhanced heat transfer area of the
square-minichannel microfin with a TiO2 /water nanofluid at the laminar flow regime reached the
Energies 2019, 12, 3041 18 of 21

optimal performance evaluation criterion (PEC) value of 1.23, at a nanoparticle concentration of

0.01 vol.% and a Reynold’s number of 1750. The combination between the microfin technique and
using nanofluids as working fluids is recommended because this method had a very good heat
transfer performance and is economical. Although using a nanofluid as a working fluid in a square
minichannel with a microfin structure can enhance the Nusselt number, it is also accompanied by a
high pressure drop.

Author Contributions: B.K. and A.T.W. developed and performed the fluid computational dynamics. B.K., A.T.W.,
and K.E. verified the analytical method. T.M. and M.A. supervised the findings of this numerical investigation.
All authors discussed the results and contributed to the final manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Institute of Research and Community Service of Universitas
Sebelas Maret grant number 516/UN27.21/PP/2019 under the research scheme of Kolaborasi Internasional
Universitas Sebelas Maret (KI-UNS). This work was supported by World Class Professor Program (B) 2019 No.
T/48/D2.3/KK.04.05/2019, Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education of the Republic of Indonesia
during finalization of the manuscript.
Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully thank their former colleague, Gamma Firdaus, for kind support and
assistance in data collection and analysis.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
A total wetted area [m2 ] Greek symbols
a, b square side of width and height α aspect ratio
Cp specific heat capacity [J/kg K] φ volume concentration
Dh hydraulic diameter [m] µ dynamic viscosity [Pa s]
L length [m] ρ mass density, kg/m3
.
m mass flow rate [kg/s] bf base fluid
h heat transfer coefficient [W/m2 K] nf nanofluid
H height
k thermal conductivity [W/m K]
∆P total pressure differential [Pa]
T temperature [◦ C]
x axial distance [m]
f friction factor
Nu Nusselt number
Nu average Nusselt number Subscripts
SMM square minichannel microfin c channel
.
q heat flux [W/m2 ] in inlet
Q heat transfer rate gained by fluid [W] out outlet
Pr Prandtl number w wall channel
Re Reynold’s number fin fin
u Velocity in x-direction
v Velocity in y-direction
w Velocity in z-direction
W width

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