A CASE STUDY ON COMPOSTING AND VERMI COMPOSTING

Project work submitted to

Faculty of Civil Engineering, Andhra University
In partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
Submitted by
JAMI TEJA VENKATA SAI KUMARI 320106308021
MUSUNURI ANJANI 320106308033
VANA LOHITH 320106308051
ABOSAYEED NAZARI 320106308058
Under the esteemed guidance of
Dr. T. USHA MADHURI
M.E(PH&EE), Ph.D.

Associate Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Andhra University

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ANDHRA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
VISAKHAPATNAM-53003
2023-2024
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ANDHRA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

VISAKHAPATNAM

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled “A CASE STUDY ON COMPOSTING AND
VERMI COMPOSTING” submitted by

JAMI TEJA VENKATA SAI KUMARI 320106308021

MUSUNURI ANJANI 320106308033

VANA LOHITH 320106308051

ABOSAYEED NAZARI 320106308058

undergraduate students of Department of Civil Engineering, Andhra University College of

Engineering, Visakhapatnam, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the
degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in Civil Engineering, during the academic
year 2023-2024, is a record of bona fide work carried out under my supervision and
guidance.

Dr. T. USHA MADHURI

Project Guide

Department of Civil Engineering

Andhra University
 Visakhapatnam

DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the work done in the project work entitled “A Case Study on
Composting and Vermi Composting” has been carried out by us in partial fulfilment of the
requirement for the award of degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in CIVIL
ENGINEERING of ANDHRA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,
Visakhapatnam and further declare that this project, has never been submitted for any
degree/diploma or any other Academic award anywhere before.

JAMI TEJA VENKATA SAI KUMARI 320106308021

MUSUNURI ANJANI 320106308033

VANA LOHITH 320106308051

ABOSAYEED NAZARI 320106308058

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The fulfilment and happiness on the fruitful finishing of any work would be deficient without
the notice of the individuals who made it conceivable whose steady direction and consolation
delegated out exertion with achievement.

We would like to take the privilege to express our deep gratitude and indebtedness to our
guide Prof. Dr. T. Usha Madhuri, Associate Professor, of Environmental Engineering a
division of Department of Civil Engineering, Andhra University College of Engineering,
Visakhapatnam, for her guidance and valuable suggestions rendered towards the successful
completion of our project work.

This acknowledgement would not be complete without expressing our sincere gratitude to our
parents and family members for all their love, care and support, which gave us the courage
and confidence for the successful completion of our under-graduation at AU.

JAMI TEJA VENKATA SAI KUMARI 320106308021

MUSUNURI ANJANI 320106308033

VANA LOHITH 320106308051

ABOSAYEED NAZARI 320106308058

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No
CHAPTER 1 1
INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. General 1
1.2. Necessity of the study 2
1.3. Objectives of the study 3
1.4. Scope of the study 3
CHAPTER 2 4
THEORY AND LITERATURE REVIEW 4
2.1 COMPOSTING 4
2.2 TYPES OF COMPOSTING 5
2.2.1 Aerobic composting 5
[Link] Windrow Composting: 5
[Link] Static Pile Composting 6
[Link] Vermi-Composting 7
[Link] In-Vessel Composting 8
[Link] Bin composting 8
2.2.2 Anaerobic composting 9
[Link] Hydrolysis 10
[Link] Acidogenesis 11
[Link] Acetogenesis 11
[Link] Methanogenesis 12
2.3 ROLE OF PARAMETERS IN COMPOSTING 13
2.3.1 Material Texture 13
2.3.2 Colour and Odour 13
2.3.3 Temperature 14
2.3.4 Oxygen and pH 14
2.3.5 Aeration 15
2.3.6 Moisture content 15
2.3.7 Density 16
2.3.8 Electrical conductivity (EC) 16
2.3.9 C/N ratio 16
CHAPTER 3 22
MATERIALS AND METHADOLOGY 22
3.1 WINDROW COMPOSTING 23
3.1.1 Materials required 23
3.1.2 Procedure 23
3.2 VERMI COMPOSTING 27
3.2.1 Materials Required 27
3.2.2 Procedure 28
3.3 COCONUT SHELL COIR COMPOST 32
3.3.1 Machine used 32
3.3.2 Procedure 33
3.4 DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COMPOST 36
3.4.1 pH 36
3.4.2 Moisture content 36
3.4.3 Bulk Density 37
3.4.4 Electrical conductivity 38
3.5 DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE COMPOST 39
3.5.1 Organic Carbon 39
3.5.2 Determination of Nitrogen in soil 42
CHAPTER 4 45
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 45
4.1 PARAMETERS CONSIDERED AND ANALYSED 45
4.2 COMPOST PROPERTIES 45
4.2.1 pH 45
4.2.2 Colour, Texture and Odour 45
4.2.3 Bulk Density 46
4.2.4 Electrical conductivity 46
4.2.5 Moisture Content 47
4.2.6 Total Organic Carbon 47
4.2.7 Total Nitrogen 48
4.2.8 C/N ratio 48
LIST OF TABLES
Page No.
LIST OF FIGURES
 ABSTRACT
Continued population growth and urbanization as well as changing consumption patterns
have led to an explosion in the amount of waste produced, especially in cities. To feed the
world, we also need to increase agricultural production while limiting our impact on the
environment. Part of the solution could be to recycle the organic fraction of municipal solid
waste (OFMSW) as a resource for agriculture near cities with techniques such as
vermicomposting, which uses earthworms to recycle organic waste into nutrient-rich
vermicompost.

The objective of the present project is a detail study on composting and Vermi composting. It
also includes Aerobic composting and Coconut shell composting. Municipal solid waste was
collected from Dry Resource Centre. Composting has proved an effective way for
municipalities to reduce both space and methane gas in landfills. Through years of research
and trial and error the best methods for municipal solid waste composting are understood in a
better way.

Vermi composting was conducted by using organic solid waste. In Aerobic composting,
aerobic microorganisms break down organic matter and produce carbon dioxide (CO2),
ammonia, water, heat and humus, the relatively stable organic end product. Coconut waste
was processed in a machine to produce Coconut shell. The physico-chemical parameters such
as moisture content, pH, electrical conductivity, bulk density, total organic carbon, total
nitrogen, C/N ratio were determined theoretically. The time taken for the completion of the
Vermi compost is about 60-90 days.

The present study is conducted in order to manage the huge amount of municipal solid waste
generated which could be converted into useful products rather than following refuse disposal
methods that would pollute as well as harm the environment.
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Composting is the natural biological process in which degradable part of waste is

transformed to a stable material with excellent characteristics for application on soils. Thus, it
requires a pretreatment such as removal of big fractions and other contaminants that could
affect the composting process and final quality of compost. Such type of technique must be
effective efficient and less costly. Agricultural application of composted Municipal Solid
Waste, as nutrient source for plants and as soil conditioner, is the most cost effective option of
MSW management. Municipal solid waste (MSW) compost is increasingly used in
agriculture as a soil conditioner but also as a fertilizer. Proponents of this practice consider it
an important recycling tool since MSW would otherwise be land filled and critics are
concerned with its often elevated metal concentrations. In this review, we show the state of
art about the composting of Municipal solid waste (viz. Kitchen waste) and its application in
agriculture.

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) composting is a rapidly growing method of solid waste
management in the United States. MSW includes the residential, commercial, and
institutional solid waste generated within a community. MSW composting is the process by
which the organic, biodegradable portion of MSW is microbiologically degraded under
aerobic conditions. During the process of degradation, bacteria are used to decompose and
break down the organic matter into water and carbon dioxide, which produces large amounts
of heat and water vapor in the process. Given sufficient oxygen and optimum temperatures,
the composting process achieves a high degree of volume reduction and also generates a
stable end product called compost that can be used for mulching, soil amendment, and soil
enhancement. As a form of solid waste management, MSW composting reduces the amount
of waste that would otherwise end up in landfills.

Although composting has been practiced by humans for centuries, the concept of
composting mixed solid waste as a form of large-scale solid waste management is still in an
early stage of development in the United States. MSW generally consists of a mixture of
organic compostable materials such as food waste and paper and inert, nonbiodegradable
materials such as plastics and glass. The introduction of non-compostable materials may pose
problems in materials handling during the composting process and also hinder the formation
of a uniform, homogeneous compost. Therefore, in order to practice MSW composting as a
form of waste management, the composting system must be designed to remove the non-
compostable materials either by presorting and screening or other methods.

The three most common methods of MSW composting are closed in-vessel, windrow
composting method, and static aerated pile composting. The method of choice depends on the
volume of waste to be composted and the availability of space for composting. In the closed
in-vessel method, the MSW is physically contained within large drums or cylinders and all
necessary aeration and agitation is supplied to the vessel. In windrows, the MSW is heaped in
long rows of material approximately four to seven feet high. Air and ventilation are supplied
by physically turning over the piles with mechanical windrow turners. In static aerated
compost piles, the MSW piles are not physically agitated, rather air is supplied and excess
heat is removed by a system of sensors and pipes within the pile. In all cases, the goal is to
ensure a steady, optimum rate of composting by providing adequate oxygen and ventilation to
remove excess heat and water so that microbiological action is not impaired. When there is
insufficient air supply, microbial action is unable to fully decompose the waste and the piles
become anaerobic and unpleasant odors and putrefaction may result. Strong neighborhood
complaints against odors is the single most common reason for the failure and shutdown of
composting plants.

1.2. NECESSITY OF THE STUDY

Properly managing dry and wet waste is important for both environmental and economic
reasons, as well as for the overall well-being of communities. Composting is a preferred
material recovery technique which has the following advantages:

 Composting reduces waste, renders less dependency on landfills, and decreases

greenhouse gas emissions.
 Compost strengthens soil and promotes healthy plant growth.
 Composting reduces the need for pesticides and synthetic fertilizers.
 Composting recycles essential nutrients back into the soil.
 Compost promotes a prolific soil ecosystem.
 Encourages the production of beneficial bacteria and fungi that breakdown organic
matter to create humus, a rich nutrient-filled material.
  Addition of compost to soil helps to regulate the acid and alkaline levels in soil.

1.3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of the present study are as follows:

 To do case study of composting and Vermi composting processes of organic waste

which is compostable at Dry Resource Centre, GVMC, Seethammadhara.
 To determine physico-chemical characteristics of windrow compost, coconut shell
compost and vermi compost for the following characteristics- 1)pH, 2)electrical
conductivity, 3)moisture content,4) bulk density,5) C/N ratio,6) colour, 7)texture and
8)odour.
 To understand the characteristics of vermi compost, aerobic compost and coconut
shell compost and understand their nutrient content for agricultural application.

1.4. SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The above mentioned objectives can be achieved through a detailed study of composting. The
present study will have the following steps:

 Study of existing literature related to composting.

 Case study of composting and vermi composting processes
 Determining the physical and chemical characteristics of the Vermi compost, aerobic
compost and coconut shell experimentally.
 Comparing the results of various composts.
 Analysing the results and arriving at possible conclusions.
 CHAPTER 2

THEORY AND LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 COMPOSTING

Composting is a process in which raw organic matter is converted to biologically stable,

humic substances to make excellent soil amendments. By adding compost to the soil there
is an increase in soil fertility and requirement of the fertilizers are reduced by 50%.
Composting requires mainly aerobic conditions. Traditionally, composting was done by
plant material. With the commencement of the various organic materials such as Industrial
and municipal wastes, these composts are considering as secondary wastes. Composting is
having many advantages such as recycling elements with nitrogen, phosphorous and
reduces the volume of the waste. Composting by aerobic process is mostly favorable since
this organic matter is partially mineralized and humified. Composting techniques are used
to decrease the volume and weight of the waste which results in the production of a stable
product that can be used for agriculture. This composting is done by the action of
microorganisms which degrades the organic matter in the presence of oxygen and gives a
stable, nontoxic, pathogen free and plant nutrient rich product. This biodegradation is
broken down of organic compounds occurring due to the production of extra cellular
enzymes by the microorganisms. These organic compounds can be considered as substrate
or microbial food waste. During composting oxygen (02) is absorbed and carbon dioxide
(C02) is emitted. The composting will reduce the ecological risk by converting the waste
material into a safer and a stable substance which is useful for the soil. Composting also
decreases the transport expenses. Bacteria are important in biodegradation process.
Composting which is done either home or industrial should have good quality in order to
achieve more benefits for the plants otherwise it would lead to higher environmental
impacts. In spite of environmental benefits of composting, greenhouse gases (GHG) can be
generated and emitted to the atmosphere during the process contributing to global
warming. Thus, the use of compost requires a quality product, stable and free of phytotoxic
compounds.

During composting the carbon is converted to carbon dioxide. The carbon, chemical
energy, protein and water in the finished compost are less than the raw materials. During
composting, 9.6-46% of the initial total nitrogen (TN) is lost in the form ofNH 3. Under
natural conditions earthworms, nematodes and soil insects do most of the mechanical
breakdown of organic matter into smaller sizes. But, under controlled conditions, grinding,
chopping will break down the large particles.

2.2 TYPES OF COMPOSTING

Depending upon the requirement of oxygen, composting is mainly divided into 2

types. They are aerobic composting and anaerobic composting.

2.2.1 Aerobic composting

Aerobic composting is the process in which the organic matter or biodegradable waste
is decomposed with the help of microorganisms in the presence of oxygen. This microbial
action results in decomposition of organic matter to simple, inorganic end products such
as C02, water and heat and the residual organic compounds are converted to humic acid or
humus and gets stabilized shown in fig 2.1. It involves the action of mesophilic microbes
and thermophilic microbes. If properly managed, all the pathogens will die at the
thermophilic phase of composting because of higher temperature. Aerobic composting is
also an inexpensive and green renewable resource that solves lot of problems associated
with disposing of dead plants, kitchen wastes and other organic waste products.

Figure 2.1 Process diagram of Aerobic Composting

[Link] Windrow Composting:

Organic waste is formed into rows of long piles called “windrows” and aerated by
turning the pile periodically by either manual or mechanical means. The ideal pile height,
which is between 4 and 8 feet, allows for a pile large enough to generate sufficient heat
and maintain temperatures, yet small enough to allow oxygen to flow to the windrow's
core. The ideal pile width is between 14 and 16 feet. Windrow composting often requires
large tracts of land, sturdy equipment, a continual supply of labor to maintain and operate
the facility, and patience to experiment with various materials mixtures and turning
frequencies.

Results: This method will yield significant amounts of compost, which might require
assistance to market the end-product. Alternatively, local governments can make the
compost available to residents for a low or no cost.

Figure2.2 Windrow Composting

[Link] Static Pile Composting

In aerated static pile composting, organic waste is mixed together in one large pile
instead of rows. To aerate the pile, layers of loosely piled bulking agents (e.g., wood
chips, shredded newspaper) are added so that air can pass from the bottom to the top of
the pile. The piles also can be placed over a network of pipes that deliver air into or draw
air out of the pile. Air blowers might be activated by a timer or a temperature sensors.

Types of Waste and Waste Generators: Aerated static piles are suitable for a relatively
homogenous mix of organic waste and work well for larger quantity generators of yard
trimmings and compostable municipal solid waste (e.g., food scraps, paper products),
which might include local governments, landscapers, or farms. This method, however,
industries.
 Figure2.3 Aerated static pile composting

[Link] Vermi-Composting

Composting and vermicomposting are well known processes for the biological
stabilization of the organic waste. In the vermicomposting process by the joint action of
earthworms and mesophilic microorganisms the organic material undergoes bio-oxidation
and stabilization. Earthworms act as mechanical blenders and they enhance the microbial
activity by improving its environment. Vermicomposting ensures the removal of the
pathogens as the worms will eat all the pathogens. Therefore, this is effective method for
treating the pathogen rich wastes. In the vermicomposting process higher humidity can
also be tolerated because the worm burrows, these acts as a channel for the passage of air.
The waste obtained is more stabilized, homogenized and nutrient rich, as these worms are
having abundance of the oxygen and nitrogenous compounds (urea, protein, NH3) in its
excreta and mucus. Eisenia foetida (Red wiggers) are considered as best for the organic
material. Since, they have higher reproduction rate i.e., it produces cocoon every 7 to 10
days.

Figure2.4 Vermi composting

[Link] In-Vessel Composting

Organic materials are fed into a drum, silo, concrete-lined trench, or similar equipment
where the environmental conditions-including temperature, moisture, and aeration-are
closely controlled. The apparatus usually has a mechanism to turn or agitate the material
for proper aeration. In-vessel composters vary in size and capacity.

Types of Waste and Waste Generators: In-vessel composting can process large amounts of
waste without taking up as much space as the windrow method. In addition, it can
accommodate virtually any type of organic waste (e.g., meat, animal manure, biosolids,
food scraps). Some in-vessel composters can fit into a school or restaurant kitchen while
others can be as large as a school bus to accommodate large food processing plants.

Results: Conversion of organic material to compost can take as little as a few weeks. Once
the compost comes out of the vessel, however, it still requires a few more weeks or
months for the microbial activity to stabilize and the pile to cool.

Figure2.5 In Vessel Composting

[Link] Bin composting

The bin composting can be done for the small community and for the large community
depending upon size of the bin. Sometimes an individual can also prepare their own bin
for their degradation of waste. The feedstock is placed in the form of layers. Ideally, a
mixture of waste such as kitchen waste, dried leaves and paper can be included in the
feedstock. The bin can be in any required sizes and shapes. The compost containers can be
manufactured out of wood or with plastic. Once every 5-10 days, high temperatures are
generated. This bin composting was considered as one of the best waste management
techniques.

Figure2.6 Bin composting

2.2.2 Anaerobic composting

Anaerobic digestion or composting is a biological method in which various groups of

microorganisms in the absence of oxygen turn complex organic matter into simple and
stable end products. During this method, biogas is generated that can be used as a
renewable source, a combination of methane and carbon dioxide. It is a multi-stage
method which involves a range of microorganisms, such as the hydrolysing and acid
forming culture, syntrophic oxidizers and methane producing archaeal group, which vary
in physiology, nutritional needs, growth kinetics and environmental sensitivity. Formation
of biogas results from interrelated stages, in which the original material divided into
smaller units. Each phase involves specific cultures of microorganisms. These bacteria
decompose the products of the preceding phase subsequently. The illustrated diagram in
Figure 2.7 shows four primary stages hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis and
methanogenesis.
 Figure2.7 Process diagram of Anaerobic Composting

[Link] Hydrolysis

The phase of anaerobic digestion is hydrolysis, in which complicated organic

materials are split into smaller units (mono and oligomers). In hydrolysis polymers like
glucose, glycerol, and amino acids, as shown in step l of Figure are transformed into fats,
lipids, nucleic acids. The process of hydrolysis stage depends on the pH, temperature,
geometry and shape of feed material. Hydrolytic microorganisms excrete hydrolytic
enzymes to make biopolymers easier and more stable. Hydrolysis can be rate limiting
sage if the medium includes big molecules (particulates) with a small volume-to-surface
proportion. The rate limiting stage is acetogenesis and methanogenesis, if the substratum
is easily degradable. Hydrolytic and fermenting bacteria engaged in the method of
hydrolysis procedure of exoenzymes like cellulose, protease and lipase. A number of
genera such as Streptococcus and Enterobacterium are performed in hydrolysis process. It
is accessible for cell transportation when the substratum is hydrolysed and fermenting
bacteria may break it up.

lipase
Lipids fatty acids, glycerol

Celluolase, cellobiase,
polysaccharide amylase monosaccharide

protease
Protein Amino acids

The overall hydrolysis reaction is represented by following equation

C6H10O4 C6H12O6 + H2O

[Link] Acidogenesis

Hydrolysis products are thus transformed into simple molecules of small molecular
weight, such as alcohols, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, ammonium and organic acids. Volatile
fatty acids, carbon dioxide and acetate are the products obtained in this process as shown in
Figure. These organisms comprise a wide range of bacterial genera representing both obligate
and facultative anaerobes. The main degradation path way results in acetate, carbon dioxide
and hydrogen. The intermediate, such as volatile fatty acids and alcohols play a minor role.
This degradation path way gives higher energy yield for the microorganisms and the products
can be utilized directly by methanogenic microorganisms. Oxygen is introduced by the
facultative bacteria in this process that provides favourable conditions for the growth of
anaerobes belonging to the genera of Pseudomonas, Bacillus, clostridium, Micrococcus, or
Flavobacterium. Acidogenesis step usually considered as the fastest step in the anaerobic
digestion of complex organic matter and the products obtained depend mainly on the kind of
bacteria and cultural circumstances such as temperature and pH. Reactions involved in this
process are,

C6H12O6 2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2

C6H12O6 2CH3CHOHCOOH

[Link] Acetogenesis

Alcohols are oxidized into acetate bacteria in Acetogenesis phase into methanogenic
substrate such as acetic acid, hydrogen and carbon dioxide. Volatile fatty acids having carbon
chains more than two units is oxidized into acetate and hydrogen. The breakdown is called a
B-oxidation of volatile fatty acids. This phase is important because higher volatile fatty acids
such as propionate or butyrate cannot be used by methanogen bacteria immediately. In this
step, the microorganisms of genera Syntrophomonas and Syntrophobacter convert the
products that can be easily degraded by methanogenic bacteria. The products are acetates and
hydrogen. Reactions involved in this process are,

CH3CH2COOH + 2H2O CH3COOH + CO2 + 3H2

CH3CH2CH2COOH + 2H 2CH3COOH + 2H2

CH3CH2OH CH3COOH + 2H2
These three stages are commonly called acid fermentation. Every organic matter in liquid
phase was converted into substrate for methanogenesis process. Under standard conditions
and at low hydrogen partial pressures, these reactions are endergonic and exergonic.
Hydrogen reduction is accomplished through a symbiosis of acetogenic and methanogenic
bacteria. Acetogenic process is energy efficient at the cost of methanogenic processes and
return of part of energy is there in acetogenic bacteria. The butyrate degradation under
standard conditions is not energy efficient but relies upon co-culture with hydrogen removing
bacteria. Acetate degradation to methane is thermodynamically viable where hydrogen acts as
the metabolic connection among non - methanogenic and methanogenic bacterium. An
increased level of hydrogen inhibits the degradation of propionic and butyric acids due to
their effect on reaction thermodynamics and can thus inhibit acetoclastic methanogens.

[Link] Methanogenesis

This was the last step in the anaerobic digestion process; in this, two groups of microbes
convert the acetogenesis products into methane gas. Those are acetoclastic and hydrogen-
utilizing methanogens. Methane and carbon dioxide are formed from acetate by acetoclastic
methanogens. By using methanogens, methane is generated from hydrogen and carbon
dioxide. The former step produces around 70% of methane than the latter. Reactions involved
in these processes are,

CH3COOH CH4 + CO2

2CH3CH2OH CH4 + 2CH3COOH

4H2 + CO2 CH4 + 2H2O

In the anaerobic digestion process, hydrogen - consuming methanogens are among the fastest
growing organisms and hydrogen accumulation is only likely to occur. Hydrogen - utilizing
methanogens have been found to be more resistant than acetoclastic methanogens to
environmental changes. Among all microbes slow generation rates are methanogens and are
therefore normally considered as rate limiting organic waste anaerobes. Anaerobic digestion
of organic wastes is stabilized after the production of methane and carbon dioxide. The final
generation of biogas depends however on the feed proportion and biodegradability of the
organic waste feed but the production rate depends on the bacterial and archaea populations,
their growth conditions and the system temperature.

2.3 ROLE OF PARAMETERS IN COMPOSTING

The important parameters of composting process are the physical and chemical. The
physical parameters are the pH, moisture content, temperature, electrical conductivity,
bulk density, odour, colour, texture, nutrients, oxygen demand and time. Moreover, the
rapid decomposition and high temperatures during composting produce a comparatively
uniform, pathogen free, odour free and easy to handle product.

2.3.1 Material Texture

Degradable organic materials with hard texture, high lignin or tough texture generally
composts slowly. Composting typically results in a dark, crumbly texture known as
humus. This rich, soil-like substance is a result of the decomposition of organic matter
such as kitchen scraps, yard waste, and other biodegradable materials. The ideal texture of
finished compost will be fine and crumbly. In fact, it should feel and smell much like soil.
There shouldn't be any visible organic waste remaining in the compost bin.

2.3.2 Colour and Odour

Colour is also spelled as color, the aspect of any object that may be described in terms
of hue, lightness, and saturation. It is the characteristic of visual perception described
through colour categories.
 Odour is the smell which refer to either a pleasant or an unpleasant. It is caused by one
or more volatized chemical compounds that are generally found in low concentrations that
humans and animals can perceive by their sense of smell.

2.3.3 Temperature

Temperature is an essential factor in composting because it helps to hasten the composting

process and eliminate pathogenic organisms that are harmful to soil organisms, plants,
animals, and humans. Microorganisms present during the composting process are
classified according to the temperature at which they exist. Microorganisms growing at
20-40°C are classified as mesophilic organisms, while those growing above 40-70°C are
thermophilic bacteria. Mesophilic organisms start the composting process; they break
down the readily degradable compounds of the waste. Their metabolism leads to a rapid
increase in compost temperature. The volume of the wastes treated sometimes affects the
temperature (heat generation); if the volume of waste is low, the high temperature may not
be attained. Sometimes the temperature during composting does not rise to 45°C, but
pathogens could die when nutrients present in the composting materials are exhausted and
when competitive organism excrete enzymes which are capable of destroying the
pathogens.

The temperature is an indicator of microbial activity that determines composting

process status. When the temperature is > 50°C, the organic matter is easily used by
indigenous microorganisms and low temperature would result in higher electrical
conductivity, slower degradation of organic matter and lower N content in the cooling
stage. Heat is trapped within the composting mass, resulting in the composting process
attributing the concept of self- heating.

The composting materials underwent three usual phases of degradation: mesophilic,

thermophilic, and curing. This thermophilic phase was caused by the decomposition of
easily available carbon, as seen in all treatments with a reduction in TOC. After the easily
degradable carbon was depleted, the rate of decomposition of microbial activity and
organic matter slowed down and the composting entered the curing phase. During the
thermophilic process, demand exceeding O2 supply and CO₂ output during intensive
organic degradation caused an anaerobic environment, resulting in high emissions of
CH4.
2.3.4 Oxygen and pH

The presence of oxygen is important during the composting process. When organisms
oxidize carbon for energy formation, the oxygen present is used up, and gases are
produced. Without adequate oxygen, the composting process will become anaerobic, and
gases (methane, carbon dioxide, and ammonia) will be produced, leading to the
production of desired odors.

The pH of the materials that are composted affects the composting rate. Alkaline pH
has been reported to be best for composting. When pH is acidic, composting is very slow
because the microorganisms are destroyed.

Compost pH directly reflects the dynamics of compost, and is affected by management

practices. The pH is slightly acidic at the beginning of the cycle due to the degradation of
easily degradable compounds and the production of organic acids, and then rises above
neutral as the acids are consumed and ammonia is created during the degradation of
nitrogen compounds at the same time. The activity of proteolytic bacteria and the
subsequent ammonization of organic nitrogen have therefore resulted in a rise in pH.

2.3.5 Aeration

Aeration replaces oxygen deficient air in the center of compost pile with fresh air.
Rapid aerobic decomposition can only occur in the presence of sufficient oxygen.
Aeration occurs naturally when air warmed by the compost process rises through the pile,
drawing in fresh air from the surroundings. Wind also stimulates aeration. Air movement
through the compost pile is affected by porosity and moisture content.

Aeration is one of the main factors that influence composting processes. In order to
maintain aerobic conditions in a composting mass, aeration must supply the oxygen
required by the microorganisms involved in breaking down the waste. In an aerobic
climate, changes in organic matter during composting are caused by microbiological
procedures. The low and medium aeration results in an increased percentage of total
nitrogen, a rapid decline in the C/N ratio, and a long thermophilic period. The high
aeration gives greater electrical conductivity corresponding to compost manure. Aeration
cools the soil near the air source, causing pathogen destruction and reducing surrounding
microbial activity.
2.3.6 Moisture content

The moisture tends to occupy the free air space between the particles. Hence, when the
moisture content is very high, aerobic conditions set in. However, the composting mass
should have a certain minimum moisture content in it for the organisms to survive. The
optimum moisture content is known to be between 50 to 60%. Higher moisture content
may be required while composting straw and strong fibrous material which soften the
fiber and fills the large pore spaces. Higher moisture content can also be used in
mechanically aerated digesters. In aerobic composting the moisture content used will
depend upon the method of handling and whether it is carried out in the open or in closed
container.

The moisture content of the substratum is considered a basic parameter of the

composting process to prevent premature dehydration of the organic material, in case of
low moisture content. Whereas in the case of excessive moisture content, anaerobic
condition occurs.

2.3.7 Density

The density (also known as specific mass) of a substance is its mass per unit volume. The
symbol mostly used is ρ. The density of a material varies with temperature and pressure.
Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object and thus increases
its density. Increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its density by increasing
volume.

2.3.8 Electrical conductivity (EC)

The salinity of an organic modification is reflected in the electrical conductivity (EC).

High concentration of salt can cause problems with phytotoxicity and therefore EC is a
good indicator of the suitability and safety of a compost or vermicompost for agricultural
purposes. Home composting is compared with industrial composting and stated that
higher electrical conductivity (EC) in industrial compost with an average value of 7.2
ds/cm Although there is no compost application limit in relation to EC, high EC compost
may present a phytotoxic behaviour that affects seed growth when used in large
quantities.
2.3.9 C/N ratio

The C/N ratio is a key metric for determining if the compost has been adequately
stabilized. The C/N ratio determines the availability of nutrients to the micro-organisms
responsible for the composting process, since the majority of biodegradable waste
contains sufficient quantities and ratios of all other nutrients required. Microorganisms
which are responsible for the evolution of the organic substances aerobic biodegradation
require specific nutrients for their development and metabolic processes. These mainly
include carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.

An ideal C:N of 30 is optimum for a composting process. When composting materials

are low in C:N, air will fail to penetrate the pile, which results in anaerobic conditions and
causes odour production in addition to nitrogen loss in the form of ammonia gas. In
addition, if the C/N ratio is too high, the activities of microorganisms will be reduced, and
the rate of decomposition will be slow.

Most organic waste contains enough quantities of which carbon and nitrogen nutrients
are the elements that can have a greater impact on the composting process, either in
excess or in absence in the substrate. Carbon is the factor that meets the energy
requirements of the microorganisms that are responsible for the process evolution, but at
the same time part of it is their essential structural component. Nitrogen is an integral part
of proteins, nucleic acids, amino acids, enzymes which are important for the growth of
cells in the microbes. For each nitrogen element the values recorded as optimal by
different researchers are between 25 and 35 parts of carbon. In general, the carbon and
nitrogen losses of the organic material during aerobic biodegradation are large, With the
most common phenomenon being that carbon losses are higher than those of nitrogen
resulting in a reduction of the C/N ratio in the end product. The mature compost needs to
have a C/N ratio of 10 to 20.
2.4 LITERATURE REVIEW

Vikrant Vairagade and Shradda Vairagade (2016) conducted a test on Aerobic Composting
of Household Biodegradable Waste. Composting is a method for managing solid waste
effectively. This study focuses on composting household biodegradable waste. Various
parameters were tested on the compost produced weekly. The compost showed proximity
to ideal compost parameters. Parameters tested: pH, temperature, moisture content, carbon
content, phosphorus, germination index, Results show proximity to ideal compost
parameters Compost at near maturity has temperature of 35°C, neutral pH, 69% moisture,
45% carbon, 1.1% phosphorus, 80% germination index. Small reactor can be installed at
home for composting waste.

[Link], [Link] and [Link](2016) Conducted tests on Aerobic

Compost from the Solid Waste Generated in Coimbatore City, Tamil Nadu , India. Paper
explores alternative approaches to Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) management Focuses
on cost of waste management in Coimbatore city, Tamil Nadu, India Highlights the use of
aerobic composting as an innovative method. Discusses the benefits of aerobic
composting in handling organic waste Emphasizes the importance of Moisture content of
compost was maintained at 40-50% during the experiment. pH, electrical conductivity,
and temperature were analyzed daily. Total organic carbon, total nitrogen, phosphorus,
and potassium were analyzed in the laboratory. pH, electrical conductivity, temperature,
and moisture content were determined for the final compost. pH, electrical conductivity,
and temperature varied significantly with decomposition time. Vermicompost had higher
organic carbon content compared to other compost types. Windrow composting method
took more time for degradation and had lower nutrient content. Rapid compost and pit
method had desirable nutrient content but less than vermicompost. CN ratio varied for all
compost types, with vermicompost having the lowest. NPK values were higher in
vermicompost compared to other compost types.

Sunil Jayant Kulakarni (2017) Conducted tests on treatment of solid wastes by various
methods like sanitary landfill, composting and incineration. Paper focuses on treatment of
waste water and solid waste. Conventional wastewater treatment methods and their
efficiency are discussed. Various methods for solid waste treatment are explored. Aerobic
and anaerobic digestion methods are compared. Aerobic composting is highlighted as a
common and effective waste treatment method. Temperature increased to 60 degrees
Celsius on day 25. Moisture content was unstable during the composting process.
Activated sludge is effective for treating leachate with high organics. Compost from
aerobic thermophilic composting suitable for ornamental plants. Optimization of
operational parameters for solids degradation and resource recovery.

Pritam Pande, Dr. M. N. Hedaoo (2014) Conducted tests on Composting of different

waste using Indigenious microorganisms(IMO). The literature discusses compost quality
and characteristics. It highlights the importance of environmental protection and
agricultural waste management. It mentions the use of indigenous microorganisms (IMO)
in composting. Paper focuses on composting different waste using indigenous
microorganisms (IMO). Composting is a means of recycling organic matter to improve
soil fertility. Waste volumes are rising, leading to environmental risks and resource loss.
Landfilling of biodegradable waste contributes to environmental degradation .Composting
is an environmentally sound method to treat waste and avoid landfilling. IMO is used as
an organic additive during composting process. Preparation of IMO involves multiple
phases with various materials. The paper reviews composting of different waste using
indigenous microorganisms.

Antoni Sanchez (2022) Conducted tests on Decentralized Composting of Food Waste. The
literature review focuses on decentralized composting, including home and community
composting. It analyzes composting process performance and compost quality. It includes
limited information on community composting. It comments on the possible role of
vermicomposting. It mentions the scarcity of information on the effects of pandemics on
compost quality. Composting is an effective and sustainable technology for organic waste
treatment. Home and community composting is growing in popularity. The quality of
home compost and its environmental impact are still being studied. Temperature
stratification is a challenge in small-scale composting. Home compost can be similar to
industrial compost in terms of quality. Sanitization of home compost is not always
achieved. Gaseous emissions, especially greenhouse emissions, are generally low. Home
composting can be a good alternative for resilient cities.

Shweta Choudhary(2019) Conducted Studies on solid waste management. The paper

discusses the challenges and importance of solid waste management. It emphasizes the
need for community knowledge, political commitment, and civic participation.
Landfilling is still the most prevalent approach in the northeastern area of Illinois.
Landfills may pose a threat to groundwater and air quality. Recycling and waste-to-energy
systems have reduced landfill volumes in Europe. Solid waste management is the process
of handling and disposing of waste. The availability of landfill capacity in urban areas is a
major problem. Countries are implementing waste management schemes to reduce landfill
waste. Landfill gas can be collected to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Recycling waste
is important for protecting the environment and public health. Municipal solid waste is
categorized into six main categories. Proper waste management can support society
economically and socially. Integrated waste management considers both technical and
non-technical elements. Public involvement and awareness are crucial for successful
waste management.

Tesfu Mengistu, Heluf Gebrekidan, Kibebew Kibret and Hiranmai Yadav(2017)

Conducted studies on comparative effectiveness of different composting methods. Study
investigates effectiveness of different composting methods on waste recycling .Methods
include windrow composting, vermicomposting, pit composting, and combined methods.
Physico-chemical and biological characteristics of compost examined over 100
days .Composting methods vary in stability, maturity, and sanitation of compost. WVC
method most efficient in eliminating pathogens from composts. Changes in physico-
chemical and biological characteristics of compost examined Evolution of composting
temperature, pH, EC, NH+4, NO-3, NH+4:NO-3 ratio, OC, C:N ratio, total volatile solids
varied significantly. Total nitrogen and germination index varied significantly with time.
All methods except pit composting satisfied stability/maturity indices at 60th day. Highly
significant differences in eliminating pathogens among composting methods.

Dr. N.C. Talukdar: Dr. Talukdar's research focuses on the science and practical aspects of
vermicomposting, emphasizing its potential in waste management and soil enrichment.
His work delves into the role of different earthworm species in the vermicomposting
process, the optimal environmental conditions required for vermicomposting, and the
quality of compost produced. He also explores the economic viability of large-scale
vermicomposting operations and its implications for sustainable agriculture.

Dr. Mary Appiah-Marfo: Dr. Appiah-Marfo's studies in vermicomposting primarily

revolve around its application in organic waste management, particularly in urban
settings. Her research highlights the effectiveness of vermicomposting in reducing organic
waste volume and producing nutrient-rich compost for soil improvement. She investigates
the social and environmental impacts of vermicomposting initiatives, including
community engagement, waste diversion rates, and greenhouse gas emissions reduction.

Dr. Rajiv K. Sinha: Dr. Sinha's research on vermicomposting spans both theoretical and
practical aspects, with a focus on its role in sustainable agriculture and environmental
conservation. His work explores the biochemical processes underlying vermicomposting,
including microbial activity, nutrient cycling, and organic matter decomposition. Dr.
Sinha also examines the potential of vermicompost as a biofertilizer and soil conditioner,
elucidating its effects on crop yield, soil structure, and microbial diversity.

Dr. H. Paul: Dr. Paul's research focuses on the biochemical processes and microbial
dynamics involved in aerobic composting. His work delves into the role of oxygen in
promoting the activity of aerobic microorganisms responsible for organic matter
decomposition. He explores the optimal environmental conditions for aerobic composting,
including temperature, moisture content, and carbon-to-nitrogen ratio, and their effects on
composting efficiency and compost quality.

Dr. Sally Brown: Dr. Brown's studies in aerobic composting emphasize its application in
organic waste management and soil fertility enhancement. Her research investigates the
diversity and functionality of microbial communities in aerobic composting systems,
including bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes. Dr. Brown explores the interactions between
microbial populations, organic substrate composition, and environmental factors to
optimize composting processes and nutrient cycling in compost-amended soils.

CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHADOLOGY

 Case study
of

Vermi
composting Windrow composting of Windrow composting
coconut shell of MSW compostables
Sample collection
of Vermi compost
Sample collection of Sample collection of
compost compost
Analysis

Analysis Analysis
Chemical Physical
properties properties
Chemical Physical Chemical Physical
properties properties properties properties
C% pH

C% pH C% pH
N% EC

N% EC N% EC
Moisture
C/N ratio
content
Moisture Moisture
C/N ratio C/N ratio
Bulk content content
density
Bulk Bulk
density density
colour

colour colour
odour

odour odour
texture

texture texture

FLOW CHART
 3.1 WINDROW COMPOSTING

Windrow composting is a method of composting organic materials in long, narrow piles

called windrows. This technique is commonly used in large-scale composting operations,
such as those found in agricultural settings, municipal composting facilities, or industrial
composting sites.

3.1.1 Materials required:

1. Organic materials of municipal solid waste

2. Base Material
3. Water Source
4. Thermometer
5. Covering Material
6. Screening Equipment
7. Compost testing equipment

3.1.2 Procedure:

Preparation: Organic materials such as yard waste, agricultural residues, food scraps, or
biosolids are collected and brought to the composting site. These materials are often shredded
or chopped into smaller pieces to accelerate decomposition.

Fig 3.1 Organic Waste

Formation of Windrows: The prepared organic materials are arranged in long, narrow piles
called windrows. Windrows are typically several feet wide and tall and can vary in length
depending on the volume of materials being composted. The windrows are usually placed on
a suitable base such as concrete ground.

Fig 3.2 Windrows placed on concrete ground

Aeration: Proper aeration is done for the composting process to occur efficiently.

Moisture Management: Maintaining the right moisture level is crucial for composting.
Windrows may be covered with a tarp or other material to prevent excessive moisture loss or
saturation from rain. Monitoring and adjusting moisture levels as needed help create an
optimal environment for microbial activity.

Fig 3.3 Maintaining the moisture level

 Fig 3.4 Setup covered with Tarp

Temperature Monitoring: Composting generates heat as microorganisms break down

organic matter. Monitoring the internal temperature of the windrows is important to ensure
that the compost reaches and maintains temperatures high enough to kill pathogens and weed
seeds. Thermometers are often inserted into the windrows to monitor temperature levels.

Maturation: Depending on the materials used and environmental conditions, windrow

composting can take several weeks to several months to complete. During this time, the
compost undergoes various stages of decomposition until it matures into a stable, nutrient-
rich product.

Curing and Screening: Once the composting process is complete, the finished compost may
undergo a curing period to stabilize further and reduce the risk of pathogens. It may also be
screened to remove any large particles or contaminants, resulting in a more uniform product
suitable for various applications such as soil amendment or landscaping.
 Fig 3.5 Screening equipment

Windrow composting is favoured for its scalability and ability to handle large volumes of
organic waste efficiently. However, proper management and monitoring are essential to
ensure optimal composting conditions and produce high-quality compost.

Fig 3.6 Matured compost

 3.2 VERMI COMPOSTING

Vermicomposting is the scientific method of making compost, by using earthworms.

They are commonly found living in soil, feeding on biomass and excreting it in a digested
form.

Vermicomposting comprises two methods:

Bed Method: This is an easy method in which beds of organic matter are prepared.

Pit Method: In this method, the organic matter is collected in cemented pits. However,
this method is not prominent as it involves problems of poor aeration and waterlogging.

Principle:

This process is mainly required to add nutrients to the soil. Compost is a natural
fertilizer that allows an easy flow of water to the growing plants. The earthworms are
mainly used in this process as they eat the organic matter and produce castings through
their digestive systems.

The nutrients profile of Vermi composts are:

 1.6 per cent of Nitrogen.

 0.7 per cent of Phosphorus.
 0.8 per cent of Potassium.
 0.5 per cent of Calcium.
 0.2 per cent of Magnesium.
 175 ppm of Iron.
 96.5 ppm of Manganese.
 24.5 ppm of Zinc.

3.2.1 Materials Required:

1. Water
2. Cow dung
3. Thatch Roof
4. Soil
 5. Gunny bags
6. Earthworms
7. A large bin (plastic or cemented tank).
8. Biodegradable municipal solid wastes

3.2.2 Procedure:

Step 1
Prepare compost using either a plastic or a concrete tank. Vermi composting is done
under thatched roof to protect the worms against sun and rain.

Figure 3.7 Concrete Tank

Step 2
First apply a layer of dry coconut waste on to the pit. This will be the hiding place for the
worms whenever the ambient temperature increases. Now add well composted Cow
Dung Manure on to the pit up to one foot and then add a layer of dry leaves. Again, add
Cow Dung Manure and fill the pit. Dried cattle dung can be used. Wet dung is usually
avoided in vermicomposting process as they generate too much heat during
decomposition.
 Figure 3.8 Cattle Dung

Step 3
Now the Cow Dung manure will be hot and it has to be cooled down. Hence, we need to
sprinkle water everyday at least for 10 days till the temperature comes down.

Figure 3.9 Sprinkling of water

Step 4
Selected earthworms are placed uniformly over the material that has to be composted.
There is no need to put the earthworms inside, as they move inside on their own. Roughly
for one-meter length, one-meter breadth and 0.5-meter height of the Vermi bed, 1 kg of
worm (1000 Nos.) is needed. The best worms to use in a vermicomposting operation are
red wigglers. Worms need moisture to live and breathe, so it’s important for the bedding
to be wet before you add the worms later on.
 Figure 3.10 Earthworms are introduced
Step 5
Moisture should be maintained to 60% throughout the composting process. Hence, daily
watering of the Vermi bed is not required but water should be sprinkled over the bed if
necessary. Cover the compost mixture with gunny bags.
Step 6
Harvesting of the castings formed on the top layer are done periodically i.e., may be once
in a week. Watering should be stopped before the harvesting of vermicompost. The
casting are scooped out with hand and placed as heap in a shady place. Periodical
harvesting is necessary to retain the quality of compost or else the finished compost get
compacted when watering is done to maintain moisture.
Step 7
The Vermi compost is produced after 3-5 months. After the vermicompost production, the
earthworm present in the bed should be harvested. Simple trapping method can be used
wherein small, fresh cow dung balls are made and inserted inside the bed in five or six
places. After 24 hours, the cow dung balls are removed. The balls with the worms are put
in a bucket of water to separate the worms. The collected worms are used in next batch of
composting. After screening to remove undecomposed materials and worms, the final
product is obtained.
Step 8
The harvested vermicompost should be stored in cool, dark place with a minimum 40%
moisture. It should not be exposed to sunlight as this will lead to loss of moisture and
nutrient content.
Figure 3.11 Matured compost
 3.3 COCONUT SHELL COIR COMPOST

Coconut fiber is extracted from the outer shell of a coconut. It is also called coir fiber
or coco fiber. It is the natural fiber of the coconut husk where it is a thick and coarse but
durable fiber. The common name, scientific name and plant family of coconut fiber is
Coir, Cocos nucifera and Arecaceae (Palm), respectively.

There are two types of coconut fibers, brown fiber extracted from matured coconuts and
white fibers extracted from immature coconuts. Brown fibers are thick, strong and have
high abrasion resistance. White fibers are smoother and finer, but also weaker. Both
brown and white coir consist of fibers ranging in length from 4-12 in (10-30 cm). Those
that are at least 8 in (20 cm) long are called bristle fiber. Shorter fibers, which are also
finer in texture, are called mattress fiber. Cocopeat is commonly used as a growing
medium in horticulture and gardening due to its water retention and aeration properties.

3.3.1 Machine used:

Shedder Machine

Coconut fiber coir coconut husk shell shredder machine is swing arm Single Shaft
Shredders that are heavy-duty machines suitable for processing a wide range of materials.
This range of shredders are ideal for the size reduction of flexible and/or medium
hardness, voluminous products often loaded in bales. The fast-acting, PLC-controlled
swing pusher automatically forces material to the rotor according to motor loading,
maximizing material throughput. Machine capacities typically range between 1,500 kg/hr
–9,000kg/hr depending on the model, material type and application. A replaceable screen
is mounted underneath the cutting rotor for controlling the shredded material below the
screen mesh size. The rotary cutter features with auto reverse function which kicks in
anytime in case of some stubborn material or excessive quantities of material that cannot
be shredded. This automatic reverse function not only protects machine itself from
overloading and breaking, but also guarantees a continuous and streamlined shredding
operation. Controlled by PLC system, operation of this single rotor shredding machine is
straight-forward, simply press buttons on control panel to control every movement. And
“auto mode” can be available for automatic operation to increase working efficiency.
 Figure 3.12 Shredder Machine

3.3.2 Procedure:
Step 1
The coconut waste is collected from residential places.

Figure 3.13 Coconut Waste

Step 2
Coconut waste is typically processed using a shredding machine that breaks down the
tough coconut husk into smaller pieces.
 Figure 3.14 Processed through Shredder Machine

Step 3
Shredding helps in reducing the volume of waste and makes it easier to handle for
subsequent processing steps.

Step 4
Wet Coir pith is then sun-dried in concrete yards for 2-3 days to reduce the moisture
content to the right value so as to achieve the required compaction

Step 5
Formation of Windrows: The prepared materials are arranged in long, narrow piles called
windrows. Windrows are typically several feet wide and tall and can vary in length depending
on the volume of materials being composted. The windrows are usually placed on a suitable
base such as concrete ground.
 Figure 3.15 Formation of Windrows

Step 6
Maturation: Windrow composting can take several weeks to several months to complete.
During this time, the compost undergoes various stages of decomposition until it matures into
coconut peat.

Step 7
The coco peat that remains once the fibers have been removed is typically sun-dried and
compressed into blocks.

Figure 3.16 Coconut Peat

 3.4 DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COMPOST

3.4.1 pH

One approach is to read the pH in oven-dried samples that have been reconstituted with
distilled water.

Procedure:

1. Aerobic compost is spreaded into thin layers in a pan and dried for 24 hrs in a 105-
110℃ oven.
2. 5g of oven dried sample is weighed and taken into containers.
3. 25 ml of distilled water is added to each sample.
4. Sample is thoroughly mixed for 5 sec and stood for 10 min.
5. Sample is filtered using filter paper.
6. An indicator is added to the sample and the pH is determined by comparing the
resulting colour changes.

3.4.2 Moisture content

Just follow the steps below to measure the moisture content of Aerobic compost.

Procedure:

1. A representative sample of the aerobic compost is collected from the compost pile.
It should be ensured that the sample is well mixed to obtain an accurate
representation of the compost's moisture content.
2. 5g of compost sample is weighed using a scale or balance and the initial wet
weight is recorded in (g)
3. Compost sample is dried in an oven at 110℃ temperature for atleast [Link]
temperature range helps to remove moisture without significantly altering the
compost's organic matter content.
4. After drying, the compost sample is removed from the oven and allowed to cool to
the room temperature.
5. Dried compost sample is weighed using the same scale or balance used for the
initial wet weight. Final dry weight is recorded in grams (g)
6. Moisture content of the compost is calculated using the following formula:
Moisture Content (%) = [(Initial Wet Weight - Final Dry Weight) / Initial Wet Weight] ×
100%

The calculated moisture content represents the percentage of water content in the aerobic
compost sample.

3.4.3 Bulk Density

The bulk density of aerobic compost is the ratio of the mass of sample and its volume
including the contribution of the inter particulate void volume. The bulk density is
expressed in grams per milliliter (g/mL) although the international unit is kilogram per
cubic meter (1 g/mL = 1000kg/m3) because the measurements are made using cylinders.
It may also be expressed in grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3).

The bulk density of a powder is determined by measuring the volume of a known mass of
sample, that may have been passed into a graduated cylinder or by measuring the mass of
a known volume of powder that has been passed through a volumeter into a cup or a
measuring vessel.

Procedure:

The procedure to determine bulk density of compost by laboratory method includes the
following steps:

1. Empty container that will hold the compost sample is weighed using balance.
2. After weighing ,5g of the compost sample is carefully added into the container.
3. Volume occupied by the 5g compost sample is measured by using graduated
cylinder or displacement method.
4. Bulk density is calculated by using the formula:

Weight of compost
Bulk Density =
Volume of compost

This procedure is conducted with multiple samples and the average bulk density is
calculated for more reliable results.
Note:

 Accurate measurements of both the volume and mass of the compost sample has
to be ensured to obtain reliable results.
 Density can vary depending on factors such as the composition of organic
materials, the degree of decomposition, and moisture content.
 Monitoring density can provide insights into the physical characteristics of the
compost and help optimize composting processes.

3.4.4 Electrical conductivity

Electrical conductivity is used to measure the amount of nutrients in the compost that are
in the form of salts. EC is a common measure you will also find on your soil and water
tests. Compost is mixed with a set amount of water and an electrical conductivity meter
measures how much electricity moves through the water. Electricity moves better through
solutions high in salts, so the higher the EC reading the saltier the product. Since nutrients
occur in compost as salts, high EC may also indicate high levels of nutrients. EC can also
indicate the salinity or saltiness of compost.

Procedure:

1. Aerobic compost is spreaded into thin layers in a pan, and dried for 24 hours in a
105-110°C oven.
2. 5g sample of oved-dried aerobic compost is weighed and taken into small
containers.
3. 25 ml distilled water is added to each sample.
4. Sample is mixed thoroughly for 5 sec and stood for 10 min.
5. The sample is filtered using filter paper.
6. The electrical conductivity meter is calibrated using standard solutions.
7. Probes are ensured to be clean and in good condition.
8. Compost sample is placed in a container.
9. Conductivity meter probes are inserted into the sample without touching the
container walls.
10. The meter is allowed to stabilize and the electrical conductivity readings are
recorded.
11. Recorded values are compared with standards or guidelines for compost electrical
conductivity.

3.5 DETERMINATION OF CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE COMPOST

3.5.1 Organic Carbon

Organic matter estimation in the soil can be done by different methods. Loss of weight on
ignition can be used as a direct measure of the organic matter contained in the soil. It can
also be expressed as the content of organic carbon in the soil. It is generally assumed that
on an average organic matter contains about 58% organic carbon. Organic matter/organic
carbon can also be estimated by volumetric and colorimetric methods. However, the use
of potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) involved in these estimations is considered as a
limitation because of its hazardous nature.

Volumetric method (Walkley and Black, 1934)

Apparatus

 Conical flask - 500 ml

 Pipettes - 2, 10 and 20 ml
 Burette - 50 ml

Reagents

 Phosphoric acid – 85%

 Sodium fluoride solution – 2%
 Sulphuric acid – 96 % containing 1.25% Ag2SO4
 Standard 0.1667M K2Cr2O7: Dissolve 49.04 g of K2Cr2O7 in water and dilute to 1
litre
 Standard 0.5M FeSO4 solution: Dissolve 140 g Ferrous Sulphate in 800 ml water,
add 20 ml concentrated H2SO4 and make up the volume to 1 litre
 Diphenylamine indicator: Dissolve 0.5 g reagent grade diphenylamine in 20 ml
water and 100 ml concentrated H2SO4.

Procedure
 1. Weigh 1.0 g of the prepared soil sample in 500 ml conical flask.
2. Add 10 ml of 0.1667M K2Cr2O7 solution and 20 ml concentrated H2SO4 containing
Ag2SO4.
3. Mix thoroughly and allow the reaction to complete for 30 minutes.
4. Dilute the reaction mixture with 200 ml water and 10 ml H3PO4.
5. Add 10 ml of NaF solution and 2 ml of diphenylamine indicator.
6. Titrate the solution with standard 0.5M FeSO4 solution to a brilliant green colour.
7. A blank without sample is run simultaneously.

Calculation:

10 ( s−T ) × 0.03 100

Percentage organic Carbon(X) = ×
s wt . of soil

3 ( s−T )
Since one gram of soil is used, this equation simplifies to:
s

Where,
S = ml FeSO4 solution required for blank
T = ml FeSO4 solution required for soil sample
3 = Eq W of C (weight of C is 12, valency is 4, hence Eq W is 12÷4 = 3.0)
0.003=weight of C (1000 ml 0.1667M K2Cr2O7=3g C. Thus, 1 ml 0.1667M
K2Cr2O7= 0.003 g C)
Organic Carbon recovery is estimated to be about 77%. Therefore, actual amount of
organic carbon (Y) will be:
100
Percentage value of organic carbon obtained × or
77
Percentage value of organic carbon x 1.3
Percent Organic matter = Y x 1.724 (organic matter contains 58 % organic carbon, hence
100/58 = 1.724)

Note: Published organic C to total organic matter conversion factor for surface soils vary
from 1.724 to 2.0. A value of 1.724 is commonly used, although whenever possible the
appropriate factor be determined experimentally for each type of soil.

Colorimetric method (Datta et al., 1962)

Apparatus

• Spectrophotometer
• Conical flask -100 ml
• Pipettes - 2, 5 and 10 ml
Reagents

• Standard potassium dichromate 1/6M (1N)

• Concentrated sulphuric acid containing 1.25% Ag2SO4
• Sucrose (AR quality)
Procedure

Preparation of standard curve: Sucrose is used as a primary standard as carbon source. Take
different quantities of sucrose (1 mg to 20 mg) in 100 ml flasks. Add 10 ml standard K 2Cr2O7
and 20 ml of concentrated H2SO4 in each flask. Swirl the flasks and leave for 30 minutes. A
blank is also prepared in the similar way without adding sucrose. Green colour develops
which is read on spectrophotometer at 660 nm, after adjusting the blank to zero. The reading
so obtained is plotted against mg of sucrose as carbon source (carbon = wt. of sucrose x 0.42
because carbon content of sucrose is 42%) or against mg C directly. A standard curve as
prepared for estimation of organic carbon by Motsara and Roy (2008) while setting up a soil
testing laboratory in DPR Korea is given in Figure 2, as an example, which shows the
accuracy of the method (the r2 is as high as 0.991). For convenience, the curve is shown
directly against C content, which has been derived from mg sucrose used in preparing the
standard curve.
Procedure

1. Take 1 g of soil in 100 ml conical flask.

2. Add 10 ml of 0.1667M K 2Cr2O7 and 20 ml of conc. H 2SO4 containing 1.25 percent of
Ag2SO4.
3. Stir the reaction mixture and allow to stand for 30 minutes.
4. The green colour of chromium sulphate so developed is read on a spectrophotometer at 660
nm after setting the blank, prepared in the similar manner, at zero.

Calculation

The carbon content of the sample is found out from the standard curve which shows the
carbon content (mg of carbon v/s spectrophotometer readings as absorbance).
Percent C = mg C observed x 100/1000 (observed reading is for 1 g soil, expressed as mg)
Percent OM = %C x 1.724

3.5.2 DETERMINATION OF NITROGEN IN SOIL (EXCLUDING NITRATE)

Apparatus
• Macro-Kjeldahl Digestion Flask, 500 or 800 ml.
• Macro -Kjeldahl Digestion Unit
• Macro-Kjeldahl Distillation Apparatus
• Vacuum Pump
• Mechanical Shaker
• Hot Air Oven
Reagents
• Sulphuric Acid, Concentrated.
• Potassium Sulphate, Analytical reagent grade.
• Copper Sulphate (CUSO45H2O), Analytical reagent grade.
• Sodium Hydroxide Solution, 40 percent (m/v) solution in reagent grade water, kept in
a tightly stoppered pyrex glass bottle.
• Mixed Indicator Solution, Dissolve 0.5 g bromocresol green and 0.1 g methyl
red in 95 percent (m/v) methanol.
 Boric Acid
 2 percent (m/v) aqueous solution containing 5 ml of mixed indicator solution per litre.
The pH of the solution shall be adjusted to 5.0.
• Standard Sulphuric Acid Solution, 0.1 N.
• Salicylic Acid: Sulphuric Acid Mixture Dissolve 25 g salicylic acid in one litre of
concentrated sulphuric acid.
• Sodium Thiosulphate (Na2S2O3, 5H2O), Analytical reagent grade.
• Potassium Chloride Solution (IN)
Dissolve 74.5 g potassium chloride analytical reagent grade, in one litre distilled
water.
• Magnesium Oxide — Analytical reagent grade (Heavy grade).
• Devarda’s Alloy
It is a mixture of copper 50 percent (m/m), Aluminium 45 percent (m/m) and Zinc 5
percent (m/m) and is available commercially (Lab grade or Reagent grade).
General
The Kjeldahl procedure is generally employed for determination of total nitrogen and
Kjeldahl’s wet digestion distillation procedure for determination oftotal nitrogen involves two
steps, namely:
a) Digestion — Heating the sample with sulphuric acid containing potassium sulphate,
and copper sulphate as catalyst, thus oxidising the organic matter and converting organic
nitrogen into ammonium nitrogen; and
b) Distillation — Distilling the digest with excess of above 40 percent solution of
sodium hydroxide to recover ammonia in excess of standard boric acid which is
thereafter titrated against standard acid.
Procedure
Take 10 g of dry soil sample passed through 2 mm sieve into a 500 ml or 1000 ml
Kjeldahl flask and add 10 g of digestion mixture comprising of potassium sulphate: copper
sulphate 10:1 or 10.5; (m/m). Add 1 IS 14684:1999 30 ml (6 ml/g of organic matter in soil) of
concentrated sulphuric acid and heat the flask continuously avoiding excessive frothing by
controlling heat. Raise the temperature to about 380”C and digest till the contents of the flask
are clear. Continue digestion for about 15 min and after complete digestion allow the flask to
cool and add 100 ml reagent grade water.
To determine ammonical nitrogen liberated by digestion, place a 500 ml Erlenmeyer flask
containing 50 ml of boric acid under the condenser of distillation apparatus so that the end of
the condenser is below the surface of the boric acid. Hold the distillation flask. Cool, dilute
and digest at 45° angle. Add glass beads and pour about 150 ml of sodium hydroxide
solution, down the neck of the flask so that the alkali reaches the bottom of the flask without
mixing appreciably with the digest. Attach the flask quickly to the distillation apparatus, mix
the contents thoroughly by gentle swirling and heat. Control the heating to prevent sucking
by back of boric acid and to minimize frothing during distillation. Check the flow of cold
water through the condenser is sufficient to keep the temperature of the distillate less than
35℃. Collect about 150 ml of distillate, rinse the condenser with water and stop distillation.
Determine total ammonical nitrogen in the distillate by titration with standard sulphuric acid.
The colour change at end point of titration is from green to pink.

Calculation
Calculate total nitrogen in ammonical form, percent by mass of soil taken for the test by
using the following formula:
1 ml of 0.1 N standard sulphuric acid=0.0014 g of nitrogen.

ESTIMATION OF TOTAL NITROGEN INCLUDING NITRATE FORM

Take 10 g of soil sample in a Kjeldahl flask, add 35 ml of salicylic acid sulphuric acid
mixture and mix well. allow the mixture to stand overnight, add 5 g of sodium thiosulphate
and heat the flask till frothing subsides. Cool the flask, add 10 g of digestion mixture
comprising of potassium sulphate: copper sulphate 10:1 or 10:0.5 (m/m) and complete the
digestion.
 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 PARAMETERS CONSIDERED AND ANALYSED

The waste used in the present study include Municipal solid waste. Various tests such as
pH, electrical conductivity, bulk density, moisture content are determined and total
organic carbon(%), total nitrogen(%) and C/N ratio are understood on final compost
obtained after completion of the composting process.

4.2 COMPOST PROPERTIES

4.2.1 pH

The pH is another parameter that greatly affects the composting process. Compost
microorganisms operate best under neutral to acidic conditions, with pH’s in the range of
5.5 to 8. During the initial stages of decomposition, organic acids are formed. The acidic
conditions are favorable for growth of fungi and breakdown of lignin and cellulose. As
composting proceeds, the organic acids become neutralized, and mature compost
generally has a pH between 6 and 8.

Table 4.1 Variation in pH of different composts

S. No Sample Name pH

1 Vermi compost 6.8

2 Aerobic compost 6.5

Coconut shell
3 6
compost

4.2.2 Colour, Texture and Odour

The mature compost has physical characteristics such as blackish brown colour and
smells close to the smell of earth. This is because the material it contains already
resembles soil material. Blackish brown colour formed by the influence of stable organic
matter. The texture at the beginning of composting tends to be soft until the last day the
compost texture when you hold it no longer sticks to your hands (crumbs). So the
mature compost is blackish brown in color, smells like soil and has a crumbly texture.

Table 4.2 Colour, Odour, Texture of composts

Colour Blackish Brown

Odour Smells like soil

Texture Crumbly

4.2.3 Bulk Density

The bulk density of compost ranges from 150 to 950 kilogram per cubic meter.

Table 4.3 Variation in bulk density of different composts

S. No Sample Name Density(kg/m3)

1 Vermi compost 1008.91

2 Aerobic compost 1059.3

Coconut shell
3 134.52
compost

4.2.4 Electrical conductivity

Electrical conductivity (EC) reflects the level of salinity in a compost product. The
electrical conductivity value changes during composting. The initial value of the electrical
conductivity increases and on the mature of compost the value of EC decreases and
remains constant. The Electrical conductivity of compost ranges from about 0.5 to 5 milli
siemens per centimeter(mS/cm).
 Table 4.4 Variation in electrical conductivity of different composts

Sample Name Electrical

S. No
Conductivity(mS/cm)
1 Vermi compost 0.506

2 Aerobic compost 0.557

3 Coconut shell compost 2.07

4.2.5 Moisture Content

The optimal moisture content for compost is 45% to 60%. If the moisture content exceeds
65%, anaerobic conditions develop. The aerobic organisms die due to lack of oxygen, and
anaerobic organisms prevail. If the moisture content is below 40%, fungi tend to be the
dominate organisms. The organic matter will not fully decompose and good finished
compost will not be produced. If the moisture content is less than 15%, all biological
activity ceases.

Table 4.5 Variation in moisture content of different composts

Moisture Content
S. No Sample Name
(%)

1 Vermi compost 2.6

2 Aerobic compost 2.37

3 Coconut shell compost 18.92

4.2.6 Total Organic Carbon

The total organic carbon (TOC) of compost typically ranges from 20% to 40%,
representing the proportion of carbon derived from organic matter in the compost. This
metric is crucial for gauging the compost's quality and its effectiveness as a soil
conditioner.

Table 4.6 Variation in Total organic carbon of different composts

Total Organic Carbon

S. No Sample Name
(%)
1 Vermi compost 3.78
2 Aerobic compost 3.5
3 Coconut Shell compost 17.29

4.2.7 Total Nitrogen

The total nitrogen content in compost generally falls within the range of 1% to 3%.
Nitrogen is a vital component for plant growth and development, making compost a
valuable source of this essential nutrient. Testing the total nitrogen content helps
determine the compost's nutritional value for plants and its suitability for different
applications in agriculture or gardening

Table 4.7 Variation in Total Nitrogen of different composts

S. No Sample Name Total Nitrogen (%)

1 Vermi compost 0.298
2 Aerobic compost 0.328
3 Coconut Shell compost 1.110

4.2.8 C/N ratio

This is the ratio of total carbon (C) to total nitrogen (N) in the sample. C:N ratio may be
used as an indicator of compost stability and N availability. Compost C:N ratio typically
decreases during composting if the starting C:N ratio is > 25, but may increase if the
starting C:N ratio is low (< 15) and N is lost during the composting process. Composts
with high C:N ratios (> 30) will likely immobilize N if applied to soil, while those with
low C:N ratios (< 20) will mineralize organic N to inorganic (plant-available) N.

Table 4.8 Variation in C/N ratio of different composts

S. No Sample Name C/N ratio

1 Vermi compost 12.6:1
2 Aerobic compost 10.6:1
3 Coconut Shell compost 15.5:1