Selection and Evolution
Natural Selection
Notes
Objectives:
● explain that natural selection occurs because populations have the capacity to produce
many offspring that compete for resources; in the ‘struggle for existence’, individuals
that are best adapted are most likely to survive to reproduce and pass on their alleles to
the next generation
● explain how environmental factors can act as stabilising, disruptive and directional
forces of natural selection
● outline how bacteria become resistant to antibiotics as an example of natural selection
Factors that limit population growth
Environmental factors
a feature of the environment of an organism that affects its survival
● Biotic factor
an environmental factor that is caused by another living organism
● Abiotic factors
an environmental factor that is caused by non-living components
Case study #1:
In 1859, a farmer named Thomas Austin in Victoria, Australia, released 12 European rabbits
brought from Britain for hunting. Within decades, these few rabbits multiplied into millions,
becoming one of the greatest examples of uncontrolled population growth in history.
However, the rabbit population in Australia eventually declined because of environmental
factors. Only a small proportion of young were able to grow into adulthood and reproduce.
● As rabbit numbers rose, they overgrazed vegetation, leading to less food and starvation
which reduced survival and birth rates - (Biotic factor)
● Two viruses — Myxomatosis (introduced in 1950s) and Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease
(Calicivirus, 1990s) spread quickly in the wild causing a huge population crash - (Biotic
factor)
● Periodic droughts in Australia reduced plant growth and water availability which caused
deaths and limited breeding success - (Abiotic factor)
● Natural predators like foxes, dingoes, and birds of prey began feeding on rabbits -
(Biotic factor)
● Few natives such as Kangaroos and rodents became competitors for food and space -
(Biotic factor)
These factors together helped restore some ecological balance.
Selection pressure and survival
Case study #2:
Rabbits living in the wild show a range of coat colors, from light brown to dark gray. These color
differences can affect their chances of survival in different environments. Changes in
surroundings such as snow cover, soil color, or vegetation influences which coat color provides
better protection from predators.
Since coat color affects visibility to predators, it plays a major role in determining each rabbit’s
fitness (ability to survive and reproduce).
The main selection pressure (the environmental factor that affects the chance of survival) is
predation. Hawks, foxes, and other predators hunt rabbits mainly by sight. Depending on the
habitat, one coat color gives better camouflage and thus higher survival.
In Snowy or light soil areas white coloured rabbits have higher fitness (harder to see) so dark
coloured rabbits are caught easily and so few dark coloured rabbits survive.
In Rocky or forested areas dark coloured rabbits have higher fitness (harder to see) so white
coloured rabbits are caught easily and so few white coloured rabbits survive.
Rabbits whose coat color matches their environment have greater fitness, meaning they survive
longer and produce more offspring with that same coat color gene.
Over time, that color becomes more common in the population — an example of natural
selection.
Natural selection increases the frequency of alleles conferring an advantage and reduces the
frequency of alleles conferring a disadvantage.
Stabilising, disruptive and directional selection
Stabilising selection
a type of natural selection that keeps allele frequencies relatively constant over generations
Examples 1:
In wild rabbits:
● Rabbits with very short fur may not stay warm enough in cold weather.
● Rabbits with very long fur may overheat or get tangled in bushes.
● Rabbits with medium-length fur survive best because they stay warm but don’t overheat.
Over generations, most rabbits in the population have medium-length fur — this is stabilising
selection.
Example 2:
Babies of average weight have the highest survival rate; very small or very large babies face
more health risks.
Disruptive selection
a type of natural selection that maintains high frequencies of two different sets of alleles
Disruptive selection maintains polymorphism; the continued existence of two or more distinct
phenotypes in species
Example 1:
In an area with both dark volcanic rocks and light sandy soil:
● Dark-colored rabbits blend into the rocks and avoid predators.
● Light-colored rabbits blend into the sand and also survive well.
● Medium-gray rabbits stand out in both places and are easily spotted by predators.
Both dark and light rabbits have higher survival (fitness), while gray rabbits decline.
Over time, the population splits into two color groups — this is disruptive selection.
Example 2:
Very small salmon males can sneak to fertilize eggs, and very salmon large males can fight rivals
— medium-sized ones succeed least.
Example 3:
In some seed-eating birds, only very small or very large beaks are useful for feeding, while
medium-sized beaks are inefficient.
Directional selection
a type of natural selection that produces a gradual change in allele frequencies over several
generations
This usually happens when there is a change in the environment or new selection pressures
which leads to a certain allele becoming advantageous
Example 1:
If the environment becomes darker (for example, due to forest fires or volcanic ash):
● Dark-colored rabbits blend in better with the background and escape predators.
● Light-colored rabbits stand out and are eaten more.
Over generations, the population shifts toward darker fur.
This gradual change in the average trait value is directional selection.
Example 2:
Ancient horses evolved from small, short-legged ancestors to larger, faster-running species as
grasslands spread.
Example 3:
As ocean temperatures rise due to climate change, smaller fish survive better in warmer,
low-oxygen waters compared to larger fish, so the population is becoming mostly small.
Antibiotic resistance bacteria
Staphylococcus aureus is a bacterium that normally lives harmlessly on the skin and in the nose.
But it can cause infections such as boils, pneumonia, or blood poisoning.
In the 1960s, methicillin was introduced to treat S. aureus infections. Soon after, some strains
became resistant, giving rise to MRSA — Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus.
MRSA carries plasmids that include genes coding for enzymes such as β-lactamases, which can
destroy β-lactam antibiotics (like penicillin and methicillin).
Mutations in these plasmid genes can make the enzyme more efficient or allow it to inactivate
newer antibiotics.
Through conjugation, resistant MRSA cells can pass mutated plasmids to other bacteria.
This horizontal gene transfer rapidly spreads resistance within hospitals and communities.
Due to overuse and misuse of antibiotics natural selection favored bacteria with plasmid
mutations enabling bacteria to resist even strong antibiotics and pass on their alleles to next
generation.
Responsible antibiotic use and strict infection control are essential to stop the rise of such
pathogens.
Industrial melanism
The peppered moth is a species found in England that exists in two colour forms:
● Light-coloured (speckled) moths (c)
● Dark-coloured (melanic) moths (C)
Before the Industrial Revolution, most trees were light and covered with lichens. Light moths
blended in and were protected from predators, while dark moths were easily spotted and eaten
by birds.
During the Industrial Revolution (19th century), soot and smoke darkened tree trunks and
destroyed lichens.
This environmental change reversed the survival advantage:
● Dark moths (CC or Cc) were better camouflaged and avoided predators.
● Light moths (cc) became easier targets for birds.
Over many generations:
● The frequency of the C allele increased in polluted industrial areas.
● The c allele decreased in frequency.
● The population became mostly dark-coloured moths.
Later, when air pollution decreased and trees became lighter again, the light-coloured moths
(cc) regained their advantage, and C allele frequency dropped.
A mutation produced the dark-colour allele (C), and when the environment changed, that allele
became advantageous — increasing its frequency in the population.
This is a clear real-world example of evolution through natural selection.