Basic electric propulsion

systems

Unit – IV
Dr. K. Srichandan
Asst Professor, Department of Electrical,
Electronics and Communication
Engineering, GITAM School of Technology
(GST), Visakhapatnam – 530045
Faraday’s Laws
• [Link]
electromagnetic-lab

• [Link]
Principle of DC Motors in EVs

Basic Principle:

A DC motor operates on the Lorentz Force Law,

which states:
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force.
In essence:

Electric energy → Mechanical (rotational) energy

Operation of DC Motors in EVs
• Power Supply
The EV’s battery (usually a DC source) provides electric power to the motor via a motor controller.
• Current Flow & Magnetic Field Generation
• The stator (field winding or permanent magnets) creates a stationary magnetic field.
• The armature (rotor) carries current, producing its own magnetic field.
• Torque Production
Interaction between these two magnetic fields creates torque on the rotor.
The torque 𝑇is given by:
𝑇 = 𝑘! ⋅ Φ ⋅ 𝐼"
where
𝑘! = motor torque constant,
Φ= magnetic flux per pole,
𝐼" = armature current.
• Commutation
The commutator and brushes reverse current direction in armature windings as the rotor turns — maintaining continuous rotation in one direction.
• Speed Control
#$% &
! !
• Speed 𝑁 ∝
'
The EV’s controller adjusts voltage or field flux to control speed and torque smoothly.
Performance Characteristics

Torque–Speed Characteristics
Torque at
Motor Type Speed Control Typical EV Use
• High starting torque: Excellent for Start
EVs, especially during acceleration Good (by varying
and hill climbing. DC Shunt
voltage)
Moderate Older light EVs

• Speed decreases with load, but DC Series Excellent Very high

Forklifts, traction
remains smooth and controllable. vehicles

Adjustable Early electric cars,

DC Compound High
balance trams
Different DC motor types offer different Permanent
torque–speed profiles: Magnet DC Simple, efficient High
Modern small EVs,
scooters
(PMDC)
Torque–Speed Characteristics of Different DC
motors

• DC Series Motor: Very high starting torque,

rapid torque drop with speed — ideal for
traction and EV acceleration.
• DC Shunt Motor: Almost constant torque,
better for steady-speed operation.
• DC Compound Motor: Combines features of
both — high starting torque and moderate
speed regulation.
• PMDC Motor: Linear torque decrease with
speed — common in light EVs and scooters
Summary Table

Aspect Description EV Advantage

Electromagnetic force converts electrical

Principle Direct conversion, high control
to mechanical energy

Current in armature + magnetic field →

Operation Smooth torque, simple control
torque

Performance High starting torque, variable speed Excellent drivability

Efficiency 75–90% Good, though less than AC/BLDC

Control Voltage/field variation Precise speed & torque control

Maintenance Brushes & commutator wear Moderate — higher than BLDC

In EV Context

• While traditional brushed DC motors are

conceptually simple and powerful, most
modern EVs now favor:
• BLDC (Brushless DC) or
• Permanent Magnet Synchronous
Motors (PMSM)
• These offer higher efficiency, less
maintenance, and better regenerative
control — but the underlying
electromagnetic principles remain the
same as DC motors.
Principle of Induction Motors in EVs
Basic Principle:

An induction motor works on the principle of electromagnetic induction

discovered by Faraday.
• When a changing magnetic field links with a closed conducting loop, it induces an
electromotive force (EMF) in the loop.
• In a motor:
• The stator (stationary part) produces a rotating magnetic field (RMF).
• The rotor (rotating part) experiences this changing field.
• The induced EMF in the rotor generates current, which interacts with the stator’s
magnetic field to produce torque.
• Thus, mechanical rotation is produced without direct electrical
connection between stator and rotor — hence the term “induction” motor.
Operation of Induction Motors in
EVs

Main Components
• Stator:
• Three-phase winding connected to an inverter/controller.
• Produces a rotating magnetic field (RMF) when supplied with 3-phase AC (from battery
+ inverter).
• Rotor:
• Either squirrel cage (most common) or wound rotor type.
• Conductors in the rotor are short-circuited.
• Controller/Inverter:
• Converts DC from the EV battery into 3-phase AC of variable frequency and voltage to
control motor speed and torque.
Working Process
• AC Supply to Stator:
The inverter supplies 3-phase AC to stator windings, generating a rotating magnetic field rotating at synchronous speed 𝑁! :

120𝑓
𝑁! =
𝑃
• where
𝑓= supply frequency (Hz),
𝑃= number of poles.
• Induced EMF in Rotor:
Since the rotor is initially stationary, the rotating field cuts rotor conductors, inducing EMF and causing current flow (per Faraday’s law).
• Torque Production:
The rotor current interacts with the stator field, producing torque that drives the rotor in the same direction as the rotating magnetic field.
• Slip:
The rotor never reaches synchronous speed; instead, it runs slightly slower.
The difference is called slip (s):
𝑁! − 𝑁"
𝑠=
𝑁!
• where 𝑁" = rotor speed.
• Slip is essential — no slip → no relative motion → no induced current → no torque.
• Speed Control in EVs:
• The inverter adjusts frequency and voltage to control motor speed and torque.
• Modern vector control (field-oriented control) ensures smooth and efficient operation.
 Torque–Speed Characteristics

Region Description

Torque rises sharply with current; high starting

Starting (high slip)
torque.

Torque roughly proportional to slip (ideal operating

Linear region
zone).

Maximum (breakdown) torque Peak torque before instability.

Torque decreases as speed approaches

High speed (low slip)
synchronous speed.
Torque–Speed Characteristics
 Typical Torque–Speed Curve
(Qualitative)

Speed Region Torque Behavior Application in EV

0–30% High starting torque Vehicle launch
Constant torque
30–90% Acceleration/cruising
region
Constant power
90–100% High-speed driving
region
Summary Table

Parameter Induction Motor EV Significance

Electromagnetic induction (Faraday’s No physical connection between stator
Principle
Law) & rotor
Rotating magnetic field induces rotor
Operation Smooth, controlled drive via inverter
current → torque

Efficiency 85–95% High efficiency, good heat tolerance

High starting torque, wide constant

Torque–Speed Excellent for traction and cruising
power range
Maintenance Very low No brushes or commutator
Control Via inverter frequency & voltage Precise, dynamic response
Tesla Model S (early versions),
Used In Proven, robust, affordable
industrial EVs
 • Tesla’s early Model S and Model X used three-phase AC induction
Example: motors.
• They delivered high torque from zero speed, wide speed range, and
Induction Motor excellent durability under high load.

in Tesla EVs • Modern Tesla models have transitioned to PMSM (Permanent Magnet
Synchronous Motors) for higher efficiency, but induction motors remain
popular for rear-drive units.
Principle of BLDC Motors in EVs
Basic Principle:
A Brushless DC motor operates on the same Lorentz force law as a conventional DC motor — a current-
carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force.
However, BLDC motors eliminate mechanical commutation (brushes) and replace it with electronic
commutation using semiconductor switches.

In short:

• Electrical energy → Magnetic energy → Mechanical (rotational) energy

The permanent magnets on the rotor interact with the stator’s rotating magnetic field generated by
electronic switching, producing continuous torque.
Key Difference from Brushed DC Motor

Feature Brushed DC Motor Brushless DC Motor

Mechanical (brushes &

Commutation Electronic (via sensors & controller)
commutator)

Rotor Wound armature Permanent magnet

Stator Field winding Stationary armature

Maintenance High Very low

Efficiency 75–85% 85–95%

Operation of BLDC Motors in EVs
Construction
• Stator:
• Laminated steel core with 3-phase windings.
• Powered by a controller/inverter that
supplies DC converted to 3-phase AC pulses.
• Rotor:
• Contains permanent magnets (Neodymium
or Ferrite).
• Polarity is fixed (north/south).
• Sensors (commutation feedback):
• Hall-effect sensors or sensorless control
detect rotor position.
• Controller switches current in the stator
windings accordingly.
Working Principle
• Electronic Commutation:
• The controller energizes the appropriate stator windings in sequence, creating a rotating magnetic field
(RMF).
• The magnetic field pulls the rotor’s permanent magnets, causing it to rotate.
• Continuous Rotation:
• As the rotor moves, sensors detect its position.
• The controller switches the current to the next phase pair, maintaining torque production.
• This happens rapidly, creating smooth, brushless rotation.
• Speed Control:
Speed (N) ∝ Applied Voltage
Torque (T) ∝ Current (I)
• By varying voltage and current through Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) and field control, the EV
controller adjusts both speed and torque precisely.
• Regenerative Braking:
• During braking, the controller reverses energy flow, allowing the motor to act as a generator and
recharge the battery.
Torque–Speed
Characteristics
Performance Characteristics of BLDC Motors
Torque–Speed Characteristics
• High starting torque (ideal for EVs).
• Constant torque region: At lower speeds, torque remains nearly
constant.
• Constant power region: At higher speeds, torque decreases
while power remains roughly constant.
• This makes BLDC motors ideal for both city driving (torque) and
highway driving (speed).
 Parameter Description EV Impact
Performance Interaction of stator’s
Efficient electromagnetic
Summary Table Principle rotating field with rotor
permanent magnets
torque production

Electronic commutation Smooth, precise speed

Operation
using sensors/inverter control

High starting torque, flat Excellent acceleration and

Torque–Speed
constant torque region drivability

Efficiency 85–95% Greater range and less heat

No brushes → minimal
Maintenance Long lifespan
wear

Via PWM & position Dynamic torque/speed

Control
feedback control

E-bikes, scooters,
Applications Widely used today
passenger EVs
Torque–Speed Characteristic
Summary

Region Description EV Relevance

Strong launch and climbing

0 – 40% speed Constant torque
torque

Constant power (torque Smooth high-speed

40 – 100% speed
drops) performance

Extended top speed

>100% speed Field weakening region
capability
 • Most modern EVs (e.g., Nissan Leaf, Chevy Bolt, many e-bikes and
scooters) use BLDC or PMSM (Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor)
BLDC Motors in — both based on similar principles.
• Tesla Model 3 (rear motor) uses a permanent magnet BLDC-like
Modern EVs synchronous motor, chosen for its high efficiency and low losses in real-
world driving.
 Summary

Feature BLDC Motor in EVs

Core Principle Electromagnetic torque from stator–rotor magnetic interaction

Commutation Electronic (Hall sensors or sensorless control)

Efficiency 85–95%

Torque Density High — instant torque available

Control PWM inverter control via microcontroller

Best For Passenger EVs, e-bikes, scooters, drones, and hybrid drives
Principle of Switched
Reluctance Motors (SRMs)
Basic Principle:

A Switched Reluctance Motor operates on the principle of

magnetic reluctance —
• A magnetic rotor will always tend to move to a position where the
reluctance (magnetic resistance) of the magnetic circuit is
minimum.
In simpler terms:
• The rotor aligns itself with the energized stator pole to minimize
the magnetic reluctance path.
• Sequentially switching the stator poles produces continuous
rotation.
• Thus, the motor converts electrical energy → magnetic energy →
mechanical rotational energy.
Reluctance Torque
• Torque is produced due to the tendency of the rotor to align with the stator’s
magnetic field.

1 ! 𝑑𝐿 𝜃
𝑇= 𝐼
2 𝑑𝜃
• Where:
• 𝑇= Electromagnetic torque
• 𝐼= Current in the phase winding
• 𝐿 𝜃 = Inductance of the phase as a function of rotor position 𝜃

• Torque is generated only when the inductance 𝐿 𝜃 is increasing with respect to

rotor position — i.e., the rotor is moving toward alignment.
 Operation of SRMs in EVs

Component Description

Laminated steel core with concentrated windings on

Stator
salient poles.

Laminated soft iron with salient poles but no windings

Rotor
or magnets (completely passive).

Supplies DC current to each stator phase sequentially

Controller/Inverter
(via switches or IGBTs).
Working Principle
Excitation:
• The controller energizes a specific stator winding.
• This creates a magnetic field attracting the nearest rotor pole toward alignment.
• Alignment (Torque Production):
• As the rotor moves to minimize reluctance, positive torque is produced.
Switching:
• Once alignment is reached, the current in that stator phase is turned off, and the next stator
phase is energized.
• This sequential switching produces continuous rotation.
Electronic Commutation:
• Achieved by rotor position sensors (or sensorless algorithms).
• The controller determines when to switch each phase to maintain torque in the correct
direction.
Speed Control
• Torque is controlled by varying current
magnitude.
• Speed is controlled by varying the switching
frequency (similar to BLDC control).
• In EVs, advanced digital controllers use PWM
and current profiling for smooth torque and
reduced vibration.
Performance Characteristics of SRMs
• High starting torque (ideal for
EV launch).
• Constant torque region up to
base speed.
• Constant power region
beyond base speed (flux
weakening by current
control).
• Similar in profile to BLDC and
induction motors.
Performance Summary Table

Parameter Description EV Significance

Principle Reluctance minimization Simple, magnetic torque generation
Operation Sequential excitation of stator poles Electronic commutation control

High starting torque, wide constant power

Torque–Speed Ideal for traction applications
region

Efficiency 85–92% Comparable to BLDC, higher at high loads

Maintenance Very low No brushes or magnets

Complex (current profiling, position

Control Needs advanced controller
feedback)

Material Use No magnets, simple steel rotor Cost-effective, eco-friendly

Used In Commercial EVs, buses, heavy-duty EVs High reliability, low maintenance
 Torque–Speed Behaviour in EVs

Speed Region Description EV Function

0 – 30% speed High torque available Start & hill-climb

30 – 100% speed Constant torque region Normal driving

Constant power region (flux

>100% speed High-speed cruising
weakening)
SRMs in Modern Electric Vehicles
• SRMs are increasingly used in:
• Electric buses, trucks, and commercial EVs
• Low-cost EVs or industrial EV drives

• Companies like Turntide Technologies

and Nidec are developing advanced
SRM-based EV drive systems with low
noise and high efficiency.
• Tesla has also researched SRM-like
hybrid designs for rear-drive units (to
reduce cost and magnet dependency).
 Summary

Aspect Switched Reluctance Motor in EVs

Core Principle Rotor aligns to minimize magnetic reluctance
Commutation Fully electronic, sequential phase switching
Efficiency 85–92%

Torque Characteristics High starting torque, constant power at high speed

Materials No magnets or rotor windings

Control Complexity High (requires rotor position feedback)
Cost-sensitive, high-torque EVs (buses,
Best Suited For
commercial vehicles)
 Comparison of Different Electric
Motor Types for EV Applications
Parameter DC Motor Induction Motor (IM) Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) Brushless DC Motor (BLDC)

Lorentz force (electromagnetic Lorentz force with electronic

Electromagnetic induction Reluctance minimization (rotor aligns to
Basic Principle interaction between stator and commutation (permanent
(current induced in rotor) minimum reluctance)
armature) magnets on rotor)

Stator with salient poles & concentrated

Stator with field windings; rotor Stator with 3-phase Stator with 3-phase winding; rotor
Construction coils; rotor with salient poles (no
with commutator and brushes winding; squirrel-cage rotor with permanent magnets
windings/magnets)

Mechanical (brush & Electronic (Hall sensors or

Commutation Electronic (via inverter) Electronic (via position sensors)
commutator) sensorless)

Rotor Type Wound armature Conductive (squirrel cage) Soft iron, no magnets or windings Permanent magnets

Starting Torque Very high High Very high Very high

Complex (via inverter Simple & precise (via

Speed Control Easy (via voltage or field control) Complex (via electronic switching)
frequency) PWM/inverter)
 Comparison of Different Electric
Motor Types for EV Applications
Parameter DC Motor Induction Motor (IM) Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM) Brushless DC Motor (BLDC)

Speed Control Easy (via voltage or field control) Complex (via inverter frequency) Complex (via electronic switching) Simple & precise (via PWM/inverter)
Torque–Speed Wide constant-torque & constant- Constant torque at low speed, constant power at
Decreasing torque with speed High torque, wide speed range
Characteristic power regions high speed

Efficiency 75–85% 85–95% 85–92% 85–95%

Maintenance High (brush wear, commutator) Low Very low Very low

Control Complexity Simple Moderate–High High Moderate

Cost Low (but high maintenance) Medium Low–Medium High (due to rare-earth magnets)

Reliability Moderate Very high Very high High

Thermal Management Moderate (brushes heat) Excellent (no magnets) Excellent (no rotor current) Moderate (magnets sensitive to heat)

Acoustic Noise / Vibration Low Low High (due to torque ripple) Low

Regenerative Braking Possible Excellent Good Excellent

Power Density Moderate High Moderate–High Very high

Torque Ripple Low Low High Low

Typical EV Applications Early EVs, small electric carts Passenger EVs (e.g., Tesla Model S) Commercial EVs, buses, low-cost EVs Modern passenger EVs, e-bikes, scooters

Use of Magnets No No No Yes (rare-earth)

Moderate (simple, cheap, but Excellent balance of performance & Very robust & cost-effective (no
Overall Performance Best overall efficiency & torque density
outdated) cost magnets)

Suitability for Modern EVs Limited (maintenance issue) Very suitable Emerging alternative Most widely used
Case Study
Need to do:
• Analyze the situation (1 paragraph)
• Identify the engineering problem (1 paragraph)
• Propose a technical solution or reasoning (2–3
paragraphs)