Robot anatomy:
1. Manipulator: manipulator is an arm-like mechanism which is designed to manipulate or
move materials, parts or tools without direct human contact.
2. Joint: A joint is the one that integrates two or more links to provide controlled relative
movement between input link and the output link.
3. Link: The link is a rigid member that connects the joints. Link can be an input link and an
output link. The movement of the input link causes various motions of the output link.
4. Degrees of freedom (D.O.F): The degrees of freedom describe a robot's freedom of
motion in the three-dimensional space.
5. End effectors: End effectors or end-of-arm tool is the device at the end of the robotic arm
which is shaped like a hand or as a special tool depending upon the application.
6. Base: The support for the robot arm is called as the base.
Joints and Links: There are various types of joints that are used in the construction of a
robot. These joints are called the robot joints. There are majorly five types of robot joints:
1. Rotational joint or the R-joint:
This type of joint allows rotary relative motion where the axis of the rotation is
perpendicular to the axes of the input link and the output link. This is shown in Fig (a)
2. Linear joint or the L-Joint:
This type of joint allows a translational sliding motion between the input and the
output links with the axes of the links parallel as shown in the Fig (b)
3. Orthogonal joint or the 0-joint:
This type of joint allows a translational sliding motion between the input link and the
output link with the axis of the output link perpendicular to the input link as shown in
Fig. (c)
4. Twisting joint or the T-joint:
This type of joint allows rotary motion where the axis of rotation is parallel to the
axes of the input and output links as shown in the Fig (d).
5. Revolving joint or the V-joint:
In this type of joint, the input link axis is parallel to the rotational axis of the joint
whereas the output link axis is perpendicular to the rotational axis of the joint as
shown in the Fig (e).
Robot Configurations:
1. Polar Configuration (Spherical Configuration):
The Polar configuration robots also called as the spherical configuration robots consists a
sliding arm (L-joint) that is actuated relative to the body and a rotational base along with a
pivot, which can rotate about a horizontal axis (R joint) and the vertical axis T- Joint as
shown in the Fig.
2. Cylindrical Configuration:
Robots of the cylindrical configuration consist of a slide in the horizontal position and a
column in the vertical position. The arm assembly moves up or down relative to the column
using as L-joint. The column is rotated about its axis using the T-joint. The radial movement
of the arm is achieved using the o-joint as shown in the Fig.
3. Cartesian Co-ordinate:
It is also called as a rectilinear robot or a XYZ Robot. It consists of Three Sliding joints along
the X, Y and Z direction in three dimensional spaces. There are two orthogonal Joints. Since
movement can stop and start and start simultaneously along X, Y and Z axes the motion of
the tool tip is smoother.
4. Jointed-arm Configuration:
This type of Configuration resembles the human arm where the column swivels about a base
(the column and the base forms a T-joint), the column top connects to the shoulder through a
shoulder joint (which is the R-joint) and the shoulder connecting to the elbow through an
elbow joint (which is also an R-joint). Thus, this configuration has the capability to be
controlled at any adjustments in the work space. This is as shown in Fig.
Degrees of freedom:
Degrees of Freedom (DOF) refer to the number of independent movements or motions a
system, mechanism, or body can perform.
Definition:
The Degree of Freedom (DOF) of a mechanical system is the number of independent
parameters (like position or orientation) that define its configuration or motion.
In Simple Terms
It tells how many ways an object can move.
For example:
A point moving on a line → 1 DOF (it can move only back and forth).
A point moving on a plane → 2 DOF (it can move in x and y directions).
A body moving freely in space → 6 DOF (three translations + three rotations).
For a Rigid Body in 3D Space
A free rigid body has 6 degrees of freedom:
Translational motions (movement along axes):
1. Along X-axis
2. Along Y-axis
3. Along Z-axis
Rotational motions (rotation about axes):
4. About X-axis (roll)
5. About Y-axis (pitch)
6. About Z-axis (yaw)
Industrial robots are designed to perform productive work such as pick and place,
welding, assembly, etc. To accomplish the work, the robot has to move its body, arm and
wrist through a series of motions and positions. The individual joint motions associated
with the performance of a task are referred to by the term DOF. Industrial robot will have
4 – 6 DOF, Opening and closing of the gripper is not considered DOF, Three joints are
normally associated with the action of the arm and body. Two or three joints are used to
actuate the wrist. The more DOF, the greater the complexity of motions encountered. For
applications that require more flexibility, additional degrees of freedom are used in the
wrist of the robot. Three degrees of freedom located in the wrist give the end effector all
the flexibility.
Types of movements:
1. The rotational traverse: rotation of the arm about the vertical axis, such as the left-
and-right swivel of the robot’s arm on a base.
2. The radial traverse involves extension or retraction (In or Out) of the arm from the
vertical centre of the robot (Base)
3. The vertical traverse: Capability to move the wrist up or down to provide the
desired vertical altitude.
The wrist movement is designed to enable the robot to orient the end effector properly with
respect to the task being performed, such as welding, painting, grasping, etc. To
overcome/solve this problem, normally the wrist is provided with up to 3 DOF
(configuration)
1. Wrist Roll / Wrist swivel
2. Wrist Pitch / Wrist bend
3. Wrist Yaw
The 3 DOF located in the wrist of a robotic system:
1. Pitch: Bend or up and down movement.
2. Yaw: Right and left movement.
3. Roll: Swivel or rotation of the wrist/hand.
Work Volume (or Workspace) of a Robot
Definition:
The work volume (also called workspace) of a robot is the three-dimensional space within
which the end-effector (tool or gripper) can move and perform operations.
Work volume refers to the space within which the robot can manipulate its wrist end. The
extreme position of the robot axes describes a boundary for the region in which the robot
operated. The end effector is an addition to the basic and should not be counted as part of the
robot’s working space In simple terms, it is the region that the robot’s arm can reach
during its motion.
Types of Work Volume
Different robot configurations have different shapes of work volume:
Work Volume
Robot Type Description
Shape
Rectangular (box-
Cartesian Robot Moves along X, Y, and Z linear axes
shaped)
Has linear motion along Z and rotation +
Cylindrical Robot Cylindrical
translation in radial direction
Spherical (Polar)
Spherical Arm rotates around base and extends radially
Robot
Selective Compliance Arm for Assembly; moves
SCARA Robot Cylindrical (flat)
in horizontal plane with limited vertical motion
Articulated Robot Irregular or Multiple revolute joints give flexible motion
(Revolute) spherical-like similar to a human arm
Delta/Parallel Robot Dome-shaped Used for high-speed pick-and-place operations
Factors Affecting Work Volume
1. Type and number of joints (revolute, prismatic, etc.)
2. Link lengths of robot arms
3. Joint limits (maximum and minimum angles or distances)
4. End-effector design
5. Presence of obstacles or workbench
Work volumes for different types of robots: (a) Polar (b) Cylindrical (c) Cartesian
Robot Kinematics:
Forward and Inverse Kinematics:
Kinematics is the study of motion without considering the forces/efforts that affect the
motion. The kinematics of a robot manipulator describes the relationship between the motion
of the joints of the manipulator and the resulting motion of the rigid bodies (links) that form
the robot
Forward Kinematics:
Forward Kinematics is the calculation of the position and orientation of an end effector using
the variables of the joints and linkages connecting to the end effector. Given the current
positions, angles, and orientation of the joints and linkages, forward kinematics can be used
to calculate the position and orientation of the end effector.
Inverse Kinematics:
Inverse Kinematics is the calculation of the variables of the set of joints and linkages
connected to an end effector. Given the position and orientation of the end effector, inverse
kinematics can be used to calculate the variables regarding those joints and linkages
including position, angle, and orientation.
Direct (Forward) Kinematics (FK / DK)
• Given: Joint angles and links geometry
• Compute: Position and orientation of the end effector relative to the base frame
Inverse Kinematics (IK)
• Given: Position and orientation of the end effector relative to the base frame
• Compute: All possible sets of joint angles and links geometry that could give the
position and orientation of the end effector
TRANSFORMATIONS AND ROTATION MATRIX
To describe the position and orientation of the tool with respect to the base frame. It is
necessary to know and formulate the body coordinate frame along the joint axis for each links
in the manipulator of the robot. The relation between the body frame with the base frame of
reference is described by transformation matrix. The transformation matrix is represented by
the following component transformation.
1. Rotation matrix
2. Translation or position vector
3. Perspective transformation
4. Scaling or stretching
The transformation matrix is a 4 x 4 matrix which consists of 4 sub matrix as shown below
In study of robotics we represent position and rotation (Orientation) as follows
Rotation matrix:
Definition: A rotation matrix is a mathematical tool used in robotics to describe the
orientation of a robot’s link or end-effector in space.
It transforms coordinates of a point from one reference frame to another by rotating them
around an axis.
Purpose in Robotics:
In robot kinematics, the rotation matrix is used to:
Represent orientation of links and end-effectors
Perform coordinate transformations between frames
Combine rotations in 3D space
Build homogeneous transformation matrices (which include both rotation and
translation)
Note: In a coordinate frame, each of the axes have a length of 1
The fundamental rotational matrices about X, Y & Z are as given below