1.

Population

Population Change
Components
Population Total number of individuals of the same species in an ecosystem
Birth Rate Number of live births per thousand people per year
Death Rate Number of deaths per thousand people per year
Natural Change Change in population size caused by difference between birth and death rate.
Birth > death = increase BUT Birth < death = decrease
Migration Permanent change of residence of an individual or group of people
Net Migration Balance between immigration (in-migration) and emigration (out-migration)
Population Change Cumulative change in population size after both natural change and net
migration considered
Population Density Number of people in a given area
Population Distribution Variation in population density to show how people are spread out across
an area
Fertility Rate Average number of children each woman in a population will have in her lifetime
Number of live births per 1000 women aged 15-49
Replacement Level Total fertility rate at which a population exactly replaces itself from one
generation to the next without migration (2.1 children)
Infant Mortality Rate Number of children under 1 who die expressed per thousand live births
Mortality Rate Rate at which people die
Life Expectancy Average age a person in a country is expected to live to
age at which 50% of the children born in a particular year have died

Changes in Fertility Rates

Environmental Political Social Economical
Pollution levels affect Natalist policies Religious influence on contraception Children provide for
fertility rates of men parents in old age (China)
Female and male Empowering Female education so knowledge Children can be:
fecundity being women’s status about birth control e.g. Kerala has  economic asset so
reduced by stress and e.g. In Kerala, 85% female literacy and 1.8 fertility high fertility in LICs
modern lifestyles the marrying rate versus 57% and 3.2 in India  economic drain so
Easy access to medical age rose from Tradition and tribal beliefs such as low fertility in HICs
facilities reduces IMR 18 to 28 heritage or marrying at an early age

Example) Kerala:
Economic:
 Increase in school places for girls from 1980s onwards
 85% female literacy vs 57% in the rest of India
 Increased state healthcare reduces IMR (14 vs 70) and increases life expectancy (75 vs 61)
Political:
 Left wing politics encouraged women into jobs, especially nursing
Environmental:
 All families (2 kids + 2 adults) live on 8 hectares
Social:
 Women go to university and get jobs
 Marrying age rose from 18 to 28
 Use of contraception by married women is 64% versus 48% in the rest of India

Changes in Death Rates

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Economic Health Population Structure

Better infrastructure and Higher GDP lowers IMR Youthful or ageing population
healthcare results in longer
life expectancy
Doctors per 1000 people e.g Spread of preventable diseases such Political instability such as
Chad has 0.1 vs Norway’s 4.3 as TB, malaria, HIV, and cholera in crime rates and war
LICs
Better diet and access to food Old age and lifestyle linked diseases Health and safety standards
Better sanitation such as CHD and cancer

Non-communicable diseases
 HIC lifestyles and social conditions
contribute
 Less physical activity due to vehicles
and sedentary jobs
 Low cost of food and refined foods
widely available
 Increased consumption of
alcohol/tobacco (more disposable
income)
 Increased life expectancy
 Death rate may be higher in HIC vs NIC
e.g. 11 in UK vs 67 in Brazil
 1. Population

Population Structure
Measurements of Population Characteristics
Quality of Life sums up everything that affects a person’s well-being
Population Structure number of male and females within different age groups in the population
Working Population people in population aged 16-64 who could be economically active
Dependent Population non-economically active groups in a population
Sex Ratio number of males per 100 females in a population
Dependency Ratio relationship between working and dependent population
HIC have 50-75 whereas LIC have 85-105
Young dependents % + old dependents % x 100
Working population %
Support Ratio Working population % x 100
Young dependents % + old dependents %
Old-Age Index % of population over 60 x 100
% of population under 60
Juvenility Index % of population under 20 x 100
% of population over 20

Age/Sex Diagrams
LIC MIC HIC
Haiti Qatar Japan

 wide base so high birth rate  Narrow top and base  Full bars show it is an
 0-4 bars being smaller than  Increased number of males established country
5-9 shows birth rate is falling due to oil jobs increasing  Narrower base so low birth
 More contraception migration rate
 Vice versa indicateshigh IMR  Little emigration due to
 Dip at 25 due to migration home employment
opportunities and language
How to describe features: barrier
Gender  Wide top shows long life
Shape expectancy
Scale  Healthy lifestyles
Use data and give anomalies  More women at top of age
range as women live longer
 Indent in birth rates a 50-54
due to WW2
1. Population
 1. Population

Demographic Transition Model

Features
DTM simplified theory of how population changes due to birth and death rates as a country develops
Zero Population Growth when a population has stabilised so no longer grows
Death Control occasional increases in death rate which limit population growth
Population Momentum when there’s still so many young fertile people in a population so even if
fertility rates fall below replacement level, population still increases because so many are of child-
bearing age
Human Development Index UN broad index based on adult literacy, GDP and life expectancy
Gini Coefficient measures equality of income distribution. 0 is perfect equality. 1 means 1 person has
all the income.

Based on 3 Assumptions…
1) Modernisation takes the form of a transition from a traditional peasant society to an urban,
industrialised society
2) Mortality responds very quickly to socio-economic progress whilst fertility takes longer
3) When fertility exceeds mortality, population will grow

Evaluation
Advantages Disadvantages
Fits European style countries Eurocentric so may not be relevant
Great for UK as based on UK population Introduction of new technology not factored into model (vaccinations
changes reduce death rates more rapidly)
Easy to compare countries at different Migration can change population size but model doesn’t take this into
stages account
Easily understood Disease (HIV) causes death rates to rise suddenly
Starting point for studying demographic Government intervention (China) before other developments occur
change so helps forecast
Dynamic and flexible as shows changes Model doesn’t allow for wars or natural disasters to alter death rates
through time and uses speed of No stage 5 in original model
modernisation to determine speed Ignores differences within a country
Can’t predict time taken

How do developing countries move through DTM?

 Higher birth rates in stages 1 and 2
 Steeper fall in death rates in stage 2 due to improved industrialisation
 No country remains in stage 1 (even with limited economic development) due to aid
 Birth rates increased in stage 2 Mexico because increased health of women at child-bearing
age
 LICs had larger starting population so a bigger total increase
 More government intervention due to rapid population rise
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Youthful Populations
 1. Population

Causes:
 Typical of stage 2 or 3 countries
 Related to demographic changes that occur when a country leaves stage 1
 In stage 1, death rate is high so few old people as life expectancy is normally 40
 Death rate drops in stage 2 (particularly IMR) whilst birth rate remains high
 More babies survive so increased number of young people
 Few older people so proportion of young dependents increases
 High level of immigration also causes a youthful population as most are between 20 and 40
Impacts:
 Requires increased food supplies to feed children
 Increased school places
 Increase in need for healthcare (pregnancy to adulthood)
 Need more jobs
 Population momentum occurs
 May introduce anti-natalist policies
 Larger work force so cheaper labour which may attract TNCs, thus stimulating industrial
production and economic growth aka demographic dividend (stage 3)

Ageing Populations
Causes:
 Typical of stage 4 and 5 countries
 Persistently low birth rate which is slowly falling
 Increased use of contraception
 Changed society so children are an economic burden not asset
 More employment opportunities for women
 Better healthcare and technology so longer life expectancy
Impacts:
 Need more pensions
 Tax distributed differently
 May lead to more elderly people in poverty
 Smaller labour supply
 Longer working life due to higher retirement age
 New ‘grey market’ for entrepreneurs
 Increased jobs in care sector
 Reduced strain on environment (less pollution) and resources due to population declining
 Different housing demands
 Pressure on health care
 Special needs
 Care needs to be coordinated
 Different voting patterns (‘grey vote’) and political representation
 Could cause intergenerational conflict e.g. Brexit

Uganda: Case Study of a Youthful Population

 1. Population

Young Population
 50% of population is under 15
 Dependency ratio increased from 100 in 1969 to 122 in 1995
 High fertility – 7.1 children/women 1991 – and youthful age creates population momentum
 Very low use of contraceptives – 16% use birth control, 30% use condoms (HIV)

Population Pyramid:
 wide base
 steep concave sides
 narrow top

PROBLEMS
Social Issues
 Health of mothers and children adversely affected by high fertility
 Maternal mortality rate of 300 per 100,000 (6000 women die in childbirth each year)
 Increased exposure to aids
 Early child-bearing and teenage pregnancies increase number of young mother who lack
material resources so affect initial development and growth of their children
 Encourages school drop-out so women don’t get an education or career, therefore
economically dependent
 No social security policy so households responsible for care of the elderly
 Murder rate increased from 27.9 per 100,000 in 2002 to 38.9 in 2005
 62,000 HIV deaths per year results in excess mortality and lowers life expectancy
Health Services:
 Increased demand due to high fertility
 Increased further by AIDS epidemic
 Insufficient health structure can’t cope
 Uneven distribution and poor access
 Doctor to patient ratio of 1:24,725 in 2013
 Worsened by medical staff being recruited to Libya etc.
Education Services:
 Population of primary school age expected to grow from 3.3 million (1991) to 7.2 million
(2021)
 50% enrolment in primary school drops to 5% in secondary
 68% male literacy vs 40% female
Housing Services:
 Rapid population increase not matched by development of basic physical infrastructure
 7% urbanisation growth
 Results in over-crowding, slums, and deterioration
 Low numbers have access to electricity, safe drinking water or latrines
 Increased health issues
Environmental Issues:
 Degradation of environment
 Increased land fragmentation
 Decreased soil fertility
 Increased use of marginal lands which can’t support agriculture sustainably
 Wetlands and forests become depleted
SOLUTIONS
Solution Flaw
 1. Population

Government encouraged use of contraception with 70% don’t use any form of contraception
adverts, education, and free condoms
Built clinics and trained doctors and nurses many emigrate to HIC for better pay
Introduced ABC policy which reduced HIV infection When many uneducated people reached sexual
rates from 15% to 5% maturity, rose again to 7%
Invested in training teachers 50% still don’t go to school
Encouraged TNCs to set up factories so invested in Corruption and political instability deters them
infrastructure
Encourages foreign aid May become too reliant – 24.4% of GNI is aid

Japan: Case Study of an Ageing Population

OLD POPULATION
 Largest population over 65years in the world
 1. Population

 Median age of 41.3

 Life expectancy of 83
 1.4 fertility rate is below replacement level
 Population expected to halve by 2100

CAUSES
 Declined birth and death rates so increased longevity causes ageing
 Female emancipation
 Declined IMR – 2.1
 Women marry and have children later
 Japan tradition makes women reluctant to have children as would have to stop work
 Lacks maternity support network
 Few immigrants as Japanese hard language to learn
 12 hour working day as WW2 surrender caused cultural shame
 Desire for luxury goods so avoid children as they are expensive
 Pregnancy is expensive in Japan as not covered by health insurance
Economic
 Health care only free up to 3 years old
 Low government benefits

PROBLEMS
 Increase elder dependents so pressure on working population
 Rise in retirement age (61 in 2013 up to 65 in 2025)
 Strains healthcare provision
 Larger tax bills
 Decreased rate of economic growth due to empty jobs so less economic activity
 ‘grey market’ results in decreased products for younger generation

SOLUTIONS
 Increase birth rates
 Social attitudes and trends difficult to change
 Encourage migration as could change business language to English but would be very
controversial and country not accepting of foreigners
 In 2015, Japan relaxed visa requirements for "Highly Skilled Foreign Professionals" and
created a new type of residence status with an unlimited period of stay
 Increase child benefits and provide tax allowances for families so childcare’s more accessible
 Offer part-time jobs for elderly

Is there a link between development and population change?

What is development?
 UN uses HDI
 Uses 3 indicators:
1) Purchasing Power or Real GDP – a dollar will buy less in the USA than in India
 1. Population

2) Educational provision – uses adult literacy and average number of years spent at
school
3) Life Expectancy (at birth) – indicates quality of healthcare, adequacy of diet and
overall quality of life
 Then puts categorises as either Very High, High, Medium or Low
 Higher HDI tends to be seen in later stages of DTM, except China (one-child policy, Brazil
(female education) and Southern Africa (HIV)
 Development is increase in total value of goods and services produced by a country so
results in improved welfare, quality of life and social wellbeing
 HDI linked to DTM due to birth and fertility rate as they only fall when significant
development occurs

Links:
1) Purchasing power and standard of living
 Increased wealth lowers fertility rate
 As a country develops, more resources are used
 People get richer and regard children as an economic liability
 Society changes so rich people want more than just food and shelter
 Economic incentive to reduce fertility
2) Educational Provision
 Longer children spend in education, longer they are a drain on family’s resources
 More likely to understand contraception
 Be richer so have a greater incentive to reduce fertility
 Educated women marry and have children later and take control of own life
3) Long, healthy life
 Life expectancy increases as IMR falls
 Don’t have as many children if they know more will survive
 Burden of elderly supported by pensions so large families not required
 Child laws make children less of an economic asset so encourage smaller families
 Policies alter link
 Social expectations take a long time to change e.g. man’s reputation, religion

Consumption Triangle: Resources

 Resources needed to support population
growth and economic development
 Population growth can stimulate economic
development
 Population growth and economic
development increases demand for resources
 Economic development = technological
change = alternative resources
Economic Development Population

Population Theories
Definitions
Underpopulation Not enough people to use all the resources efficiently for the current level of
technology
Overpopulation Not enough available resources to sustain population at good living standard
 1. Population

Depopulation Population decline when more people move out than arrive
Population Pressure More people in a country than resources can support - strong push factor for
migration
Carrying Capacity Maximum number that can be supported without damaging the area to an
unsustainable extent or number of people exceeding number of services that local area can cope
with or maximum number of animals that can be grazed sustainably on an area of land
Optimum Population Population which balances with and optimises available resources
Unstable Equilibrium State of balance unlikely to last as a country can reach optimum population
but any chance in size or resource availability can move it away from optimum point
Population Projections Predicating nature of future populations based on theories such as the DTM
(shown with age/sex diagrams)
Population Policies Government actions that try to control/manage/influence the
size/nature/distribution of the population

Models of Population-Resource Relationships

Thomas Malthus: Pessimistic
 Assumed food growth was linear
 did not foresee technology e.g. the green revolution,
irrigation, chemical fertilisers
 Theorised that population would increase and only be
checked after it reached crisis point
 checked by death control e.g. famine, war, disease
 Population would re-establish itself following
population crash
 However, more widespread use of birth control
reduced population growth
 Correct on local scale where population has outpaced food supply e.g. 800 million people
are hungry in sub-Saharan Africa (11.4% of total world population) due to water shortages
 Theory applies to different DTM stages where technology hadn’t significantly advanced
 Technological advancements need to keep pace with population growth
 Unsustainable development will lead to a Malthusian crisis
 Increased demand for food reduces land quality
 Poorer people affected more
 Technology is a bigger influence on amount of food than population growth/land available
e.g. South Korea has half the available farmland than Bangladesh but less go hungry
Esther Boserup: Optimistic
 Predicted continued economic growth and stabilisation of world population
 Population growth would stimulate increased food supply through improvements in farming
and technology
 Based on idea that “necessity is the mother of invention”,
 New variety of crops would increase food supply to help expanding population e.g. Green
Revolution and GM crops
 Didn’t consider that intensive farming methods would degrade land or lead to desertification
e.g. the Sahel region
Paul Ehrlich: Pessimistic
 Earth is a defined size containing finite resources
 Population will outnumber resources therefore earth will be overpopulated
 Cause wars and environmental disasters
 Incorrect predictions of 1970s and 1980s famines that didn’t occur
 Didn’t consider Green Revolution which resulted in food being cheaper and more plentiful
Club of Rome: 1972
 1. Population

Pessimistic Optimistic
‘If present day trends continue in population growth, ‘Mankind possesses, for a small moment in its history,
pollution, food production and resources depletion, then the most powerful combination of knowledge, tools
limits to growth on the planet will be reached within 100 and resources that the world has ever known. The
years. At this point there will be a sudden and global population has all that is physically necessary
uncontrollable decline in population. The world will have to create a totally new form of human society – one
reached its carrying capacity.’ that would be built to last for generations.’
Julian Simon: Ultimate Resource Model
 Infinite supply of natural resources
 When the resource begins to run low, the price rises so it will be worth investing time and
money in technology to produce more or develop alternatives to resource or reorganise
society so it does not have to depend on that resource
 Global exploitation of crude oil in 1980 fits model
Bjorn Lomborg:
 Challenges popular environmental concerns as believes major problems are area specific
and correlated with poverty e.g. HIV/AIDS, hunger, overpopulation and species loss
 Solved by economic and social development
 Population growth will stabilise once all parts of the world are economically developed
 Links to DTM
The Future:
 Globally, human population is in stage 3 of DTM
 Population growth slowing but total population still increasing
 Stabilisation of total population achieved when global birth rates reach global death rates
 As the rich become richer, they can afford more goods
 Increasing affluence leads to increasing demand
 Overuse of resources results in fewer resources so overpopulation becomes a problem
 Essentially, wealthier people will destroy the planet

Role of Constraints in Sustaining Population

Poverty:
 Lack of money/capital means individual can’t purchase resources to sustain life
 Country can’t afford development of infrastructure
 No economic development
 e.g. Sub-Saharan Africa
Famine:
 1. Population

 soil becoming exhausted causes a food shortage

Plague:
 disease likely to affect poor people with poor nutrition
 kill most vulnerable (elderly and young) first
 new strains can arise at any time
 e.g. HIV/AIDS, Ebola, zika,
War:
 shortage of resources causes conflict over use
 e.g. German foreign policy of Lebensraum
Natural Disasters:
 kill people and destroy infrastructure
 society can’t support itself
 e.g. Tang Shan earthquake in 1976 killed half a million people
Political instability and corruption:
 needs stability to attract foreign investment
 e.g. World Bank funded oil pipeline to transport oil from Chad to Atlantic for oil companies
on condition that 80 of revenue spent on projects to relieve poverty and increase food
production but government didn’t honour agreement. Chad threatened by Islamic
fundamentalists incursions in North means World Bank and TNCs not prepared to invest
money which would allow Chad to refine their own oil to support development and people.
Unfair trade policies:
 make it difficult for LIC to use its natural resources to sustain and support economic and
social development
 LICS export primary products and import manufactured goods (vice versa for HICs)
 Prices of primary products relatively low and vary frequently whereas manufactured goods
are high and continue to steadily rise
 LICs sell resources abroad so are dependent on fluctuating world prices which are controlled
by HICs
 LICs often rely on one or two products so when prices of key commodities drop, whole
country’s economy will suffer
 More money earnt by processing goods but HICs prevent LICs from doing this
 Impose heavy import taxes on processes goods to protect own industries (protectionism)
 HICs subsidise their own farmers
 LIC farmers caught in a trade trap as they can’t stop growing crops for export because they
and their government won’t be able to repay loans so land may be seized but they can’t
grow food crops as won’t make money and can’t afford inputs

Management of Natural Increase

Pro-Natalist Policies:
 Adapted when a country is concerned about working population declining and number of
old people increasing
 Could be due to an ageing population, low fertility or emigration
 Can cause economic stagnation, lack of tax revenue and an overall increase in poverty
 Encourage women to have more babies as more socially acceptable than immigration
Example) France
 1. Population

 Low fertility rate due to people using contraception, postponing pregnancy (careers, later
marriages) and state benefits meaning the elderly aren’t reliant on their children
 Large family card (three or more) gives reduction on train fares and Paris Family Card
 Subsidised nursery care for children under 3 and free school places for children over 3
 Toddler creches, even at work places
 Entitlement to time off work – 36 months off (shared)
 Graded income tax system so more children = less tax
 Working mother’s tax deduction
 €800/month grant (close to minimum wage) for a mother to stay off work after birth of her
third child in addition to paid parental leave
Anti-Natalist Policies:
 Adapted when a country’s population is rising too quickly, leading to overpopulation
 Typical of stage 2 and 3 of the DTM
 Many governments are realising that the best way to reduce fertility is to encourage
education of girls
 Educated women take control of their lives and are more likely to use contraception
 Another way is ensuring rapid economic development
 Modernisation will drive country quickly through DTM so they arrive in stage 4 where
parents voluntarily use contraception because children are an economic drain
 Possible solutions would be family planning education; free contraception and sterilisation;
legalising abortion; and introducing laws limiting family size.
Example) China One-Child Policy
- Previous fertility rate of 5.8 after a Baby Boom in 1970 due to a famine causing 2 million
deaths so introduced One Child Policy in 1979
- Incentives
 Better housing
 Longer maternity leave
 Better childcare
 Cash bonuses
 Better chance of promotion for government employees
- Punishments
 Extra children denied same quality of education and healthcare
 Government employees could be sacked
 Fines imposed and if they can’t be paid then cattle were taken
 Basic rice allowance withdrawn for any extra children
- Issues
 Rise in old dependants not working so dependent on a smaller young population
 Gender imbalance with morethe
Increase men than women
availability because
of resources women were aborted,
by developing
even though it is illegal to find
more out thetechnology
successful gender to locate deposits,
recycling materials, and resource substitution to
prolong the life of that resource

Food as a Key Resource

Food Security:
 Situation when all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to
sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an
active and healthy life
 Relies on …
1) Food availability – supply so production, stock, and net trade
2) Access to food – dependent on income, expenditure, markets, and prices
 1. Population

3) Food utilisation – receiving a variety of nutrients and sufficient energy determines

nutritional status
4) Stability over time – influenced by weather, politics, or economics

Food Insecurity: chronic, seasonal, transitory

 Situation when all people lack secure access to sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food
for normal growth and development and an active and healthy life
 May be caused by unavailability, insufficient purchasing power, inappropriate distribution, or
inadequate use of food at household level
 Food insecurity, poor health, poor sanitation, and inappropriate care/feeding practices are
major causes of poor nutritional status (malnutrition)
Eco-Nutrition Security:
 Relationship between food, health, environment, agriculture, and development
 Focuses on …
 Total diet
 Verifiable standards
 Sustainability
 Full cost accounting – economic, social, environmental cost

Causes of Food Shortages:

 Poverty so low capital investment
 Soil exhaustion due to mono-cropping, land desertification and degradation
 Bio fuels and cash crops such as palm or rapeseed oil
 Extreme weather/climate such as droughts, floods or tropical storms
 Pests
 Disease
 Poor transport
 War
Consequences of Food Shortages:
 Undernourishment
 Famine
 Aid dependency causes a loss of agricultural skills
 Vicious circle of land degradation
Swaziland: Case Study of Food Shortages
Swaziland Summary
 63% live below poverty line
 #1 in the world for HIV prevalence
 45% of children are orphaned or vulnerable
 Population of 1.3 million
 148 in the HDI ranking
 1. Population

PROBLEMS
Social
 26% of the population between 15-49 have HIV results in a vicious cycle
 People with HIV more affected by drought and drought increases rate of HIV
 May be forced into prostitution to pay for food, increasing HIV risk
 45.9 life expectancy for males shows many men are dying young
 Lowered productivity as they can’t work the farm but need money for medicine so household
assets are gradually depleted
 70% of people rely on subsistence farming due to high rates of unemployment and income
inequality
 Those in rural areas more likely to be in poverty - 75% rural vs 32% urban – so lack capital
investment and have a lower crop yield
 May sell possessions which could have been vital for existence
 Children forced to drop out of a school due to higher prices
 School fees for a quarter session could feed a family for a month
Environmental:
 Erratic weather for 2 consecutive years
 Production 18% lower than previous year and 37% below 5-year average
 Land locked mountainous country
 Dependent on imports
 Only 11% of land is arable
 2008-2009 harvest only produced half the amount of maize required to feed the population
Economic:
 Fertilisers no longer subsidised so farmers can’t afford them
 Hybrid seed use reduced after government stop providing free seeds
 Food prices risen due to decline in production
 Increased competition for exporting supplies e.g. South Africa and Mozambique
 Livestock prices fallen by 30% in Lowveld as families forced to sell animals
 Devaluation of South African rand adversely affects prices
 Two-thirds of the people relied on food donor aid between 2000-2010

SOLUTIONS
World Food Programme
 Food by Prescription programme assists people living with HIV and TB
 Provides nutritional meals to 52,000 orphans/vulnerable children
 Support Neighbourhood Care Points in all 4 regions (1594 in total)
 Lacks funding – only 42% of required funding is met
 1. Population

Gardens:
 3-4 hectares
 Vegetable and maze production meet home consumption
 Rotated crops
 Seeds purchased collectively to reduce cost
 Individual plots generated small income
These solutions
 Regular meals
provide a variety of
Poultry Production: nutrients, thus
 Introduced in areas with low soil fertility to optimise land use reducing
 Egg production financed by boiler chicken project malnutrition (7.3%
 Broiler income enabled purchase of non-food items children under 5 in
 Fixed contracts reduce problem of unstable markets 2008 to 5.8% in
2010).
 Number of birds lost due to disease/transport below average
Fish Ponds:
 Not labour intensive or expensive
 Enhance community’s food security and reduce vulnerability to drought
 Fish (tilapia) were harvested and sold to generate income

FUTURE
 Community invested labour and was able to reinvest financially (through income-generating
sales), to solve problems e.g. installing a heating system in the poultry project
 Water availability was main threat to project sustainability.
 Heightened risk of malaria with stagnant water due to fish ponds
 Location and quality of land not always desirable (distance caused obstacles to elderly and
excessive distance to water supplies).
 For instance, clearing of rocks and obstacles had to be financially funded to enable people to
join in.
 Younger people weren’t always involved and provided with the training needed to continue it
for many decades.
 People require adequate training to fully exploit opportunity
 Individual gardens>communal gardens
 Could lead to development of school gardens

Increasing Food Production:

 Increase area of cultivated land
 Increase productivity of land area
Genetic Improvement  fast growing varieties
 disease resistance
 dwarf varieties so less likely to fall over and puts more end
products of photosynthesis to seed
Increase Inputs  such as fertilisers, irrigation and pesticides
 1. Population

Mechanisation  mechanisation made it possible to plant, weed and harvest crops

throughout the year and in a matter of days
Irrigation  36% of world food production comes from the 16% of total land
area which is irrigated
 Intensive agriculture was so successful in the USA that they had to take areas out of
production due to the surplus, which if release on to the open market would have decreased
food prices
 Food production was deliberately slowed down to protect profit and farmers’ incomes
Issues
New Housing India required 58 million more homes
Recreation Vietnam has had to ban the development of golf courses on rice
paddies. Increasing wealth in Asia led to more demand.
Soil Erosion (wind/water) Kazakhstan, largest wheat producer in Central Asia, lost 30% of its
land due to erosion since 1980
Soil degredation Loss of nutrients, salinization, acidification and water loss
Rising Food Prices: FAO food price index rose 40% 2007-2008, food price led inflation of 6%
1) Rising consumption
- Economic booms increase standard of living
- Nutrition transition increases grain demand for livestock
2) Climate Change
- Particularly effects sub-Saharan Africa
- Combination of reduced rainfall reliability, increased risk of drought, more intense storms
and soil exhaustion affect subsistence farmers
- 25% of children under 5 moderately/severely under weight
- Exacerbated if tipping point is exceeded
3) Competition from biofuels
- Biodiesels made from soya beans or rapeseed oil
- Bioethanol made from sugar (maize/sugar cane)
- Leads to destruction of environment e.g. rainforests in Brazil
- Causes loss of land for food crops
- Lowered food production
- TNC owned agri-businesses drive the demand

Green Revolution
High Yielding Varities:
 Crops were specifically cross-bred to produce disease resistant and high yield varieties
 Domesticated plants bred to respond to fertilizers to produce increased amount of grain per
acre planted
 New hybrids increased yields of cereal crops
Harvest index:
 Weight of the plant above ground
 1. Population

 If they weigh more, there is a higher number of bigger seeds

 Create more grain yield
Photosynthate Allocation:
 Use photosynthesis more effectively when maximising seed/food portion of plant
 Energy produced goes directly to the food portion of the plant
Insensitivity to Day Length:
 Double crop’s production as plant not limited to areas based on amount of light
Impacts:
 High yield varieties dependent on fertilisers caused increased fertiliser use
 Irrigation enables water to be stored and transported so more land can be put into
agricultural production
 Increased nationwide crop yields
 Reduced the amount of species of a plant (crop homogeneity)
 India rice variety down from 30,000 to 10
 More prone to diseases and pests so pesticide use grew
 Exponentially increased amount of food production worldwide
 Mechanisation of farming so more work can be done
 Land reform programmes allow farmers to work for themselves, pay less rent and have a
profit to invest in improving their farms
 Improved rural transport infrastructure so food transported to market easily
 Introduction of genetically modified plants
Criticisms:
 Increased food production caused overpopulation
 Expensive fertilisers put farmers into debt
 Discriminates against less developed countries
 Lack of infrastructure, corrupt governments and insecurity disadvantages a country from
benefitting from the Green Revolution
 Increased use of agrichemicals pollutes water supplies and affect people’s health
 Irrigation can cause salination and soil infertility (due to salt)
 Mechanisation increases rural unemployment and encourage rural-to-urban migration which
puts pressure on towns
 Some HYVs low in vitamins and minerals reduce nutritional quality