Module - 2 (Inlets, Nozzles and Combustion Chambers)

What is a Subsonic Inlet?

A subsonic inlet is the air intake of an engine (jet engine, turbojet, turbofan, ramjet, etc.) that is
designed to slow down incoming air efficiently when the flight speed is less than Mach 1
(subsonic).
Its job is to deliver a steady, uniform, and high-pressure airflow to the compressor or
combustor.

Characteristics of Subsonic Inlets

 Designed for flight speeds below Mach 1.

 Flow entering is already subsonic → no shocks are present.
 The inlet mainly functions as a diffuser (reduces velocity, increases pressure).
 Internal shape: usually a convergent–divergent duct or smooth curved diffuser.

Functions

1. Capture Airflow → smoothly guide atmospheric air into the engine.

2. Diffuse Flow → slow it down with minimal pressure loss.
3. Deliver Uniform Flow → prevent distortions that could cause compressor stall.
4. Reduce Drag & Noise → ensure smooth integration with the airframe.

Types of Subsonic Inlets

1. Pitot Inlet (Pitot-type or Pitot-duct)

o Simple, short diffuser.
o Used in low-speed aircraft (business jets, turboprops, small turbofans).
o Efficient, lightweight, but poor at high Mach numbers.
2. Ducted Inlets
o Smooth, curved ducts that feed engines buried in fuselage.
o Common in commercial subsonic aircraft (like Airbus, Boeing).
3. S-duct Inlets
o Curved "S" shaped ducts (e.g., B-2 bomber, stealth aircraft).
o Used for stealth (hides engine face from radar).
o More complex, prone to flow distortion → needs careful design.

Performance Parameters

 Pressure Recovery (PR): ratio of pressure at compressor face to free-stream pressure

(should be as high as possible).
 Distortion Index: measures unevenness of pressure distribution at engine face (should be
low).
 Drag: inlet should minimize drag penalty.
In summary:

Subsonic inlets act as efficient diffusers, guiding and slowing airflow into the engine with
minimal losses. They are simple compared to supersonic inlets, since they don’t deal with shock
waves, but design still matters for efficiency, noise, and stealth.

Subsonic Inlets

(Used in turbofan, turboprop, and subsonic turbojet engines)

1. Pressure Recovery
o Goal: Deliver air to the compressor with minimum total pressure loss.
o A well-designed subsonic diffuser decelerates the flow smoothly (no shock
waves, just gradual diffusion).
o Pressure recovery factor (ηr) is close to 0.98–0.995 for good designs.

2. Inlet Sizing
o Inlet must provide the required mass flow to the engine across flight conditions.
o Oversized inlet → excess drag and spillage losses.
o Undersized inlet → engine starvation at high throttle.
o Design balances capture area vs engine demand.
3. Inlet Drag
o Comes mainly from spillage drag (when part of free stream air is not swallowed
and creates extra drag) and skin friction drag inside the duct.
o Subsonic inlets are designed to minimize these losses by streamlining lip
geometry.
4. Flow Distortion
o Uneven velocity/pressure distribution at compressor face → can cause
compressor stall/surge.
o Designers aim for uniform, swirl-free flow into the compressor by using curved
diffusers, guide vanes, or screens.

Supersonic Inlets

(Used in supersonic aircraft like Concorde, SR-71, modern fighters)

1. Need for Compression

o A supersonic engine cannot ingest supersonic air directly into the compressor
→ must slow down flow to subsonic before the compressor face.
o This is done by shock systems (normal shocks, oblique shocks, ramps, cones).
2. Total and Sonic State Points
 o
Total (Stagnation) State Point: Represents total pressure & temperature at each
inlet station (includes velocity → stagnation enthalpy). Important for inlet
performance evaluation.
o Sonic State Point: Point where Mach number = 1 inside the inlet.
 Critical because the mass flow is “choked” here—sets the maximum
mass flow the inlet can pass.
 For external compression inlets, the throat or the normal shock location
often corresponds to the sonic point.
o A supersonic inlet is essentially a variable-geometry nozzle in reverse →
controlling where Mach = 1 and how shocks are positioned.
3. Performance Parameters
o Inlet Pressure Recovery (ηr) is lower than subsonic because of shock losses.
o Typically 0.90–0.95 for good designs at cruise Mach.
o Bleed systems may be used to stabilize shocks and prevent flow separation.

Summary Table

Feature Subsonic Inlet Supersonic Inlet

Flow
Gradual diffusion Shock + diffusion
deceleration

Pressure
Very high (0.98–0.995) Lower (0.90–0.95)
recovery

Avoid oversize/undersize (drag vs Choked at sonic throat → sets max

Inlet sizing
starvation) mass flow

Drag Mainly spillage + skin friction Spillage + shock-induced

Distortion Compressor face non-uniformity Strongly influenced by shock control

Key state points Total pressure recovery Total and sonic (choking) points

Internal Compression Inlets (Normal Shock–Based)

These are diffusers used in supersonic intakes (Mach 1.5–2.0 range, e.g., early fighter jets).

1. A/A* and Mass Flow Control

 A* = sonic throat area (choking location).

 A/A* = geometric area ratio of duct section to the throat.
 For supersonic flow, mass flow is choked at the throat (M=1).
  Downstream of the throat, a normal shock is located inside the duct → reduces flow to
subsonic before compressor face.
 Thus, engine mass flow is determined by throat area (A*) and flight Mach number.

2. Shock Placement and Design Sizing

 Ideally, the normal shock should sit just downstream of the throat for max pressure
recovery.
 If shock sits too far downstream → boundary layer separation, distortion, losses.
 If shock is expelled out of inlet → ―unstart‖ (loss of mass flow, severe drag).
 Hence, variable geometry ramps/doors may be needed at higher Mach numbers.

3. Performance

 Pressure Recovery (ηr):

o Across a normal shock, large total pressure losses occur.
o Typical recovery: ~0.90 at M=1.5, drops <0.70 at M=2.5.
 Inlet Efficiency depends on:
o Shock losses (function of Mach number)
o Boundary layer growth
o Spillage losses

Exhaust Nozzles

The nozzle accelerates subsonic flow from turbine exit back to high velocity jet → thrust
generation.

1. Convergent Nozzle (Subsonic/Sonic only)

 Flow accelerates to M=1 at throat (choked).

 Further area reduction increases velocity but not mass flow (choking condition).
 Used in subsonic jets, turbojets, turbofans without afterburners.

2. Convergent Back Pressure Control –Divergent (C–D) Nozzle (Supersonic)

 Needed for supersonic exhaust jets (afterburning turbojets, ramjets, rockets).

 Convergent section → accelerates flow to M=1 at throat.
 Divergent section → further expands to supersonic speeds.
 Exit Mach number depends on exit-to-throat area ratio (Ae/At).

3. Engine

 Back pressure = pressure imposed by ambient or downstream system at nozzle exit.

 Determines nozzle operating condition:
o Over-expanded nozzle: Exit pressure < ambient → shocks form inside nozzle.
 o Under-expanded nozzle: Exit pressure > ambient → expansion fans outside
nozzle.
o Correctly expanded nozzle: Exit pressure = ambient → optimum thrust, no
shock losses.
 Adjustable exit area (variable geometry nozzle) used in supersonic aircraft to maintain
optimum expansion across flight envelope.

4. Exit Area Ratio (Ae/At)

 Determines final Mach number & pressure at nozzle exit.

 For isentropic flow:

 Larger Ae/At → higher exit Mach (supersonic).

 Too high Ae/At at low altitude → over-expansion & shocks.

5. Exhaust Nozzle System Performance

 Thrust equation (neglecting fuel mass):

Summary Table

Component Key Parameter Notes

Inlet (normal shock) A/A* ratio Sets choking and mass flow

Inlet shock Location critical Near throat for best recovery

Inlet perf. Pressure recovery Drops with Mach number

Convergent nozzle Choking at throat For subsonic engines

C–D nozzle Ae/At ratio Controls supersonic exit Mach

Nozzle perf. Back pressure match Over/under/correct expansion

Thrust

Combustion Systems in Gas Turbines

1. Functions

 Mix fuel with compressed air.

 Ensure stable ignition & flame holding.
 Burn fuel efficiently with minimal pressure loss.
 Deliver uniform temperature profile to turbine (avoid thermal stresses).

2. Types of Combustion Chambers

1. Can type – separate cans, simple, easy to maintain (old turbojets).

2. Annular type – ring-shaped, compact, lower weight, uniform exit profile.
3. Can-annular – multiple cans arranged in annulus (used in large engines).

3. Burners & Fuel Injection

 Atomizers (pressure swirl, airblast, simplex, duplex) break fuel into fine droplets.
 Burners are designed for:
o Good atomization → enhances mixing.
o Wide operating range → from idle to full power.
o Low emissions → modern designs use lean premixed prevaporized (LPP)
burners.

4. Ignition Systems
  Spark igniters or plasma igniters used during engine start.
 Once flame is established, combustion is self-sustaining (continuous burning).
 Must also re-light at altitude (re-ignition capability).

5. Flame Stability

 Achieved by recirculation zones → provide low-velocity region where flame anchors.

 Techniques:
o Swirl vanes (induce vortex breakdown).
o Bluff-body flame holders.
o Pilot flames (small zone always burning).
 Must resist blowout (flame extinction at low power) and flashback (flame moving
upstream).

6. Pressure Losses in Combustors

 Due to friction, mixing, heat release, and turbulence.

 Typical 3–8% of compressor exit total pressure.
 Designers aim to minimize pressure drop while ensuring good mixing & stability.

Afterburners (Reheat Systems)

Used in military supersonic aircraft to provide large thrust boost by burning fuel in exhaust
stream after turbine.

1. System Design

 Located between turbine exit and nozzle.

 Components:
1. Flameholders (usually V-gutter, bluff bodies, or spray bars) → create
recirculation zones.
2. Fuel injection system → spray bars across duct circumference.
3. Ignition system → usually torch igniters or pilot burners.
4. Variable area C–D nozzle → needed because afterburning increases exhaust
temperature & mass flow, raising nozzle pressure ratio.

2. Flame Stability in Afterburners

 Same principle as main combustor: recirculation zones hold flame.

 More difficult because:
o Flow is very high velocity (turbine exhaust).
o Air is already hot & oxygen-depleted.
 Solutions:
o Bluff-body flameholders (V-gutters).
o Screen-type holders.
 o Swirl stabilizers.

3. Pressure Losses

 Afterburners typically add ~5–10% total pressure loss (due to flameholders & mixing).
 Higher pressure losses reduce net thrust gain.

4. Performance

 Specific thrust increases 50–80%, but SFC (fuel consumption) doubles or triples →
very inefficient.
 Used only for short bursts (take-off, combat, supersonic dash).
 Nozzle must adjust to higher gas temperature (≈1800–2000 K).

Summary Table

Feature Main Combustor Afterburner

Location Between compressor & turbine After turbine, before nozzle

Stability method Swirl, recirculation, pilot flames Bluff-body flameholders, swirl

Ignition Spark igniter (start-up) Torch igniter (re-light)

Pressure loss 3–8% of compressor exit pressure 5–10% of turbine exit pressure

Efficiency High (99% combustion efficiency) Lower (~90%, high fuel penalty)

Usage Continuous operation Intermittent (military thrust boost)