Chapter : 6

Mineral Resources
A mineral is defined as being a naturally occurring element or
compound that is formed by inorganic processes and contains a
crystalline structure. Geographers are primarily concerned with
minerals in soil because minerals form the basic framework of soil.
Minerals originally form when once-heated Earth material magma
(molten rock) cools and forms solid igneous rock. The Earth's crust
formed and continues to form in this manner. Earth's crust contains a
combination of naturally occurring elements, of which following
elements are predominant: silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium,
Sodium, potassium, and magnesium. As you can imagine,
combinations of these elements along with the other naturally
occurring elements that form Earth's crust produce a wide variety of
minerals. Igneous rocks contain original minerals that form as
magma cools but sedimentary rocks are formed by secondary
minerals that grow and join sediment particles together and become
cemented. Metamorphic rocks were once igneous rocks and
sedimentary rocks that become chemically altered to form different
minerals. Over 3000 minerals are currently known and about 50 new
discovered each year. Some minerals are originally formed from hot
magma, which contains the minerals. When the magna cools crystals
of minerals appear. Most of the minerals are formed underground
when heat and pressure transform one form of rock into another.
Decomposition of leaves, plants and bones, flesh ultimately
transform into minerals but it takes million of years. Mostly this
process of decomposition happens in oceans where thousands of
species dies every day.

Mining processes: Mining is a process of digging rocks and

minerals from the earth. Minerals are found at different depths.
There are three main methods of mining.
Open cast mining: Some minerals like coal and iron often lie near
the surface. Open cast mining scoops up these minerals from near
the surface with the help of giant excavators and power shovels.
Which then load the material into Lorries or railway wagons to be
carried away.
Underground Mining: (i) There are two methods by which
minerals are accessed underground.
Adit mining: An adit is an opening or passage. Adit mining is done
in hilly districts where a mineral seam is exposed on a hill side.
Horizontal tunnels are dug into the side of a valley or hill to reach
the mineral deposit
Shaft mining: Vertical shafts are dug down to the minerals,
especially for coal. This method is expensive and can be dangerous.

Metallic and Non metallic minerals: Metallic and non metallic are
one of the mankind's most highly prized possessions. Many of our
articles are made from metallic minerals. Few elements such as gold
and copper occur in pure form as "metallic minerals", but most are
found as "ores". Ores are compounds containing a high proportion of
the metal. These metallic ores are cut or blasted from surrounding
rock. The ore is crushed and the worthless rock removed. Mineral
resources are non renewable although many can be recycled and
used again.
Metallic minerals are: Iron ore, Copper antimony, Chromites,
Celestite ,Manganese, Gold ,Silver ,Tin ,Bauxite
Non Metallic minerals are: Coal ,Sulphur, Rock salt,, Gypsum
Soapstone, Limestone ,Marble ,Clays

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN METALLIC AND NON

METALLIC:
Metallic minerals: Metallic mineral re those minerals which can be
melted to obtain products. Iron, cooper, bauxite, tin, manganese are
some examples. These are generally associated with igneous rocks.
They are usually hard and have shines or luster of their own They
are stretchy and flexible. When hit, they do not get broken.
Non-Metallic Minerals: Non-metallic minerals are those which do
not yield new products on melting. Coal, salt, clay, marble are some
examples, . These are generally associated with sedimentary rocks.
They are not so hard and have no shine or luster of their own. They
are not ductile and flexible. When hit, they may got broken into
piece .

Description and uses of metallic and non metallic minerals:

Rock salt: Seams of rock salt vary in thickness from between
20 to 100 meters The rocks are white and pink in color, The salt
is overlain by gypsum and clay. Rock salt is used for cooking
and preservation purposes and for the manufacture of soda ash,
caustic soda and other sodas for laundries, textiles and tanning.
Brine: Used in chemical and fertilizer industry.
Limestone : Limestone is a major sedimentary deposit and is
widespread in Pakistan. It is the main raw material for cement.
It is also used in the manufacture of bleaching powder, glass,
soap, paper. paints and lime. It is used to treat sugarcane waste
to produce alcohol fuel. It is painted on barks of trees to counter
pests and termite attacks
Coal: Pakistan has low quality coal is mainly used in brick
kilns. Some is use to make coal. A small percentage is used for
power generation. Thermal power station are also being run by
coal.
Natural gas: Gas is being used in Domestic and industrial uses
Gypsum: Found is grey, white and pink color. It is used in the
manufacture of paints, fertilizers and fabricated construction
boards. White gypsum is used for making cement and plaster of
 Paris, Spread on saline soil to help land reclamation for farming
Marble: Found in bands of white, grey, yellow and brown. It is
used in buildings and for making chips for flooring and
decorative pieces.
Clays China clay is used in the ceramic industry, for a special
type of cement and has other industrial uses. Fire clays fine clay
capable of enduring high temperature to make fire bricks; it is
also used to make pottery and chemicals.
Magnetite It is used in the manufacture of cement, fertilizer,
rayon, paper pulp, chemicals and pharmaceuticals.
Sulphur Sulphur is used in chemical industries to manufacture
sulpheric acid, paints, explosive materials, rayon and fertilizers.
Chromite Chromite gives hardness and electrical resistance to
steel. It is used for bridges and railways carriages. It is also
used in metallurgical furnaces and for making engineering tools
and stainless steel etc. I
Iron ore Steel making, construction and the transport industry.
Copper Making electrical wires and other electrical
appliances especially switches that carry current. It is also used
in making alloys, water pipes and tanks.
Maganese Used in making dry batteries and paints. • It is vital
alloy in steel making.
Bauxite It is used in utensils, tins, cans etc.

Organizations for mining in Pakistan:

Geological Survey of Pakistan, started working in [Link] main
function was to investigate the minerals deposits. Pakistan Mineral
Corporation started working in [Link] main function was to
explore and market all the minerals. The Pakistan Mineral
Development Corporation (PMDC) is an autonomous corporation
attached to the Ministry of Petrojeum and Natural Resources, of the
Government of Pakistan. Resource Development Corporation started
working in 1974 it used to investigate and develop copper mines at
Saindak, Balochistan. Gemstone Corporation of Pakistan
established in1979 main aim was to develop gemstone resources.

OIL DRILLING (PART OF THE CHAPTER OF POWER

RESOURCES) Oil is located at greater depths. The site is located
after a thorough survey using modern techniques such as satellite
imaging. A huge steel structure comprising an oil derrick and rig, is
set up at the drilling site. • Several drilling pipes and digging
apparatus are attached to the oil derrick. Deep digging is done to
reach the sedimentary rocks called anticlines. Anticline is a dome
shaped rock with porous and non-porous layers. A diamond-tipped
instrument is used to cut through the various layers of the anticline.
Oil lies between a layer of gas above and a layer of water below: "oil
traр". Oil is pumped out through the derrick pipes and supplied to
the nearby oil refinery, e.g., the Attock Refinery Limited near
Rawalpindi in the Postwar Oil Field. Finally the derrick is removed.

Benefits/Advantages of Mining Industry Source of employment,

Local development Raw material for industries; cutting down
import spendings Chances of export earning Utilizing local talent
Chances of conducting research on modern mining methods

Effects of Mining on the Environment

Damage to natural landscape: Causes depressions on land surface
due to the use of heavy machinery and explosives. Also causes
deforestation as land is to be cleared for mining. Depressions on land
make flood more destructive.
Variety of pollutions: Air pollution by dust, smoke and emission of
gases. Land/ surface pollution by untreated mineral waste. Water
pollution as the untreated waste seeps through land to the water
shannets Noise pollution by heavy machinery. Serious health hazards
to the miners a) If proper safety devices are not provided to the
miners they remain vulnerable la various diseases due to poor
ventilation and air pollution b) They often get respiratory diseases
like TB (Tuberculosis), Bronchitis and Asthma They may fall victim
to various accidents such as, collapse of the rons Sudden eruption of
the hidden water pockets, suffocation and relesse of toxic gases from
the mine .

Measures to Minimize the Adverse Effects of Mining: 5 Mining

to be done in scientifically designed ways. Re-afforestation of the
deforested areas. Filling of depressions on surface. Proper and
effective treatment and disposal of mineral waste. Installing water
filtration plants at the sites of mining. Providing safety devices to
miners e.g. clothing, masks etc. Providing education and training to
the miners, while providing health, education and recreation
facilities for their families. Following a strategy of sustainable
development and mining: it means that mining should be done in
such a way that the upcoming generations also exploit the mineral
reserves while there is minimum damage to the environment.
Installing precipitators and catalytic converters at the site of mining.
A precipitator is a device for removing dust particles from a gas.
Similarly, a catalytic converter is a device that controls the emission
of toxic gases and converts them to less toxic

Sample Questions
Q:1 To what extent can Pakistan increase mineral extraction and
exploitation? [6[
Ans. Pakistan has huge deposits of many non-metallic and some of metallic
minerals. Rock salt, limestone and gypsum are exploited on large scale. By
making cement with limestone and gypsum Pakistan can export it to improve
its BOP (Balance of Payment). There are abundant reserves of copper, silver
and gold in Balochistan that Pakistan can extract and exploit with the help of
local and foreign investors, e.g., China and Iran. The PMDC (Pakistan
Mineral Development Corporation) can provide incentives to the mining
engineers and workers to maximize extraction. However, lack of interest by
various governments, mismanagement of funds and a deteriorating security
situation in Balochistan, Sindh and Tribal Areas restrict any large scale
projects. Pakistan has poor quality iron ore deposits as a result of which it
spends heavily on importing iron, manganese and coke to feed its iron and
steel industry. Heavy investment is needed to extract minerals from rugged
areas. Pakistan has full potential to develop mining industry by attracting
mores foreign investors. It should also give more incentives to the miners and
the mining engineers so that they remain engaged in various mining projects.