APPLIED GEOPHYSICS

(MAGNETIC METHOD)

DR. MUHAIMEN AL-MUTAR, COLLEGE OF

SCIENCE, UNIVERSITY OF BASRA,
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY
MAGNETIC METHOD

It is considered one of the oldest geophysical methods, used in the

looking for large geological structures (such as high-magnetic mineral
deposits and ores), as well as in identifying the geomorphology of the
basement rocks and determining the extensions of sedimentary basins.
This method is characterized by the following:

• Faster completion of the survey compared to other methods.

• Requires simple and few corrections.

• Used for detailed study of geological phenomena.

 MAGNETIC POLES
The concept of magnetic poles can be demonstrated in the laboratory by
randomly sprinkling iron filings over a thin glass plate placed on a magnetic rod.
The iron filings align themselves in specific curves called lines of force. The points
where the lines of force start to converge at the ends of a long, thin magnet are
known as the magnetic poles. These poles are located slightly inside the magnet.
According to convention, the pole that seeks the north, which corresponds to the
northern end of a compass needle, is called the positive pole (north pole). The
pole that seeks the south is known as the negative pole (south pole).The lines of
force move from the positive (north) pole toward the negative (south) pole.
Magnetic poles always come in pairs (positive and negative). However, in the
case of a very long magnet, the lines of force around one pole are not significantly
affected by the other pole, making it possible to consider the two poles as isolated
from each other.
 MAGNETIC FORCE - F
If the magnetic poles 𝑝p and 𝑝0p 0​ , separated by a distance 𝑟r, exert a magnetic
force 𝐹F between them, it will be as shown in the following equation:

μ: It is the proportionality constant and represents magnetic permeability,

depending on the magnetic properties of the medium in which the poles are
placed. If the magnetic poles are identical, there will be a repulsive force
between these two poles. However, if the poles are different, the resulting
magnetic force will be an attractive force.
 MAGNETIC FIELD - H
The magnetic field strength at a point is defined as the magnetic force per unit pole
strength that can be exerted on a small pole with a pole strength of 𝑝0p 0​ located
at that point. The field strength 𝐻H caused by a pole with a pole strength 𝑃P at a
distance 𝑟r is:

……… (2)

By substituting equation (1) into (2), we get:

H: The applied field is expressed in terms of the density of magnetic field lines or
magnetic flux, and it is measured in Oersted (Oe) or Gauss (G) in the c.g.s system,
and in Tesla (T) in the m.k.s system.
MAGNETIC MOMENT - M
It is defined as the product of the pole strength (𝑝) and the distance between the
poles (𝐿), such that: M=PL
The direction of the magnetic moment along the magnet (𝐿) is toward the north-
seeking pole.

MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY - K
In the presence of a homogeneous external magnetic field (𝐻) that makes an angle
(𝜃) with the vertical line perpendicular to the surface of a magnetic material, the
induced force per unit area is defined by the relationship:

K: It is the proportionality constant and is called magnetic susceptibility.

In the case where the applied magnetic field is parallel to the surface of the magnetic
material (𝜃=0°θ=0°, cos0=1cos0=1), then:

I=KH
MAGNETIC INDUCTION – B

When a magnetizable body is exposed to an external magnetic field (𝐻), it will

acquire magnetism and then lose it once the applied field is removed. This type of
magnetism is referred to as induced magnetism. However, some materials (such as
iron, cobalt, and nickel) and many rocks (like basaltic lavas) exhibit strong magnetic
behavior even in the absence of the applied field. This phenomenon is attributed to
permanent or residual magnetism. The induced internal magnetic field ( ) is related
to the magnetic intensity (𝐼) by the following mathematical relationship:

4π
= I
The total magnetic flux inside the material, which has an axis perpendicular to the
applied magnetic field, is known as magnetic induction (𝐵) and is equal to the sum of
the applied external field (𝐻) and the induced internal field .
The induced field is directly proportional to the applied external field, as illustrated by
the following relationship:

=4πI
I=KH

The proportionality constant (1+4𝜋𝑘) is known as magnetic permeability, which

depends on the properties of the medium containing the magnetic pole and is
denoted by the symbol (𝜇). The above relationship can be written in the following
form:
THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD
If a magnetic needle is allowed to move freely around its center of gravity at any point on the
Earth's surface, it will orient itself in a position along the direction of the Earth's magnetic field
at that point. The Earth's magnetic field is a vector quantity, and it requires the naming of
three components to fully express its value and direction at any point: the vertical component
(𝐻𝑉), the horizontal component (𝐻ℎ), the declination (𝐷), and the magnetic inclination (𝐼). The
mathematical relationships between these elements and the strength of the Earth's magnetic
field (𝐻) can be derived from the following diagram:

H = H N2 + H E2 + H V2
HV = H sin I

H h = H N2 + H E2 = H cos I
H N = H cos I cos D
H E = H cos I sin D
 Magnetic Dip or Magnetic Inclination: 𝐼: The angle of magnetic declination (𝐷)
represents the angle between the direction of the horizontal component (𝐻ℎ) (the
magnetic meridian) and true geographic north.

The vertical plane containing 𝐻 and 𝐻ℎ

is called the local magnetic meridian,
while the plane containing 𝐻𝑁 and 𝐻𝑉 is
called the geographic meridian. The
figure below illustrates the distinction
between magnetic poles, geomagnetic
poles, and the geographical poles of the
Earth.
ORIGIN OF THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

1. They believed that there were ferromagnetic metals within the Earth's core
responsible for generating the Earth's magnetic field. However, as studies
progressed, it was discovered that ferromagnetic metals lose their magnetism
with heat. For instance, at the Curie temperature (around 500°C for magnetite),
this metal loses its magnetism, and such temperatures can be reached at a
depth of about 30 km from the Earth's surface. In other words, at depths greater
than 30 km, it is unlikely that metals would retain their magnetic properties.
Consequently, this idea was dismissed.
2. The source of the magnetic field is external, originating from the atmosphere as
a result of the ionization process. However, simple calculations have shown
that ionization at its maximum provides no more than 50 gamma of magnetic
variations on the Earth's surface, whereas the Earth's surface magnetic field
ranges between 200,000 and 700,000 gamma.
3. Changes in the atmospheric magnetic field can create electric currents that flow
through the Earth's crust, which are thought to be responsible for the magnetic
field on the Earth's surface. However, studies have shown that the electric
currents generated in this way are weak and require sensitive instruments for
measurement. In other words, there are no electric currents of magnetic or
chemical origin in quantities sufficient to generate the magnetic field on the Earth's
surface.
4. With the discovery of remanent magnetism, new ideas emerged suggesting that
magnetism originates in the Earth's crust. However, subsequent studies showed
that even if all rocks in the Earth's crust were of the highly magnetic basaltic type,
the resulting magnetic field would not exceed 100,000 gamma. It is worth noting
that the Earth's crust contains a mixture of basic and acidic igneous rocks, as well
as sedimentary rocks.
The origin of the Earth's magnetic field remained uncertain until Elsasser (1946) and
Bullard (1949) introduced the self-sustaining dynamo theory, which explains the
source of the Earth's magnetic field through the following experiment:

A copper disk rotates around a magnetic rod, as

shown in the figure below, within a magnetic field. As
the disk rotates in this field, it generates an electric
current, which is then received and measured using
a galvanometer. The current is then passed through
a coil, generating a magnetic field within it. The coil
is positioned in such a way that the magnetic field
generated by it aligns with and enhances the
magnetic field of the original magnetic rod. In other
words, the copper disk will rotate in an increasingly
strong magnetic field, causing the electric current
generated initially to increase, thereby amplifying the
magnetic field in the coil. Each increase in current is
followed by an increase in both the generated and
original magnetic fields. The magnetic rod can be
removed initially as a primary energy source,
creating a system that generates both a magnetic
field and an electric current. The amount of electric
current depends on the physical properties of the
system.
Q: What is the relationship between this experiment and this model with the Earth's
magnetic field?
A: The interior of the Earth consists of the core, which is divided into the inner core (a
solid part made of iron and nickel) and the outer core (a liquid part made of liquid iron,
nickel, and silicates). The movement of the liquids in the outer core, along with the
motion of the inner core due to the Earth's counterclockwise rotation, will generate
convective currents in the liquids that resemble a coil. It is believed that at the
beginning of creation, for some reason, an electric current was generated. When this
current flows through one of these coils, it will create a magnetic field. Each coil will
influence the adjacent coil, generating an electric current in it. The flow of this current
will create another magnetic field in the neighboring coil, which will affect this field and
increase the value of the field in the first coil, thereby increasing its electric current.
Thus, each increase in current leads to an increase in the value of the magnetic field.
For this reason, the true magnetic poles do not align with the geographic poles. When
they do meet, the net result is zero, which is indeed what happens during the reversal
of the Earth's magnetic field.
 In other words, the magnetic field generated in this way resembles a
dipole and is responsible for 80% of the observed magnetic field on the
Mantle Earth's surface. If it were 100%, the distribution would be uniform across
the Earth's surface. However, we have 20% generated at the boundary
between the mantle and the core, where there are specific conditions for
Core
the material between the liquid and solid phases. There are also
differences in the values of angular momentum and angular velocity of the
Earth's rotation at the core and mantle, which cannot be controlled and
are responsible for this difference.
This boundary is not a line but rather a zone about 200 km thick, with an
irregular shape. Inside this zone, there are coils that generate magnetic
Non-dipole field

fields, and their vector sum contributes to the total magnetic field of the
Dipole field

Earth. This magnetism is referred to as the non-dipole field. It increases

and moves away from a state of stability, then reverses to settle, but it
diminishes and then increases again, and so on. This process is
responsible for the regional changes in the Earth's magnetic field.
These changes attempt to align with the direction of the magnetic field of
the mantle, causing its shape and mass to change. This alignment is
physically impossible, but it tries to get closer, resulting in oscillatory
movements around the axis of the mantle, which leads to fluctuations in
the inclination and magnetic declination of long-term changes, with a
value of 20%.
MAGNETIC CORRECTIONS
1. Diurnal Correction: The process of applying this correction to the data from the
terrestrial magnetic survey is similar to the drift correction in gravimetric
methods. These corrections can be made whenever necessary by selecting
magnetic records (magnetograms) from the nearest magnetic observatories on
the Earth's surface. A daily variation curve can then be constructed by referring
to the reference measurement station approximately every two hours
throughout the day.
2. Normal Correction: This correction is due to the variation in the intensity of the
magnetic field with longitude and latitude. The correction is performed by
referring to global contour maps that provide the regional values for each of the
magnetic components (𝐻,𝐻ℎ, and 𝐻𝑉) or by using global reference tables for
terrestrial magnetism.
3. Terrain Correction: The effects of topography on terrestrial magnetic
measurements are not as significant as in gravimetric surveys. There are no
specific laws for applying topographic corrections here; however, whenever
necessary, the area can be divided into a grid of squares, and the average
elevation can be estimated using topographic maps. The added anomaly from
each block within these squares can be calculated using the magnetic effect
equations for a rectangular prism.
FIELD PRACTICE

Field Practice in this method is very similar to gravimetric surveying, where paths are
established that may intersect with each other, and the distances between them are
determined based on the survey's objective, whether it is detailed or regional. In regional
surveys, the distances are wider and larger, whereas in detailed local surveys, the distances
are smaller. Reference stations can be chosen for use in correcting [Link], computing
technologies have significantly advanced magnetic surveying operations, and airborne
magnetic survey techniques have been utilized to investigate the depths of extensive bedrock,
as well as to understand the ruggedness and topography of the studied areas. Airborne
surveys are conducted by taking specific flight paths, where the distances between these
paths can reach several kilometers. The equipment on the aircraft is securely and stably
mounted to avoid being affected by atmospheric disturbances caused by changes in the
aircraft's balance. Frequently, aerial images of the area under study are taken to compare and
match results with one another for greater accuracy.
 Comparison Between Gravimetric and Magnetic Methods
NO. Gravimetric Method Magnetic Methods
1 It is based on the presence of the natural It is based on the presence of the natural magnetic
gravitational field (potential field). field (potential field).

2 The force of attraction is a vector quantity that The magnetization strength is a vector quantity that
represents the derivative of the gravitational field represents the derivative of the magnetic field in that
in that direction. direction.
3 The gravitational effect of a specific body The magnetic effect of a specific body represents the
represents the sum of the effects of the sum of the effects of the magnetic components or
components that make up the mass of that body. magnetic poles that make up the body.
4 The gravimetric method is less complex, and the This method is more complex, and the vertical and
vertical component approximately represents the horizontal components are calculated.
sum of the gravitational components.
5 There is one type of gravitational force, which is There are two types of magnetic poles with opposite
the main gravitational effect directed downward. signs, and the positions of these poles can be in any
direction.
6 The gravity of a body is determined by its mass. The magnetism of a specific body is defined by its
magnitude and direction.
7 Gravitational anomalies arise from the effect of a Magnetic anomalies are produced by the effect of a
physical property known as density difference. physical property known as magnetic susceptibility and
residual magnetism in rocks.
8 The source of the gravitational effect is primarily The magnetic effect of rocks is due to the small
due to the fundamental components of rocks and remnants of minerals and depends on the composition
depends on the sum of these components (mass). of these minerals.
9 The basis of the method is Newton's law of The basis of the method is Coulomb's law.
universal gravitation.
10 Corrections are complex and numerous Corrections are simple and few