Unit 2

2.1 The mole concept

Mole is a very important for chemists as;
a) Unit of measurement
b) Important tool in stoichiometry and balancing chemical reactions
which play a critical role in manufacturing of drugs, dyes and chemical
substances for safe use.
c) Help in all calculations in chemistry.
Moles can be converted to mass and vice versa.
Chemists use mole to measure the amount of a substance. The amount of
substance relates directly to the particles making up the matter.
One mole of any substance is the amount of that substance that contains as
many particles as there are in 12 g of the isotope carbon – 12.
When the amount of a substance is measured in moles, the nature of particles
must be stated as atoms, molecules or ions. Ex; two moles of hydrogen refer
to two moles of hydrogen atom or one mole of hydrogen molecules.
2.2 Avogadro’s constant (L)
Activity
Calculate the number of hydrogen atoms present in 0.5 moles of hydrogen
gas, H2.
Solution
1 mole of hydrogen gas contains = 6.022 × 1023 hydrogen molecules.
0.5 moles contains = X hydrogen molecules
X = 0.5 × 6.022 × 1023 = 3.011 × 1023
1

But one molecule of hydrogen = 2 hydrogen atoms

The number of hydrogen = 2 × 3.011 × 1023 = 6.022 × 1023 hydrogen atoms
Mole is defined according to the number of particles that a substance contains.
One mole of any chemical substance contains the same number of particles as
there are atoms in 12 g of carbon – 12.
12 g of carbon – 12 means we have one mole of it.
The number of atoms in carbon – 12 is approximately 6.022 × 1023 .
This number is known as Avogadro‟s constant denoted by „L‟.
It has a unit of per mole and can be stated as L= 6.022 × 1023 particles per
mole.
Therefore;
 One mole of any substance contains 6.022 × 1023 particles.
 Two moles contains 2 × 6.022 × 1023 particles
 Three moles contains 3 × 6.022 × 1023 particles.
 Half mole contains 0.5 × 6.022 × 1023 particles.
 2.3 Relative atomic mass (R.A.M)
If we weight 12g of carbon atoms and 1g of hydrogen atoms,
they will contain the same number of atoms.
24g of magnesium will also contain the same number of atoms
as 1g of hydrogen atoms.
The relative atomic mass of all the elements expressed in
grams contains the same number of atoms.
This number is 6.022 × 1023.
To obtain the relative atomic masses of the atoms, we compare
them to other atoms.
Hydrogen served as a reference for a long time.
12
Carbon isotope 6 C is used today as a reference element to get
the masses of other atoms indirectly.
All atomic masses are compared to 1 of mass of carbon -12.
12

The instrument used for weighing and comparison of atomic

masses is called mass spectrometer.
Relative atomic mass: is defined as average mass of one atom
compared to 1 the mass of one atom carbon – 12 .
12

Carbon was chosen as the standard atom to which other atoms

are measured against because of its abundance in large number
of compounds.
Ex; mg = 24, Cl= 35.5, means that every atom of magnesium
has a mass of 24 times more than that of atom of carbon.
Elements have the same number of particles in one mole but
different relative atomic masses.
2.4 Relative Molecular Mass (R.M.M)
Molecular mass: is the sum of all the atomic masses of each atom in the
formula.
Some compounds are made up of ions rather than atoms hence we use the
term formula Mass which incorporates atomic, molecular and ionic
compounds.
Relative Molecular Mass: is the mass of one molecule of an element or a
compound compared to the mass of an atom of carbon – 12.
Molecule Number of Number of R.M.M
moles particles
H2 1 6.022 × 1023 2
23
CO2 1 6.022 × 10 44
23
NO2 1 6.022 × 10 46
23
H2O 1 6.022 × 10 18
23
Al2O3 1 6.022 × 10 102
23
H2SO4 1 6.022 × 10 98

Calculation of Relative Molecular Mass

Calculate the relative molecular masses of the following.
(Relative Atomic Masses, S=32, H=1, O=16, Na=23, Cl=35.5)
1. H2SO4 2. HCl 3. Na2SO4
Solution
1. H2SO4 = 2 × 1(H) + 1 × 32(S) + 4 × 16(O) = 98
2. HCl = 1 × 1(H) + 1 × 35.5 = 36.5
3. Na2SO4 = 2 × 23(Na) + 1 × 32(S) + 4 × 16(O) = 142

Molar Mass (M)

Is the mass of one mole of substance.
It help in calculating the weight of any chemical substance be it element or a
compound.
It contains the Avogadro‟s number of particles with unit grams per mole.
The relative atomic mass, relative molecular mass and relative formula
mass are numerically equal to their molar mass but they have no units.
For example RAM of chlorine is 35.5 and the molar mass of chlorine is 35.5
g.

Steps in calculating molar mass (sulphuric (VI) acid)

1. List each of the element and the number of atoms of the element present in
the substance e.g. H=2, S=1, O=4
2. Determine the atomic mass of each element. H=1, S=32, O=16 these are
often provided.
3. Multiply each atomic mass by the number of atoms in the formula e.g.
H(1 × 2=2), S(32 × 1=32), O(16 × 4=64)
4. Sum up the atomic masses obtained in step 3 (2 + 32 + 64) = 98 g
Therefore the molar mass of H2SO4 is 98 g.

2.5 Calculations involving conversion of moles

By using the relationship between grams, moles, and atoms, the total number
of atoms in a substance can be calculated.
Formulas:
Number of moles = Mass in grams
Molar mass
Mass in grams = number of moles × molar mass

Molar mass = Mass in grams

Number of moles

Worked example 1
Calculate the number of moles present in 7g of nitrogen
atoms. (N= 14).
Solution
Mass = 7g
Molar mass= 14g
Remember,
Moles = Mass = 7 = 0.5 moles
RAM 14

Example 2
What is the mass of 0.4 mole of sodium carbonate?
Solution
Given the number of moles=0.4 mole, RMM of Na2CO3=106
Mass=Mole × RMM = 0.4 × 106 = 42.4g

Example 3
How many moles of atoms of oxygen is there in 0.2 moles of sulphur (IV) oxide (SO2)?
Solution
Moles = 0.2 mole
1 mole of SO2 1 mole of sulphur atom and 2 mole of oxygen atoms
Therefore 0.2 mole SO2 contains (0.2 × 2) = 0.4 moles of oxygen atoms

Example 4
How many atoms are there in 4g of PbSO4?
Solution
Molar mass of PbSO4 = (207 + 32 + (16 × 4) = 303g
1 mole PbSO4 (303g) 6.022 × 1023 atoms
4 g of PbSO4 X atoms
Atoms = 4 × 6.022 × 1023 = 7.95 × 1021 atoms
303
Example 5
How many moles are there in 10g of H2SO4?
Molar mass of H2SO4 = (2 + 32 + (16 × 4)g =98g
Moles = Mass (g) = 10 = 0.102 moles
Molar mass (g) 98
2.6 Molar gas volume
Avogadro‟s gases law state that; “equal volume of gases under the same conditions
(temperature & pressure) contains equal number of molecules”.
#One mole of any gas contain equal number of molecules and therefore would
occupy the same volume under the same condition.
Molar gas volume: is the volume occupied by one mole of a gas.
At standard temperature and pressure (S.T.P), one mole of an ideal gas occupies a
volume of 22.4dm3.
At room temperature and pressure (R.T.P), the volume is 24.0dm3
One mole of any gas contains Avogadro’s constant, 6.022 × 1023molecules.

Mole of the gas = Volume

Molar gas volume

Worked example 1
Calculate the number of gas molecules in 5.6dm3 of CO2 at S.T.P.
Solution

Moles of the gas = Volume given = 5.6 = 0.25 moles

Molar gas volume 22.4

1 mole of CO2 contains = 6.022 × 1023 molecules

0.25 moles = 0.25 × 6.022 × 1023 =1.5055 × 1023 molecules

Standard conditions for measuring gas volumes

Temperature of 0°C or 273K and 760mm pressure are known as Standard
temperature and pressure (S.T.P).
Temperature of 25°C or 298K and 760mm pressure are known as Room
temperature and pressure (R.T.P).

2.7 Determination of a chemical formulae

Empirical and molecular formula determination
I) Empirical formula: is the formula which shows the simplest whole number ratios of
different types of atoms present in the compound.
II) Molecular formula: is the formula which shows the actual number of different atoms
in a molecule or compound.
Molecular formula represents a compound in the way it exists.
Empirical formula in most compounds is not the same as the molecular formula.
Empirical formula does not show the actual form in which the molecule or compound
exist naturally.
Table 2.4 molecular and empirical formula of the same compounds
Molecular formula Empirical formula
H2O2 HO
Na2O2 NaO
C6H12O6 CH2O
C4H8 CH2

Emperical formula = molecular formula Molecular formula = Emperical formula × n

n
Empirical formula
Find the empirical formula of a compound that has 48.38% carbon, 8.12% hydrogen, and
53.5% oxygen by mass.
STEPS
1. Note the mass of each element or use the percentage composition given. E.g.
Carbon = 48.38%, Hydrogen = 8.12%, and Oxygen = 53.5%
2. Convert the mass or percentage composition of each element to moles of each element
using their atomic masses.
C = 48.38 = 4.028 mole H = 8.12 = 8.12 mole O = 53.5 = 3.336 mole
12 1 16
3. Find the mole ratio of each element by dividing using the smaller number of moles
obtained in step 2 above. Fewer mole of oxygen is used.

C = 4.028 = 1.2 H = 8.12 = 2.4 O = 3.336 = 1

3.336 3.336 3.336
4. Use the mole ratio to write the empirical formula
Some of the mole ratios are not whole numbers. We cannot have partial atoms in the
empirical formula, and a multiplication factor must be applied to get a whole numbers. In
this case 5 is the factor.
C = 1.2 × 5 = 6, H = 2.4 × 5 = 12, O=1×5=5
Now that the ratios are whole numbers, we can write the empirical formula as C6H12O5.
Example
Find the empirical formula of a compound containing 0.2g hydrogen and 1.6g oxygen.
Solution
H O
Mass 0.2 1.6
Molar mass 1 16
Moles 0.2 = 0.2 mole 1.6 = 0.1 mole
1 16
Mole ratios (divide by the smallest amount and get the whole number
H O
0.2 = 2 0.1 = 1
0.1 0.1
 Empirical formula = H2O
Calculations involving molecular formula
Example
An organic compound was found to contain 40% carbon, 53.33% oxygen and 6.67%
hydrogen. Given the relative molecular mass of the compound is 60, calculate its
molecular formula. (C = 12, H = 1, O = 16)
Solution
C H O
% by mass 40 6.67 53.33
Molar mass 12 1 16
Moles 40 = 3.33 6.67 = 6.67 53.33 = 3.31
12 1 16
Mole ratio 3.33 = 1 6.67 = 2 3.31 = 1
3.31 3.31 3.31
1 2 1
 Empirical formula is CH2O
Relative molecular mass of (CH2O)n = 60
(1 × 12) + (2 × 1) + (1 × 16)n = 60
(30)n = 60
n=2
Molecular formula = (Empirical formula)n
= (CH2O) × 2
= C2H4O2
Calculating percentage composition
Describe the percentage by mass of each element in a compound.

Percentage by mass = mass of the element × 100%

mass of the compound
Example
Calculate the percentage by mass of hydrogen and oxygen in water.

Solution
Step 1: find the molar mass of H2O
H= 1 × 2 = 2, O = 16 × 1 = 16, H2O = 2 + 16 = 18
Step 2: calculate the percentage composition of each element

2
Hydrogen = × 100 = 11.1%
18
16
Oxygen = × 100 = 88.9%
18

2.8 Percentage yield and percentage purity

Percentage yield: is the amount of product obtained from a chemical reaction.
Percentage purity: is the percentage of the material which is the actual desired chemical
in amount of substance or product.
Experiment
The salt that was prepared and analyzed for it‟s water content by heating to remove any
residual water.
Mass of evaporating empty dish = 51.32g
Mass of pure salt
Mass of impure salt + dish = 56.47g Percentage purity = ×100
Mass of impure salt
Mass of dish + salt after heating = 56.15g
Mass of impure salt = 56.47 – 51.32 = 5.15g
Mass of pure salt = 56.15 – 51.32 = 4.83g

4.83
Percentage purity of the salt = × 100 = 93.8%
5.15

Example 4
30g of impure calcium carbonate was reacted with an excess of dilute hydrochloric acid
to produce 2240 cm3 of carbon (IV) oxide gas at standard temperature and pressure.
Calculate the percentage purity of calcium carbonate. ( Ca = 40, C = 12, O = 16). Molar
gas volume at S.T.P = 22.4 dm3

Solution
The reaction equation
CaCO3 (s) + HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Step 1: molar mass of CaCO3 = 100 g
Step 2: Calculate moles of CO2 produced = Given volume = 2240 = 0.1 moles
Molar gas volume 22.4 × 1000
Moles of CaCO3 reacted = Moles of CO2 produced = 0.1 moles
Mass of CaCO3 reacted = Moles × Molar mass = 0.1 × 100 = 10g
22.4 litres of gas is produced by 100 g (1 mole) of calcium carbonate
10g of calcium carbonate reacted
30g of impure calcium carbonate

Percentage purity of calcium carbonate used = 10 × 100% = 33.33%

30
Determining percentage yield of a reaction
Experiment
2.4g of copper metal were heated with excess sulphur to yield 2.25 g of copper (I)
sulphide. What is the percentage yield of this reaction?
(Cu = 63.5, S = 32)
Solution

Percentage yield = Actual yield × 100%

Theoritical
Equation
2Cu (s) + S (s) Cu2S (s)
Moles of copper that reacted = mass of copper given = 2.4 = 0.0378 moles
Molar mass of copper 63.5
Mole ratio from the equation is used to calculate the expected number of moles of the
product.
Cu : Cu2S =2 : 1
Moles of Cu2S = 0.0378 = 0.0189 moles
2
R.M.F of Cu2S = (2 × 63.5) + 32 = 159
Expected yield of Cu2S = 159 × 0.0189 = 3.0051g

Percentage yield of Cu2S = 2.25 × 100% = 74.87%

3.0051
2.9 Chemical equation and mole ratio
Chemical reaction represents the change in which one or more substances act alone or on
each other to produce one or more new substances.
The substances which change are called reactants (always on the left side).
 The new substances formed are called products (on the right side) of the equation.
A chemical equation is a mean of representing a chemical reaction by using
chemical symbols and formulae.
Reactants and product can exist in a simplest form as atoms, molecules, ions, and
formula units.
Word equation is the simplest form of an equation using the names of reactants
and products instead of their symbols.
Example
Zinc + sulphuric acid Zinc sulphate + hydrogen gas
In chemistry the standard way to represent reactions is by using chemical symbols and
formulae.
Writing correct chemical equation
Correct names or symbols and formulae of a substances involved in the reaction
Showing the physical states of each substance involved in the reaction.
Amount of reactants and products involved in the reaction.
The following symbols are used in writing equation describing states and must be
put in parenthesis (brackets).
S – solid or precipitate
l – liquid
g – gas
aq – aqueous solution
+, on reactant side means reacts with and +, on the products side means and
Forms or produce (in the forward direction)
The relative amount of reactants and products can be obtained by experiment or
predicted by balancing the equation.
Balancing equations (stoichiometry)
Balancing chemical equation means there must be same number of atoms of each
kind of atom on each side of the equation.
Steps for balancing equations:
1. Write down the unbalanced equation leaving spaces before each formulae or
symbol in order to fix the numbers later.
2. Write down the total number of the different atoms on each side of the equation.
3. Check which atoms are not equal? Put suitable numbers in front of the symbol
or formula to make the atoms on both sides equal.
4. Include the state symbols to show the physical states of reactants and products.
 A compound formula must never be altered to balance an equation since any
particular compound has a fixed formula.

Example
Reaction of sodium with water to form sodium hydroxide and liberating hydrogen
gas.
Reactants are: sodium, Na and water, H2O
Products are: Sodium hydroxide, NaOH, and hydrogen gas, H2.
Steps
I. Na + H2O NaOH + H2 (hydrogen atoms are not equal on the both sides and
therefore unbalanced).
II. There can only be even number of hydrogen atoms on each side, so we write 2
infront of NaOH e.g
Na + H2O 2NaOH + H2
III. Now make sodium atoms equals by adding 2 in front of Na on the left hand
side of the equation, e.g.
2Na + H2O 2NaOH + H2, now the equation is balanced.
IV. Include the state symbols of reactants and products.
2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Unbalanced equations are unacceptable in chemistry
Balanced equations help to indicate mole ratios.
It is essential to be able to assign a correct formula to substances and then balance
the equations.
It is not recommended to memorize chemical equations.
Reading chemical equations
Calculation of quantities of substances in chemical reactions
The relative amounts of any two substance involved in a chemical reaction is known as
the mole ratio.
Take a reaction between Sodium metal and oxygen gas to give sodium oxide.
4Na (s) + O2 (g) 2Na2O (s)
4 mol + 1 mol 2 mol
2 mol + 0.5 mol 1 mol
5 mole + 1.25 mol 2.5 mol
0.1 mol + 0.025 mol 0.05 mol

Mole ratio = n(Na) = 4 = 2 = 5 = 0.1

n(O2) 1 0.5 1.25 0.025
# It is not true that only four moles of sodium which can react with one mole of oxygen to
produce two moles of sodium oxide, many other amount can react but the mole ratio
remain constant.
Mole ratios can be used in calculating unknown quantities e.g. volumes, concentrations,
moles and mass.
Steps
Write a balanced equation for the reaction.
Find out the mole ratios of all the substance involved.
Equate mole ratios and calculate the required quantity.
Worked example
6.54g of zinc metal reacted completely with dilute hydrochloric acid at STP. Calculate:
i) The number of moles of hydrochloric acid that reacted.
ii) The volume of hydrogen gas produced (Zn = 65.4, H = 1, Molar gas volume at s.t.p =
22.4 dm3)
Solution
i) The equation
Zn (s) + 2HCl ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

Moles of zinc = 6.54 = 0.1 moles

65.4
Moles of HCl (Mole ratio Zn:HCl = 1 : 2)
1 mol Zn reacted with = 2 mol HCl
0.1 moles Zn = X moles HCl
Moles HCl = 0.1 × 2 = 0.2 moles

ii) Mole ratio of Zn:H2 = 1 : 1

Moles of Hydrogen = 0.1 moles
Volume of hydrogen produced = moles × molar gas volume = 0.1 × 22.4 = 2.24 dm3
Ionic equations
Chemical equations taking place at aqueous solutions involve at least one ionic species
either as reactants or products.
Solid dissolved in water produces ions that separate and move freely in the solution.
Ions that exist in a chemical reaction process but do not take part are known as
spectators ions.
Spectators ions cancel out and are not shown in ionic equation.
Example (1)
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) (Full equation)

H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l) (ionic equation)

Writing ionic equations:

1. Balance the equation in terms of charges or/and moles.
2. Included state symbols of reactants and products.
3. Show formula unit of ionic solid.
4. Identify substances containing free ions and those that do not.
Containing free ions – aqueous solutions of salts, acids and bases.
Do not contain free ions – insoluble salts, gases molecular substances,
insoluble bases.
Example 2
Ba(NO3)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2HNO3(aq) (full equation)

Ba2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)

Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s) (ionic equation)

Example 3
CuO(s) + 2HCl(aq) CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l) (full equation)

CuO(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)

CuO(s) + 2H+(aq) Cu2+(aq) + H2O(l) (ionic equation)