HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Digestive System
Digestive Tract and Accessory Organs
Digestive System
• DIGESTIVE TRACT
• A tube extending from the mouth to
anus
• Alimentary Tract/ Canal
• Gastrointestinal Tract
• ASSOCIATED ORGANS
• Glands located outside the digestive
tract that secretes fluid into it.
• Salivary Glands
• Liver and Gallbladder
• Pancreas

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Functions of the Ingestion
Digestive Tract – Process of taking food and liquids
into the mouth
– Begins digestion by allowing food to
enter the GIT

Propulsion
– Movement of food through the GIT
– Mechanisms:
– Swallowing (Deglutition)
– Peristalsis – wave-like
contractions that push food Mechanical Digestion
along the GIT
– Physical breakdown of food into
smaller pieces
– Increases the surface area for enzyme
action
– Chewing, churning, segmentation
Functions of the
Digestive Tract Chemical Digestion
– Breakdown of food molecules into their
chemical building blocks using digestive
enzymes
Secretion
– Release of digestive juices,
enzymes, acids, and mucus by
glands along the GIT
Compaction &
Defecation
– Compaction – reabsorption of water
and electrolytes to form feces
Absorption – Defecation – expulsion of indigestible
waste from the body.
– Process by which digested
nutrients move from lumen of the
GIT into the blood or lymph
Digestive Tract
• Oral Cavity: mouth, tongue and teeth
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small Intestine
• Large Intestine
• Anus
 Types of Movement
inside the GIT
1. Deglutition (Swallowing)
• Moves liquids of soft mass of food and liquid
(bolus) from the oral cavity into the esophagus

2. Peristalsis
• Muscular contractions with alternating
relaxation and contraction of circular muscles
• Moves the bolus along the GIT

3. Mass movements
• Contractions that move material in the distal
parts of the large intestine to the anus
 Regulation of the Digestive
System

Nervous Regulation (Enteric Nervous System)

• An extensive network of submucosal and myenteric
nervous plexuses within the walls of the GIT
• A division of Autonomic Nervous System
• Additional control from the Parasympathetic Division of
the Autonomic Nervous System through the Vagus Nerves
and some Sympathetic nerves.

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 Regulation of the Digestive
System

Nervous Regulation (Enteric Nervous System)

1. Enteric Sensory Neurons – detect changes in the
chemical composition of the digestive tract contents or
detect mechanical changes (stretch)
2. Enteric Motor Neurons – stimulate or inhibit smooth
muscle contraction and glandular secretion
3. Enteric Interneurons – connect enteric sensory and
enteric motor neurons

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 Regulation of the Digestive
System

Nervous Regulation (Enteric Nervous System)

• Functions through local reflexes to control
specific, short regions of the GIT
• Capable of controlling the complex peristaltic and
mixing movements, as well as blood flow within
the GIT, without outside influences

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Hirschsprung Disease

• A congenital disorder of the large

intestine characterized by the
absence of ganglion cells (NES cells)
in the distal bowel (sigmoid and
rectum)
• Functional obstruction due to
failure to relax muscle contraction
at affected areas
• “Megacolon”, enlargement of the
intestinal segment before the
affected area
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 Regulation of the Digestive
System

Chemical Regulation (Neurotransmitters)

• Acetylcholine and Serotonin – stimulates
digestive motility and secretion
• Norepinephrine – inhibits digestive motility and
secretion

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 Regulation of the Digestive
System

Chemical Regulation
• Hormones: Gastrin and Secretin
• Paracrine Chemicals: Histamine

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 Peritoneum
• Serous membrane covering of the GIT
• Secretes serous fluid to provide
lubricating film between layers of
membranes
• Reduces friction as organs move within the
abdominal cavity

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 • Ascites
• Accumulation of excess serous fluid
in the peritoneal cavity
• Mostly occur in peritonitis
• Can also accompany starvation,
alcoholism, or liver cancer
Peritonitis
• Potentially life-threatening
inflammation of the peritoneal
membranes
• Chemical irritation of digestive
substances or from infection of the
GIT (Ruptured Appendicitis)
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 Mesentery
• Connective tissue sheets that holds the
abdominal organs in place
• Provide a route by which vessels and nerves
can pass from the abdominal wall to the
organs

• Lesser omentum –connects the lesser

curvature or stomach and the proximal end of
duodenum to the liver and diaphragm

• Greater omentum – extends from the greater

curvature to the transverse colon.
 ORGANS of the
GASTROINTESTINAL
TRACT
Oral Cavity

• Labia (Lips) – muscular structures formed by

the orbicularis oris muscle and connective
tissue
• Color: underlying blood vessels
• Labial frenula – mucosal folds extending from
the gums to the lip
• Cheeks from the lateral walls of oral cavity –
buccinator muscle and buccal fat pad

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Oral Cavity
• Palate – roof of the oral cavity, separates the oral
and nasal cavities
• Hard Palate – anterior bony part
• Soft Palate – posterior non-bony part with skeletal
muscles
• Uvula – posterior projection from the soft palate
• Palatine tonsils – lateral wall of the opening of
the pharynx

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Tongue
• A large, muscular organ that occupies most of the oral
cavity proper.
• Major attachment: posterior part
• Anterior attachment: floor of the mouth through a
thin fold of tissue called lingual frenulum.
• Muscles:
• Intrinsic muscles – located within the tongue itself,
responsible for changing the shape of the tongue
• Extrinsic muscles – attached to the tongue, protrude and
retract, side-to-side movement

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Teeth
• Important for mastication and assist in speech.
• Adult: 32 permanent teeth

Mastication
• The process of breaking down large food particles into
smaller ones
• Anterior incisors and canines: cut and tear the food
• Posterior premolars and molars: crushing and grinding

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Esophagus

• Extends between the pharynx and

the stomach
• Esophageal sphincters (Upper and
Lower)
• Regulate the movements of
materials into and out of the
esophagus
• Contains numerous mucous
glands to produce thick lubricating
mucus

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Stomach

• Enlarged segment pf the digestive

tract
• Primarily functions as a storage
and mixing chamber

Pylorus
Cardia
•
Body
Lower portion
(Corpus)
Fundus
of the stomach that is
• Region where the esophagus opens into the
• connected
The largestto central
the small
region
intestine
• stomach
Dome shaped upper portion
• Main site the
Contains for mixing,
pyloric sphincter
churning, that
and secretion
regulates
• Contains
Often contains
the Lowe
swallowed
Esophageal
air orSphincter
gas bubble
that
of gastricofjuices.
passage churned food (chyme) into the
prevents acid reflux
small intestine

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 Three layers of muscles in
Stomach different directions:
• Inner oblique muscle
• Middle circular muscle
• Outer longitudinal muscle
Lesser Curvature
- Connected to the liver by the
lesser omentum
- Common site for peptic ulcers

Greater Curvature
- Connected to the greater
omentum that covers over the
intestines

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 Stomach Mucus
Forms mucus to protect stomach lining from being
digested. Acts as lubricant

• Mixes the chewed food and Highly acidic environment to activate pepsinogen,
adds stomach secretions to HCl
kill ingested microbes, and denature proteins
form a semifluid material
Stimulate cells to produce more HCl and secretion
called “CHYME” Gastrin of pepsinogen. Enhances gastric motility and
mucosal growth
• Primary function: to store
and mix chyme Histamine
Paracrine messenger. Stimulates cells to secrete
more HCl
• Secondary functions:
digestion and absorption Intrinsic
Promotes Vit B12 absorption in the intestine
Factor

Activated to pepsin to breakdown large proteins

Pepsinogen
for digestion
Emptying of Stomach
Reduced digestion and
absorption, acidic
gastric contents are
dumped into the
duodenum causing
damage

Highly acidic contents

damage the stomach
wall and reduce
digestion and
absorption

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Small Intestine
• A long, coiled, muscular tube
• Digestion and absorption of
nutrients
• 6-7 meters in length in adults
• Completes the breakdown of
CHO, CHON, and fats
• Primary site of nutrient
absorption
• Moves digested food (chyme)
along its length through
peristalsis
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Small Intestine
• Duodenum
• First and shortest segment
of the small intestine.

Regulates Digestion through

Hormones
Neutralization of Stomach Acid
Chemical
Initial Absorption
Digestion
Secretin - stimulate HCO3 release from
Secrets HCO3-rich
pancreas andwith mucus andfrom
bile production receives
liver
MixesCalcium
Iron, chyme and digestive
some vitamins
juicesand
from
HCO3 from pancreas to neutralize the
the pancreas
simple sugarsand
are liver
initially
andabsorbed
gallbladder
highly acidic chyme
Cholecystokinin from
(CCK) the stomach
– stimulates GB
contraction and pancreatic enzyme
secretion
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Small Intestine
• Jejunum
• Middle section
• 8 meters long
• Lt: empty

Transport of Nutrients to
Absorption
Continuation of Digestion
Bloodstream
Main site for nutrient absorption: CHO,
Breakdown
Nutrients areofpassed
CHO, CHON,
into and fats into
capillaries and
CHON, water-soluble vitamins, minerals,
enter absorbable unitsvein for
water and the hepatic portal
electrolytes
transport to liver for processing
 Small Intestine
• Ileum
• Final and longest segment
• Contains Peyer’s patches
for immunity

Transport
Finalof chyme to Large
Absorption
Immune Defense
Intestine
Vitamin B12 – essential for RBC production
and nervous
PEYER’S
Chyme is PATCHES
system
passed to –the
maintenance
monitor intestinal
large intestine
bacteria the
through andILEOCECAL
prevent harmful
VALVE,microbes
which
Bile Salts
from entering
prevents – recycled
the bloodstream
backflow andand sent back
controls to liver
passage of
for reuse in fat digestion
contents
 Large Intestine
• Moves chyme in 18-24 hours for water and
electrolyte absorption
• Main secretion: Mucus
• Converts chyme to feces and stores it until
Cecum defecation
• Segments:
Sigmoid colon
• Cecum with Appendix • Sigmoid Colon
• Ascending Colon • Rectum
• Transverse Colon • Anus
• Descending Colon

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 Large Intestine
• Cecum
• Proximal end of the large intestine
• Meets the small intestine at the ILEOCECAL
JUNCTION
• Vermiform Appendix
• Vermiform: worm-shaped
• A smaller, blind tube attached to the cecum
• Walls contain lymphatic nodules which contribute to
immune functions.

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 Splenic Flexure Large Intestine
Hepatic Flexure
• Colon
• 4 parts: Ascending, Transverse, Descending, Sigmoid
• Anatomic landmarks: Hepatic Flexure at right,
Splenic Flexure at left
• Pouches – “Haustra”
• Teniae coli – three bands of connective tissue that
run the length of the colon
• Contractions causes the haustra to form

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 Large Intestine
• Rectum
• A straight muscular tube in between the sigmoid
colon and anal canal
• Anal Canal
• Ends at the anus (external GIT opening)
• Internal Anal Sphincter – smooth muscle layer
• External Anal Sphincter – formed by skeletal muscles
surrounding the anal canal
• Contains rectal veins that supply the anal canal

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Accessory Organs of
the Gastrointestinal
Tract
• Teeth
• Salivary Glands
• Liver and Gallbladder
• Pancreas
Salivary Glands
• Main salivary glands: Parotid glands,
Submandibular glands, and Sublingual glands
• Numerous scattered small salivary glands in the
oral cavity.
• Exocrine glands: ducts
• Produces thin secretions or thicker mucous
secretions
• Saliva: combination of serous and mucous
secretions

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 Salivary Glands
• Parotid Glands
• In front of and below the ears, over the masseter muscles
• Secretions: watery, enzyme-rich serous saliva,
• Amylase – initiates digestion of CHO
• Submandibular Glands
• Beneath the mandibles
• Secretions: mixed serous and mucous saliva
• Duct: Wharton’s Duct – opens on either side of the lingual
frenulum (under the tongue)
• Sublingual Glands
• Under the tongue, in the floor of the mouth
• Secretion: primarily mucous for lubrication of the oral
cavity

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Salivary Glands Secretions
• Amylase
• Digestive enzyme that breakdown 3-5% of
CHO into smaller sugars

• Lysozyme
• An enzyme that has a weak antibacterial
action.

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 Liver
• Largest internal organ of the body, located in the right
upper quadrant of the abdomen.

Storage of Interconversion
Bile Production
Nutrients of Nutrients

Detoxification Synthesis

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 Major Lobes: Right and Left Lobes

C
R R

L L

Falciform Ligament Minor Lobes: Caudate and Quadrate Lobes

 Gallbladder
• Saclike structure for BILE STORAGE
• Located at the inferior surface of the liver
• Parts:
• Fundus
• Body
• Neck

• Cystic Duct – connects the gallbladder to

the common bile duct that will empty into
the duodenum
Biliary Tree
• Bile is produced in the liver
• Passes through the RIGHT AND LEFT
HEPATIC DUCTS to flow into the
COMMON HEPATIC DUCT and then
stored in the gallbladder
• Flows through the CYSTIC DUCT when
needed for fat digestion
• Passes through the COMMON BILE DUCT
to exit in the duodenum.

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Jaundice
• A clinical condition characterized by yellowish discoloration of the skin, sclera,
and mucous membranes
• Commonly associated with problems in the liver, gallbladder, or red blood
cells.
• Types:
• Pre-Hepatic Jaundice (blood)
• Hepatic Jaundice (liver)
• Post Hepatic Jaundice or Obstructive Jaundice (gallbladder)

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 Liver
Bilirubin
• Processing for elimination
• Breakdown product of
by conjugation with other
Hemoglobin in RBCs
molecules

↑ Bilirubin
Destructed Liver Cells
• Increased hemoglobin
• Cells are unable to process
breakdown due to
bilirubin
increased RBC
• Accumulation of Bilirubin
destruction

Pre-Hepatic Jaundice Hepatic Jaundice

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Post Hepatic Jaundice / Obstructive Jaundice

• Commonly associated with Gallbladder

problems: gallstones, inflammation
• Gallstones
• Insoluble aggregates formed inside the
gallbladder
• Often caused by precipitation of excess
cholesterol
• Stones may pass out of the gallbladder and
lodge in the cystic duct or in the common bile
duct which causes obstruction.

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Pancreas
• An ENDOCRINE and EXOCRINE organ
• Endocrine: Pancreatic Islets of
Langerhans
• Exocrine: Compound acinar glands
with ducts (intercalated,
intralobular, interlobular ducts, and
main pancreatic duct)

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Exocrine
Pancreas

Endocrine
Pancreas
Pancreas • Aqueous Pancreatic Juice
• Rich in HCO3- to neutralize the acidic
chyme that enters the duodenum
• Endocrine Secretion: Insulin,
• Stops pepsin digestion and prevents
Somatostatin, Glucagon damage to the duodenum
• Exocrine Secretion: Pancreatic
Juice
• Enzymatic Pancreatic Juice
• Have an aqueous component
• Contains major proteolytic enzymes
and an enzymatic component trypsin, chymotrypsin, and
carboxypeptidase
• Secreted in inactive forms (trypsinogen,
chymotrypsinogen,
procarboxypeptidase)
• Activated by enterokinase when needed
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Chyme Secretin Aqueous Pancreatic Juice

Fats
and Cholecystokinin Enzymatic Pancreatic Juice
Lipids

Contraction of Gallbladder to
release Bile

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Pancreas
Pancreatic Amylase
• Continues polysaccharide digestion initiated in the oral cavity

Pancreatic Lipase
• Breaks down lipids into monoglycerides and free fatty acids

Deoxyribonucleases and Ribonucleases

• Degrades DNA and RNA respectively

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