THE INDEPENDENCE OF BOLIVIA

Geographical scenario of the indigenous rebellions of

The struggle for the emancipation of America began in the 18th century when the Spanish crown
decidió reformar la relación con sus territorios en América. Frente a la mayor explotación y
discrimination, a major indigenous rebellion occurred which was repressed and punished with the
execution of its leaders, the tense situation between the Crown and the Americans remained.
According to some authors, these rebellions did not have an independentist character but rather aimed to end.
with the abuses and restore the ancient indigenous governments, but they were the precursor of the
revolutionary movements in pursuit of the independence of the Spanish colonies

Causes of Indigenous Rebellions

Several were the reasons that provoked the general uprising of indigenous people in the
Andean territories. Among them stand out:

The government's lack of knowledge about traditional authorities.

The forced distribution of goods that enriched the corregidores to the detriment of the
indigenous people.
The abusive collection of the tax by the Spanish State and the tithe by the authorities
ecclesiastical.
The maintenance of the mita system.
The creation of customs and the increase of the sales tax on certain products.
of indigenous consumption.

In the 1770s, several isolated protests showed discontent

growing of the inhabitants of Charcas with the Spanish government; the uprisings were
many times anti-fiscal. In the 1780s, uprisings became widespread.

The rebellions of Chayanta and Cuzco

Between 1780 and 1782, the Andean region was convulsed by a series of rebellions.
Indigenous. In Chayanta (northern Potosí) and Cusco, thousands of people rose up.
that endangered the Spanish government's control of the region.

The uprising of Túpac Amaru II

The chief of Tinta, Surimana and Tungasuca (Peru), José

Gabriel Condorcanqui adopted the name Túpac Amaru.
II, as a tribute to the last Inca, Túpac Amaru I,
executed by Viceroy Toledo in 1572. Unlike
Tomás Katari, Condorcanqui was Quechua, and he had a
comfortable economic position. He was the owner of a
a large number of mules, with which it was dedicated to
transport of goods; moreover, he was educated in the
school for chieftains of Cusco, as he spoke
perfectly Spanish and knew how to read and write. Just like others
traders, was affected by the establishment of customs and the
rise of the alcabalas, tax reforms carried out by the visitor
José Antonio de Areche.

The uprising broke out in 1780, when the indigenous people of Tinta
they arrested the corregidor Antonio de Arriaga and executed him.
Upon learning, the Spanish authorities sent an army that
faced the indigenous forces in the battle of Sangarará; this
it was favorable to the troops of Túpac Amaru.

At the end of that year, Túpac Amaru launched an advance southward, controlling all the
area between Cusco and the northwest of Lake Titicaca. The chieftain offered the
freedom for the slaves, end the mita, the repartimientos, the grandes haciendas and the
customs. Despite this, it is asserted that the reasons for its lifting were more than
fiscal order against the Spanish government.

Túpac Amaru besieged Cusco, but his efforts to enter the city were
useless. In March 1781, the indigenous chief, his wife Micaela Bastidas, and their children,
They were captured. Túpac Amaru was quartered in the square of Cusco on May 18.
from 1781. The rebellion continued in the region until 1783, under the command of Diego Cristóbal
Túpac Amaru.

Tomás Katari and the Chayanta Rebellion

In the Chayanta region, north of Potosí, the Aymara Tomás Katari began in 1777 a
legal claim to recognize his title as curaca, unknown by the
authorities of Charcas. This would have allowed him to officially protest against the
excessive tax collection. With this objective, Katari even walked to Buenos
In Buenos Aires, in late 1778, he obtained some support from the viceroy, who promised to review the case.

However, Katari was arrested upon returning to his ayllu, which was exploited by the
corregidor of Chayanta, Joaquín de Alós, to carry out the distribution of goods. The
followers of the curaca managed to capture Alós. Thus began an extensive rebellion; the
Indigenous people laid siege to the city of La Plata on two occasions, demanding freedom.
from his curaca. Katari was released and later recaptured. Finally, on the 15th of
January 1781, he was thrown off a cliff while being transported by his captors.
towards La Plata.

As a consequence of his murder, in other neighboring localities such as Challapata (Oruro) there
other acts of violence against the authorities were produced. Tomás's brothers,
Dámaso and Nicolás Katari took command of the rebels in Chayanta.

Túpac Katari and the Siege of La Paz

The rebellion of Julián Apaza, an indigenous person from Sica Sica, managed to raise arms among more than 12,000.
indigenous people who besieged the city of La Paz for three months, in one of the episodes most
gray
dramatic of the indigenous rebellions.

Together with his wife Bartolina Sisa, Túpac Katari managed to control the La Paz highlands and put
I am looking for the city of La Paz, gathering around 12,000 indigenous people in El Alto.
The siege began in March 1781. In the three months that followed, hunger and the
epidemics preyed upon the population of the city, where about 20,000 people lived.
people, causing numerous casualties.

The rebels demanded the recognition of Túpac Amaru as king, the commander.
Spanish Sebastián Segurola refused to surrender. In June, the Spaniards managed to break through.
the siege, but due to the lack of military support, they had to abandon it again.
city. Having reinstated the siege, the indigenous people tried to flood La Paz by breaking a
dam built on the Choqueyapu River; fortunately for the inhabitants, this
it burst before its time.

Finally, in October 1781, the siege was broken and the Spanish troops entered.
under the command of José de Reseguín. Túpac Katari was captured and dismembered in the
month of November in the town of Peñas, in the La Paz highlands. According to tradition,
His last words were: 'I will return, and I will be millions.'

The rebellion is spreading.

The Amaru uprising spread throughout

the territory of the Andes, becoming a Consequences of the rebellion
general rebellion. In addition to the Katari brothers,
they fought in Carangas, the parties of Paria and As a result of the uprising, which made it clear to
Carangas, in Oruro, recognized the chief of the danger the Spaniards faced before
Tungasuca as its leader. the vast majority indigenous and mestizo
the colonial authorities took a
series of radical measures. It was prohibited
In the city of Oruro, a rebellion occurred. any type of artistic manifestation or
Creoles, mestizos, and Indigenous people, who took the literary that would allude to the past
city on February 10, 1781. In Cochabamba, inca, like the reading of the Comments
the parties of Arque and Tapacarí were raised; in realms of Garcilaso de la Vega.
Potosí Chichas, Porco, Lípez and Atacama. Likewise, all the
Inca noble titles, including that of
These uprisings corresponded to a "curaca". Speaking in Quechua was prohibited or
centralized organization, which covered a large part of use Inca symbols. It was created in 1787 the
the Andes. Hearing of Cusco for the effective
ejecución de la justicia. También se elevó
Indigenous uprisings in the lands
low

The dynamics of the indigenous uprisings that occurred in the lowlands in the
the last years of the eighteenth century were different from those that characterized the rebellions of
West.
Juan Maraza, Canichana chief
In 1792, Governor Miguel Zamora arrived in Moxos and
Triviño, in place of Lázaro de Rivera, the governor
illustrated who reported to the Spanish authorities the treatment
what the indigenous people received from the missionary priests
after the expulsion of the Jesuits. Zamora committed such excesses
against the indigenous people; they, led by the chief
They expelled Juan Maraza from Canichana.

The next governor, Pedro Pablo de Urquijo, took over in

the authority that Maraza had was not only over the
canichana, but also in other ethnic groups such as the
Cayuvava and the Movima reached a sort of alliance.
with the chief. Maraza's power in the region was very
large. The reports from the Spaniards indicate that
Maraza was attributed governmental powers, which should not be.
understood as a form of emancipatory longing, but rather as the expression of
discontent that the indigenous people felt upon the abolition of the system of self-government
that ruled during the Jesuit period and was disrupted by the doctrinaire priests and the
civil governors.

Muiba and Maraza in the struggle

In 1810, Urquijo became aware of the events shaking Spain and the
Charcas audience. They decided to leave Moxos and seek help from Maraza. Meanwhile, the
Chief Pedro Ignacio Muiba had risen in the mission of Trinidad, collaborated
by the chief Bopi, in an open act of rebellion. In 1811, Muiba died after being
defeated by the forces of canichanas, cayuvavas, and movimas led by Maraza. The
the famous Canichana chief remained in power until 1822, when the governor
Velasco victimized him, resulting in a large indigenous uprising in the region.
from Moxos.

Other rebellious actions occurred in 1818, among the Baures of the Iténez River,
led by the chief Gabriel Ojeari.

Guarani uprisings in the 18th century

During the 18th century, the Guarani were the protagonists of several uprisings, which
they were mainly directed against the Spanish landowners and the regional authorities.
In 1727, a great uprising occurred, whose visible leader was the chief Juan.
Bautista Aruma, neophyte of the Dominican reduction of Chiquiaca (Tarija). He managed to gather
14,000 keremba (warriors), including tobas and mokovíes. In 1735, the chané chief rose up.
from the region of Saipurú and Charagua. Guarikaya, another rebel mburuvicha, this time from the
zone of the Mountain Range, raised his people in 1770 against the Spanish.

The Great Guarani War

Between 1795 and 1799, the Guaraní people of the region of
They gathered to carry out assaults on the
missions and the estates. Thus, the Great was prepared.
Guarani War, under the leadership of ipajes
(shamans) who exercised a great influence in the
town. The great leaders of the uprising were:
Guarey, from Gran Parapetí; Turupajú, from the towns
chané of Kaipipendi; Guaricaja, from Yti; and Sacuarao,
of Pirití.

On November 6, 1799, the started

fights in the mission of Parapetí, which was Monument to the Chiriguano
destroyed and burned. Until the end of this year, the
region could not be pacified; the Guaraníes
they attacked several missions and forts, under the
the mandate to throw them out of their lands
Spanish. In April 1800 the
Spanish reaction, which quickly repressed the Keremba. In July 1800, the ...
peace, but the Guarani managed to halt the progress of the landowners and maintain control of
good part of the region of the Mountain Range.

The chief Kumbay

The events of the Great War are related to the participation of the chieftain Kumbay,
the area of Ingre, who appeared in the Hearing in 1799 to file a claim
formal against the mestizo and creole neighbors who committed abuses against the Guaraní.
In 1807, Kumbay achieved a small victory in Yuti and the following year signed with the
Spaniards a peace treaty. Their rebellion then became contagious with the ideology
independence fighter from Charcas. In 1813, the mburuvicha and his escort of archers were
recognized by Belgrano, in the city of Potosí. Kumbay later collaborated with
Padilla and Azurduy, guerrillas from La Laguna, with 500 archers who marched with them.
from San Juan del Piraí to Pomabamba.

CAUSSES OF THE INDEPENDENCE WAR

Causes of independence

Following the example of the United States, between 1810 and 1824 the process of
independence of the majority of the Spanish colonies in America.

The causes were the following:

The difficult situation created in Spain by the French invasion, which led to the break of the
direct contact with America, and the power vacuum created by the retention of the kings
Spaniards in France.
 The dissatisfaction of the creoles due to their postponement in the government of their countries and for the
maintenance of the Spanish commercial monopoly and, secondly, the strong tension
social in which the Indians lived, greatly exploited by the whites. But independence
It was, above all, a rebellion of the colonies against the metropolis.
The influence of enlightened ideas, the direct examples of independence
North American and the French Revolution and, furthermore, the help of Great Britain and
United States, countries interested in displacing Spain from American trade.

EXTERNAL CAUSES

The Enlightenment

It is an intellectual movement that censors the mentality and the political economic structures.
existing social conditions at that time.

In the political aspect, the new intellectuals pointed out that monarchs should govern and
administer their countries granting some freedoms to the subjects.

It was developed in the work of the following authors:

MontesquieuHe theorized about the division of powers.

Voltaire. Indagó en lalibertadde pensamiento y abogó por una nueva religión(deísmo)que

replaced by those revealed (Christianity, Judaism, Islam, etc.)

RousseauHe emphasized the study of Nature and the social relations between the
men.

These ideologies were known to Creoles through their travels to Europe or through books.
arrived from France and Spain and disseminated in universities. In this way, the movement
ideological influence on thought and awakened the consciousness of the Creoles in America

Influence of the American Revolution. It was an example of what the creoles could do.
discontented. Beyond the differences that existed between the English and Spanish colonies, there was
similar situations: dissatisfied population, measures taken by the crown that harmed the
colonist economy, abuses of power. The consequences could also be similar: separation.
from the metropolis. The North American settlers had demonstrated that they could defeat the armies of
a European country and organize an independent country.

Influence of the French Revolution. Just like what happened with the American one, the news of the
The French Revolution spread in Hispanoamerica and was well received among those
sectors most attracted to the ideas of the Enlightenment. The echo of the events in France reached America:
Mexico, Central America, Venezuela, Peru, Río de la Plata; but it also spread in Charcas
copies of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and verses of La were sung
Marseillaise, books were found recounting the events of France and copies of the
Constitution of France. In Venezuela, there was a slave uprising upon learning of the proclamation.
of equality made in France. In almost all major cities, brochures were distributed about the
revolution and its work. The period of 'the terror,' the execution of Louis XVI and the radical measures taken in
the stage of the Convention created alarm among the more moderate sectors, who wanted changes but
not so many.

English influence. In the same way that the colonists had an interest in trading with other countries that
If it weren't for Spain, English merchants were seduced by the idea of being able to sell to the Hispanic colonists.
But it was impossible to maintain the economic system imposed by the kings of Spain. The
independence of the colonies could turn them towards trade with England. But officially the
Authorities in England could not support a separatist movement in the Spanish colonies after
after the French Revolution, and especially with the rise of Napoleon, because they needed to
Spain as an ally to defeat France. The support given to the revolution was from
particulars, not from the government, and regarding the attempts of invasion, such as the one recorded at the River of the
Silver between 1806 and 1807 was initiated by officials without the approval of the government. Important was
también la actuación de la diplomacia inglesa que en muchas ocasiones actuó como mediadora entre los
rebels and the crown.

The events in Spain. The occurrences experienced in Spain starting from 1808 were the
triggers of the revolution. That year, the kings of Spain are dethroned and replaced by a
foreign monarch. This situation had repercussions in the colonies and from there the movements begin.
which later transform into revolution
independentsta.

The events of 1808 were a consequence of the

wars that took place in Europe after the
French Revolution. This revolution, which began in 1789,
provoked major changes in the government and society,
eliminating the absolute monarchy and ending with the
privileges of the nobles. But the disorder and the state of
permanent war led to the creation of a new
strong power under the leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte that
was crowned emperor of the French in 1804.

Napoleon carried out successful military campaigns that allowed him to dominate almost all of Europe. His
The main enemy was England against which the economic blockade was declared (no European country could)
buying from or selling to the English). Like Portugal, Napoleon's invasion of Spain triggered the revolution.
traditional ally of England, did not agree to comply with the
blockade, Napoleon invaded it. To do so, he passed through Spanish territory and took the opportunity to intervene.
also in Spain. In this country, the internal situation was difficult. There was great discontent against the king
Carlos IV for the mistakes of his minister Godoy. Many Spaniards wanted the government to be
assumed by the king's son, Fernando. When the French armies enter Spain and stay
in it, with Godoy's permission (who was accused of being a supporter of France), Fernando leads a
he revolted and proclaimed himself king like Fernando VII

Napoleon summoned the entire royal family, including King Charles and his son Ferdinand, to the border city.
from Bayona. There, Fernando is forced to return the crown to his father, and he hands it over to Napoleon. This one
he handed over to his brother José who thus transformed overnight into the king of Spain. Spain had
At that moment, a foreign monarch took over and it was occupied by the French army. The Spanish people
did not accept the situation and rejected the new monarch (whom they mocked by calling him 'Pepe Botella').
uprisings arose in favor of Fernando, who began to be called 'the desired one,' but as he
was maintained in Bayonne, in the regions of Spain, juntas were formed that governed in its name. These
they justified their existence in the theory of
since neither the king nor any family member is present that

could replace it, the power automatically

I was returning to the town where the shapes would be given to

government convenient until the return of

monarch.

As the situation was not being resolved

quickly and the war against France
it prolonged the same as the absence of the king
Fernando, the regional meetings proceeded to
to establish a national organization forming a
Central Board. This, which was first established in
Aranjuez had to be moving from city to
city to the south of the peninsula, before the
The Spaniards did not like 'Pepe Botella' and ridiculed him.
advance of the French armies. When almost everything
the Spanish territory was in French hands, the
The Central Junta met in Cádiz in January 1810 and self-dissolved, designating in its place a Council of
Regency.

All these news happening in Spain were reaching the colonies in America creating
disconcert and confusion. Moreover, partisan trends began to form for one or another outcome in the
situation that had arisen due to the absence of the Spanish monarch.

INTERNAL CAUSES

Policies

The main cause for the uprisings was the abuse of Spanish authorities. Neither
mestizos, nor criollos could aspire to hold public office, which were intended
only to the Spaniards.

Social

Social differences in the colony were very marked since the Creoles, by the mere fact of
Those born in America were treated with reservation and did not have all the rights. The mestizos were
treated with disdain, and the worst treatment was for Indigenous people and blacks who performed the
heavier jobs and were considered as slaves

Economic

The trade monopoly exercised by Spain prevented any commercial activity with the rest.
of the world and any type of production on one's own initiative. There was an unequal distribution
of wealth and taxes, those who had the most possessions did not pay tributes, while
Those who had the least paid more taxes.

Religious

The church taught in its doctrine that all men are equal in the eyes of God for
there should neither be privileged nor exploited, no one who called themselves a Christian could
to appropriate the property of others and much less to possess people as if they were objects, the
Authorities should be freely elected and not imposed for any reason.

The extensive series of disturbances and uprisings that occurred in the audience of Charcas were
product of these injustices, in which the different social classes sought their own
claims and it was not surprising that the priests themselves led the rebellions.

STAGES OF THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

The independence process in Upper Peru began in Charcas on May 25, 1809.
Establishing a government council, the same situation was repeated in other cities after the
taking control by the Spanish authorities the fight took place in the scattered areas promoting
the guerrilla struggle that acted with the Argentine auxiliary armies, most of these
patriots were defeated in the various battles, in the final stage of this bloody war
the liberating armies from the south led by General San Martin arrived and the
armies of the North led by Simón Bolívar and Antonio José de Sucre in the battles of
Junín and Ayacucho gave the definitive independence to Spanish America.

TOWNSHIPS AND GOVERNMENT BOARDS

The cabildos were democratic institutions because the authorities were elected in them with
the vote of the neighbors, it is important to emphasize that democracy was restricted, since to be
to be considered a neighbor and to be able to participate in the meetings, it was essential to belong to the elite
social of the city, in this way the decisions that were made only benefited the
power groups made up mostly of Spaniards. However, when it is summoned
at an open town hall meeting, the rest of the population can express their opinion through
representatives and speakers. This is what happened in several of the cities of the Viceroyalty of
Silver to which our country belonged, in which popular opinion prevailed over the
interests of the elites.

The Meetings

They were government bodies that arose from the decisions of the open councils.
the juntas were made up of some Spaniards who responded to popular ideals and in their
majority by the Creoles.

In times of crisis, both institutions, councils and boards, became the foundation of
a true democracy that was fundamental to the independence process that began
through the governing boards that removed the Spanish authorities from their positions.

Chuquisaca Revolution
The French invasion of Spain in 1808 and the abdication of Ferdinand VII in favor of José.
Bonaparte generated conflicts in the Spanish colonies, loyalty to the imprisoned king or to the council.
The central government of Seville divided the Spanish authorities in the Charcas hearing, originating the first
uprising in Upper Peru.

The revolutionary Syllogism is the argument emanating from the University of Charcas that gave
legality to the emancipatory revolution.

According to the doctrine of Saint Thomas taught at the University, authority came from
town and that the king ruled because the people had entrusted him with their power, When it disappeared the
The sovereignty returned to the people, and they were the only ones who could make decisions.

Upon learning of the events in Spain, the doctors from Charqueños saw the opportune moment to
carry out the revolution planned for a long time, they stated that submission and vassalage
It was to the King and not to Spain, as he was imprisoned, the Americans had to take care of.
your safety and your destiny.

The president of the Court, García León Pizarro, alarmed by the situation of defiance of
some doctors from Chárac, ordered the arrest of several of them, but only one was captured
Jaime Zudañez. This event ignited the mood of the population that demanded and achieved the
immediate freedom for Zudañes.

The lack of authority favored the revolution led by Mariano Michel, Bernardo
Monteagudo and the Zudañez brothers went out into the streets ringing the church bells.
from San Francisco, called the people gathered outside the Court, the authorities
they were dismissed.

The new government adopted several measures: Alvares was appointed as commander of arms.
Arenales sent delegates to different points in Upper Peru in order to spread the rebellion.

This movement lasted seven months, until the entry of the troops of Vicente Nieto nuevo.
president of the Court sent from Buenos Aires, who ordered the detention and exile of
the main leaders; the Zudañez brothers, Lemoine, Arenales, and others.

The emissaries sent from A Charcas were managers and participants in the new rebellions.
in Upper Peru and the Viceroyalty of the River Plate. In La Paz, they rose up on July 16, 1809.
head of Pedro Domingo Murillo establishing a Juntiva and taking control of the
city.

In 1810, the cities of Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, Potosí rose up, these rebellions
they were controlled by the Spanish army and many of these leaders were betrayed by their
own compatriots.

THE GUERRILLAS AND REPUBLICS

After the urban uprisings and the dissolution of the governing councils, the resistance continued.
organized in rural guerrillas, located in the valleys and crossing places of the royalist armies.

In the first stage of the war, the rebel elites of the cities lost the first
struggles for independence. Starting in 1812, in the rural areas of Upper Peru, began to
organize revolutionary groups that, led by guerrilla leaders, achieved the
support from the various classes that made up society.

The guerrillas or bandit armies were irregular armies, led by commanders who
they exercised almost absolute power in their regions. They were aware, on one hand, of the
military and tactical superiority of the royalist army, which avoided confrontation in battles
in open field. On the other hand, they were sure they knew the territory much better than their
adversaries; thus they chose to settle in places of rugged geography where it was
easier to hide quickly after having attacked.

At first, the guerrillas collaborated with the auxiliary armies sent from
Buenos Aires, but after the successive defeats suffered by the Argentinians, they decided
continue the fight alone.

The high Peruvian republics

The regions controlled by the

revolutionary commanders were
calls small republics. The
commanders of them maintained
strategic relationships with the
authorities of Buenos Aires, with the
revolutionary groups from the Highlands and the
Under Peru y with the Creoles
revolutionaries of the cities, that
were alternatively occupied by the
patriot and royalist forces.

The small republics organized themselves into

strategic places, which allowed them
the control of the access roads of
the armies in the regions most
productive. Also extracted y
they confiscated products from the regions
surroundings of the main cities. The
majority of the small republics are
they were located in the valleys, which were
chosen so muchfor his relieve
accidented as for its location, between the lowlands and the high plateau, which allowed for control
of vast territories and access to the production of both ecosystems.

The Territories of the Guerrilla

In Upper Peru, six important guerrilla territories were distinguished, from north to south:

The republic of Laracaja, located north of Lake Titicaca, led by the priest Ildefonso of
the Dolls, canon of the cathedral of Cusco. His headquarters was in the locality of
Ayata. It arose after the defeat of Mateo Pumacahua in Cusco and La Paz. It was defeated in
1816.
The small republic of Ayopaya and Sica Sica, located between La Paz, Oruro, and Cochabamba, in a
Yungas region, valleys, and high plateau. It controlled communication between the central high plateau and the
valleys. Their leaders were commanders Eusebio Lira, José Manuel Chinchilla, and José Miguel
Lanza. It was the only one that survived until 1825.

The republic of Mizque and Vallegrande, which controlled communication between Cochabamba,
Chuquisaca and Santa Cruz were commanded by the Argentine Juan Antonio Álvarez de Arenales.
who returned to his land when the royalists defeated him, in 1816.

The little republic of Santa Cruz, led by Ignacio Warnes and José Manuel Mercado,
it became a refuge for many of the insurgents. He triumphed in the battle of La Florida, but
was defeated in the Pari, where its leader died.

The republic of Cinti, commanded by Vicente Camargo, kept the passage open for the
Argentine armies in the south of the country. It was dissolved in 1816.

The republic of la Laguna, located south of Chuquisaca, constantly threatened the

capital of the Audience. It was led by Manuel Asencio Padilla and his wife Juana Azurduy.
The guerrillas triumphed in the battle of Tarabuco (1814), but were defeated.
later in Villar, where Padilla died. Juana Azurduy fled to Salta, where
he/she collaborated with the Güemes guerrilla.

In the Tarija region, a guerrilla group acted related to the auxiliary armies and with the
Guerrillas of northern Argentina. This group was led by Eustaquio Méndez, better known
like "Moto" Méndez. Other sporadic guerrilla groups were organized in Chayanta,
Tariquía, Padcaya, Bermejo, and Salinas.

Argentine Auxiliary Armies in Upper Peru

During the second stage of the war, the Junta of Buenos Aires sent its armies to Upper Peru.
The abuses they committed and their little military success
helped the population to support the idea
of total independence.

First Argentine Auxiliary Army

The so-called "auxiliary armies" arrived at

Battle of Suipacha, Potosí
High Peru from Buenos Aires with the aim of
control the region against the advance of the troops
realists and to consolidate the dominance of the Board.

The first army, led by Juan José Castelli,

he/she arrived in the south of the country and achieved a victory in the

battle of Suipacha, in November 1810. Days later, already in Potosí, he ordered the death of the
colonial authorities, an action that was censured by the population. After controlling the
territory, the army of Castelli arrived in La Paz in April 1811 to later advance towards the
Desaguadero River, the boundary between the Viceroyalties of the Río de la Plata and Peru.

Near the town of Guaqui, they faced the royalist armies of Manuel Goyeneche.
who defeated them in June 1811; this event meant the prolongation of the war in territory
altoperuano for many more years. The Argentine troops escaped, passing through Potosí on their way.
escape south. In this suffering city, they took possession of the funds of the House of the
They exchanged currency and committed a series of abuses against the population.

Second Army Auxiliary

Argentinian

Given the strategic importance

what did Upper Peru have for the
consolidation politics y
economic of the Board of
Buenos Aires, this sent to the
highlands another army in 1812,
under the command of Manuel
Belgrano who managed
victories in Tucumán and Salta. These victories prevented the royalists from regaining the River
from Plata. Subsequently, Belgrano arrived in Potosí, where he established his headquarters. There,
made some appointments in the guerrilla leadership: appointed Juan Antonio Álvarez de
Arenales in charge of the Cochabamba region and Ignacio Warnes leading that of Santa
Cross.

General Joaquín de la Pezuela, who replaced Manuel Goyeneche in command.

general of the royalist troops, defeated Belgrano in the battles of Vilcapujio and Ayohuma, for which
which Argentine general had to withdraw to the south, not without first taking all of Buenos Aires with him
silver that was in the Mint. Previously, Belgrano wanted to blow up the
building, placing barrels of gunpowder in the rooms where the coins were weighed.
Fortunately, such a thing did not happen, due to the action of the Potosí Creoles. The repudiation of
the population was immediate.

Third Argentine Auxiliary Army

Representation of soldiers from the Argentine auxiliary armies
The failures of the previous armies led to a change in the strategy of the struggle of the
rioplatenses, who went on to support José de San Martín's project to reach Peru through
from Chile. However, in early 1815, a new group arrived in Upper Peru, this time led by
by Juan José Rondeau.

In Potosí, Rondeau's troops engaged in pillaging. The weakness of this army and its
incorrigible indiscipline caused their defeats in Ventaimedia (where he was defeated by the
general Pedro Antonio de Olañeta), and in Sipe Sipe (where Pezuela emerged victorious).

The campaigns of the Argentine auxiliary armies were constantly supported by the
guerrillas, who by 1815 controlled the territory far and wide. But the series of abuses
committed by Argentines against civilians and the magnitude of them placed a large part of
the population against him. Thus, these campaigns contributed to the formation of a thought
proclaimed absolute independence and the search for it by one's own means.

Two years after the events of Ventaimedia and Sipe Sipe, the incursion of a
small group of Argentine fighters led by Colonel Gregorio Araoz de la Madrid.
Despite having achieved victory in the Battle of Tablada, alongside the Tarijeño patriots of
Eustaquio "Moto" Méndez, the subsequent results were equally disastrous as those that
they obtained from their predecessors.
The Final Stage of the War of Independence

The last stage of the war was characterized by the great battles that marked the end.
of realistic power in America as well as by the positions of patriot politicians regarding the future
of the countries.

Internal Conflicts in the Royalist Faction

While in Lower Peru there was a time of political chaos and great transformations, the
Upper Peru had remained under the control of royalist troops.

The chief of the royalist army of Upper Peru was the creole Pedro Antonio de Olañeta, supporter of
absolute regime of Ferdinand VII and, therefore, an enemy of Viceroy La Serna and several
Spanish generals in America who supported the constitutionalist movement. The
Spanish constitutionalists had managed to limit, between 1820 and 1823, the power of the
monarchy.

In January 1824, General Olañeta, who had strengthened himself in Upper Peru, refused to send
troops to support the viceroy of Peru, who was facing the advance of the army at that time
united of the patriots.

In order to control the attitude

rebel of Olañeta, the viceroy sent to
Charcas to Jerónimo Valdez with his
troops, action that determined the division
of the royalist army in two bodies: the
northern army, under the command of
General José Canterac, who was preparing
to confront Bolívar, and the army of the
under the direction of Valdez, that
was pursuing Olañeta.

The imminence of a definitive battle in

Peru forced Valdez to negotiate with
Olañeta, with which this last one practically remained as the owner of the situation in Upper Peru.

The Battle of Junín

Bolívar, aware of the division in the royalist army, decided to take the initiative, and after
carefully organizing his troops, he began to push the royalists towards the highlands
to search for the struggle there.

The Liberator appointed Antonio José de Sucre as the head of the army, which was composed of
Peruvians, Colombians, Argentines, and soldiers from other South American regions.
patriots had to confront the royalist army led by General Canterac, which had
that moment only with half of his men, since the other part of his forces
I was in Upper Peru, looking for the rebel Olañeta.

The two armies met in the fields of Junín on August 6, 1824. The cavalry
Battle and
patriot faced the royalist using only white weapons, of Junin
when he began to retreat, the
The Peruvian squad surprised the royal cavalry from the rear and trapped them between two.
fires. Canterac, feeling cornered, had to retreat to the south. Bolívar, who had
having designed the strategy, he subsequently arrived at the battlefield.

Battle of Ayacucho

After the defeat at Junín, Canterac headed to Cusco to combine efforts with the
Viceroy La Serna. The total of the royalist troops attempted to block Sucre's path, who was heading towards
the south, but the skilled Colombian strategist took possession of the quinoa fields that were located
in front of the city of Ayacucho. The realists, led by La Serna and Canterac, had
a force of 9,000 fighters, while the patriots numbered only 5,000.

The battle took place on the 9th of

December 1824. Sucre ordered
to attack with the cavalry y
subsequently, attended all of his
forces. The realists, who a
they managed to contain the beginning
advance thanks to its superiority
numerical, they had to withdraw
in the face of a crushing attack.

The triumph in Ayacucho secured the

emancipation not only of Peru, but also
from all over the American continent.
that night, Viceroy La Serna was signing
the Surrender of Ayacucho,
thus recognizing independence
from Peru.

Capitulation of Ayacucho

On December 9, 1824, in the evening, the Capitulation of Ayacucho was signed. General Sucre
he did it for the patriots and General Caterac for the patriot side.

The Capitulation of Ayacucho marked the end of the War of Independence and the beginning of a
new stage of history. According to the report that Sucre sent to Bolívar, the prisoners were
numerous. La Serna and Canterac, four marshals, ten generals, 16 colonels, 68 lieutenants
colonels, 484 officers and more than two thousand soldiers were on the list.

The royalist officers presented Sucre with a capitulation document of 18 articles, in which
they requested, among other things: that their military honors not be taken away; that they be
they will respect the properties of the Spanish in America, especially those of the members
from the army; that the employment of those who join the national armies is guaranteed; that the
The Peruvian state should take charge of the debt that the wars generated for Spain; that it should
recognize the expenses of the return trip to Spain; and declare a national amnesty.

Sucre accepted most of the proposals and released the prisoners. The generous terms of
the Capitulation avoided grudges and quarrels between victors and vanquished. But, on the other hand,
Some points were heavily questioned by the patriots.
THE BATTLE OF TUMUSLA
General Olañeta, upon learning of the defection of
Medinaceli set in motion to go to
suffocate her in her crib. He stepped back from the point
where it was and headed to Cotagaita with 700
men. Meanwhile, Medinaceli had
took positions at the Tumusla River, where it
Olañeta attacked at 3 in the afternoon on April 1st.
in 1825. The battle was fierce. Wounded by
a rifle bullet on April 1st, Olañeta fell
on land, at whose sight his soldiers
They dispersed, with some surrendering to the victorious leader. Olañeta died the next day, April 2.

According to Medinaceli, he took 200 troop prisoners and more than 20 officers, baggage, ammunition, etc.
According to the testimony of British Colonel Francisco Burdett O'Connor, the dead were 96 and the
prisoners 856.

This was the last battle of regular troops for the independence of Bolivia.
Days later, on April 7, José María Valdez surrendered in Chequelte to General Urdininea.
putting an end to Spanish rule in Upper Peru. Three months later, Fernando VII granted to the
deceased Olañeta the appointment of viceroy of the Río de la Plata.

Years later, in 1829, the last stronghold of resistance against Spanish colonization in South America
led by the Spanish general Aguilera, famous for killing the patriots Manuel Asencio
Padilla and Ignacio Warnes were defeated in Vallegrande (Santa Cruz, Bolivia) by a division.
headed by Colonel Anselmo Rojas and all his leaders were decapitated. Their heads were
exposed in the square.

Some historians, including Teodosio Imaña, claim that there was only an isolated event in Tumusla.
exchange of bullets, where Olañeta dies, and therefore they consider it a proper battle
the said did not exist. Urcullo, who had the mission to demand the surrender of Olañeta, declared that so
Only the shot that killed Olañeta was fired, made by a soldier who avenged the honor of his wife.
These suspicions are also supported by the unusual message from Medinacelli to Sucre, in the
which reported that 'the action was decided at seven o'clock' without giving the battle report nor the
terms of surrender, there was also no list of dead, wounded, prisoners, or other details
It was imperative that I should follow a career officer like Medinaceli.

Upper Peru decides its future

While Marshal Sucre aimed for the alto-peruvian representatives to decide their future, the
Liberator Simón Bolívar still thought about the union of Americans in a single State.

Sucre arrived at Desaguadero in February 1825, where he met with Casimiro Olañeta, a
Chuquisaca lawyer, nephew of the royalist general. Olañeta met with the marshall.
Colombian to convince him of the need to summon a Congress in which the
inhabitants of Upper Peru could decide their future.

Sucre shared these ideas with Olañeta, because he knew that this was also the desire of the.
high Peruvian population. Bolívar, on the contrary, did not wish for the installation of Congress, because
he aimed to create a single great state with all the countries that had gained independence. Despite
this position found, the Marshal of Ayacucho issued in La Paz, on February 9, 1825, a
decree that established, among others, the following points:

The provinces of Upper Peru would depend on the authority of Sucre until they convened.
In Oruro, an Assembly of deputies to deliberate on their future.
The deputies would be elected by the vote of all citizens with minimum residence.
of a year in the country.
The objective of the Assembly would be to sanction a provisional form of government and to decide the
destination of Upper Peru.

Independence of Santa Cruz

The War of Independence in the city of Santa Cruz had its first precedents in August of
1809, among the enslaved black population. The slaves had heard about a liberation movement,
Surely among his masters who referred to the events of Charcas and La Paz, they hoped that the
The subdelegate will announce the long-desired manumission. Upon seeing that time was passing and it was not happening
reality, they decided to execute all the whites of Santa Cruz. The conspiracy was discovered in time.
and the punished slaves.

It was necessary to wait until September 24, 1810, when the doctors who had studied in
Charcas rose up and proclaimed the new government, the 'Provisional Board', following the model of the
Buenos Aires Junta. The uprising was led by Dr. Antonio Vicente Seoane, Colonel Antonio
Suárez, the priest José Andrés Salvatierra, Juan Manuel Lemoine, and the Argentine Eustaquio Moldes. This
the last one had arrived from Buenos Aires, and was in charge of spreading the ideas of the Governing Board
of May.

The new government lasted until the patriotic defeat at Guaqui (June 1811) by the royalist forces.
command of José Manuel Goyeneche, who ordered Lieutenant Colonel José Miguel Becerra to recover
Santa Cruz. Becerra who dominated the Cordillera returned to the square and was appointed Governor Intendente of
the province of Santa Cruz de la Sierra. The city remained under royalist control until year 13.

Santa Cruz was recovered, in March 1813, by the patriot forces led by Colonel Antonio Suárez.
Subsequently, Suárez was elected as a representative to the Constituent Congress of the United Province of the River.
from the Plata, which is why General Belgrano, second Argentine army, appointed Colonel Ignacio Warnes as
new Governor of Santa Cruz.

Warnes governed Santa Cruz from 1813 to 1816. During his government, he freed the black slaves.
with whom I formed the battalion of the 'Free Mulattos'. In the three years he had to face the troops
realists sent by Joaquín de la Pezuela, events of Goyeneche. The most important confrontation
It was the Battle of Florida, on May 25, 1814, in which Warnes and Colonel Manuel Alvarez de Arenales
they defeated the royalist Joaquín Blanco. Warnes continued the fight against the royalist Francisco Udaeta, who
had escaped to Chiquitos.

In October 1815, in the battle of Santa Bárbara, Warnes defeated Udaeta, who was supported by the
Governor of Chiquitos, Juan Bautista Altolaguirre had about 5000 indigenous people. With the
defeated realists and the entire province in the hands of patriots, Warnes returned to Santa Cruz and maintained it.
independent until 1816.

With the return to the throne of Ferdinand VII in 1814, a new offensive from the Spanish army arrived in America.
to repress the rebels. The royalists sent Francisco Xavier Aguilera, from Santa Cruz, to reconquer
Santa Cruz. Aguilera had under his command two Spanish regiments, the Talverinos and Fernandinos.
I faced Warnes in the Battle of Parí, on the outskirts of Santa Cruz. In the confrontation, he died.
Warnes, and his closest collaborator José Manuel Mercado, marched towards Cordillera with the troops.
patriots.

The realist victory in Parí made Francisco Xavier Aguilera the new governor of Santa Cruz.
For this achievement, he received the title of "Brigadier and Knight of the Order of Santa Isabel." The first act,
premonitory of what his government would be, was the exhibition of the Head of Cnl. Ignacio Warnes, in a
pickaxe, in the main square. The following months were filled with death and violence; executed everyone
suspected of belonging to the Homeland.

The Aguilera government reinstated slavery, which pleased most of the people from Santa Cruz. Without
embargo, Aguilera was continually besieged by José Manuel Mercado, 'the red one', and his
Montoneros, who constantly harassed them from the Cordillera trying to regain the Cruceña square.
Despite several attempts, they failed to regain control. Santa Cruz Aguilera solidified his power throughout the province.
that includes Mojos and Chiquitos, naming governors of their trust.

The news of the patriot victory in Junín and Ayacucho led Mercado to take Santa Cruz and proclaim.
the Independence on February 14, 1825. Aguilera hid between Santa Cruz and Vallegrande until
October 1828, when he rose in the name of Fernando VII, ultimately being defeated by force.
republicans.

CHUQUISACA

During the fifteen deadly years of the great war, the Spaniards defended the walls of
Chuquisaca with a relevance and boldness worthy only of a first-rate stronghold. It was not so much
What they feared as much as they loved, despite the black ingratitude of their learned ones. When it sounded the
last hour of Spanish domination in America. Tacón, Maroto, and Espartero flew from there to search for
the old world a celebrity for a thousand noisy titles in contemporary annals.

history
In 1808, Spain was invaded by Napoleon, who imprisoned King Ferdinand VII and imposed
as the new King to his brother Joseph Napoleon. In Spain, Governing Juntas were formed,
to govern itself while the King was imprisoned. In America, Juntas were also formed.
Government, however, a war began for the dominance of these Boards.

On one side were the patriots, who fought for the Americans to lead those Councils and
On the other side were the royalists, who fought for the Spaniards to govern while
the King was imprisoned.

The War of Independence began in the city of La Plata, capital of the Audiencia of
Charcas, on May 25, 1809, however, this uprising was repressed by the
realists. But it had repercussions in the city of La Paz and in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, with the
uprising of the enslaved population. Both uprisings were suppressed. It was in 1810,
 In the last years of the war
independence many officials
creoles, who fight under orders of
Spain and they came to have high
when the patriots gained strength and were able to initiate the process of the War of
Independence. decided to switch sides
patriot.

Among them are the colonels José Miguel

de Velasco, Andrés de Santa Cruz, José
Ballivian que después llegaron a ser
CONSEQUENCES
presidents of Bolivia, and a hundred
The Creole officers of officials to whom they
recognized their degrees and made
career in the patriot army. The chiefs
guerrillas in exchange for almost everyone
they died in combat and did not reach
integrate into the new armies
born in each country after the
independence.