1.

INTRODUCTION

Alcohols constitute one of the broadest and most significant classes of

organic compounds. They are characterized by the presence of a hydroxyl
functional group (–OH) attached to a saturated (sp³-hybridized) carbon atom.
This seemingly simple –OH group imparts a wide range of chemical and
physical properties to alcohols, making them indispensable in chemical
industries, pharmaceuticals, laboratory synthesis, cosmetics, fuel
technology, and daily-use products.

In organic chemistry, alcohols are studied for their versatile reactivity, ability
to form hydrogen bonds, and their behavior under various reagents such as
oxidizing agents, dehydrating agents, and reducing agents. Their large
industrial importance—from potable alcohol to antifreeze and antiseptics—
makes alcohols a vital part of Class 12 Organic Chemistry.

2. DEFINITION
Alcohols are defined as organic compounds in which a hydroxyl group (–OH)
is directly bonded to a saturated carbon atom (sp³) of an alkyl group. They
have the general structure R–OH, where R is an alkyl group.

This definition distinguishes alcohols from:

Phenols, where –OH is attached to an aromatic ring, and

Enols, where –OH is attached to an alkene carbon (rare and unstable).

 3. GENERAL FORMULA AND HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

The general formula for a monohydric alcohol is:

CₙH₂ₙ₊₂O

Alcohols form a homologous series, where each consecutive member differs

by a –CH₂– unit and shows a gradual variation in physical properties such as
boiling point, solubility, and density.

4. CLASSIFICATION OF ALCOHOLS

A. Based on the Number of Hydroxyl Groups

1. Monohydric Alcohols – Contain one –OH group

Example: Ethanol, Methanol

2. Dihydric Alcohols – Contain two –OH groups

Example: Ethylene glycol

 3. Trihydric Alcohols – Contain three –OH groups

Example: Glycerol

4. Polyhydric Alcohols – Contain more than three –OH groups

Example: Sorbitol, Mannitol

B. Based on the Nature of the Carbon Atom

1. Primary (1°) Alcohols

–OH attached to a carbon bonded to only one alkyl group

Example: Ethanol (CH₃CH₂OH)

2. Secondary (2°) Alcohols

–OH attached to carbon bonded to two alkyl groups

Example: Isopropanol (CH₃CHOHCH₃)

3. Tertiary (3°) Alcohols

–OH attached to carbon bonded to three alkyl groups

Example: tert-Butyl alcohol (C(CH₃)₃OH)

 4. IUPAC NOMENCLATURE

Rules for naming alcohols:

1. Select the longest carbon chain containing the –OH group.

2. Replace the suffix –e of the parent hydrocarbon with –ol.

3. Number the chain so that the –OH group gets the lowest possible
number.

4. For multiple –OH groups, use diol, triol, etc.

5. Indicate the position of –OH when necessary.

Examples
  CH₃–OH → Methanol

 CH₃–CH₂–OH → Ethanol

 CH₃–CH(OH)–CH₃ → Propan-2-ol

 HO–CH₂–CH₂–OH → Ethane-1,2-diol

6. METHODS OF PREPARATION OF ALCOHOLS

1. Hydration of Alkenes

Alkenes react with water in the presence of acids to form alcohols.

Example:

C₂H₄ + H₂O → CH₃CH₂OH

Industrial ethanol is prepared using this method.

2. Hydrolysis of Alkyl Halides

R–X + KOH(aq) → R–OH + KX

This method is commonly used in laboratories.

3. Reduction of Aldehydes and Ketones

Aldehydes → Primary Alcohols

Ketones → Secondary Alcohols

Reducing Agents:

Sodium borohydride (NaBH₄)

Lithium aluminum hydride (LiAlH₄)

4. Fermentation of Sugars

Glucose → Ethanol + CO₂

(Catalyst: Enzyme Zymase)

This is the method used for producing alcoholic beverages.

 5. Hydroboration–Oxidation of Alkenes

Results in anti-Markovnikov alcohol.

Reagents:

1. BH₃/THF

2. H₂O₂/OH⁻

6. From Grignard Reagents

RMgX + Carbonyl Compounds → Alcohols

 With formaldehyde → Primary alcohol

 With aldehydes → Secondary alcohol

 With ketones → Tertiary alcohol

7. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
ALCOHOLS

 State: Lower alcohols are liquids; higher alcohols become solid.

 Boiling Point: Higher due to hydrogen bonding.

 Solubility: Lower alcohols are miscible in water; solubility decreases

with increasing carbon chain.

 Odor: Pleasant, characteristic smell.

 Density: Alcohols are generally lighter than water (except some

polyols).

 Viscosity: Increases with molecular mass.

8. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
ALCOHOLS

1. Reaction with Sodium Metal

2R–OH + 2Na → 2R–ONa + H₂

Used as a test for alcohols.

2. Oxidation Reactions

1° Alcohol → Aldehyde → Carboxylic Acid

2° Alcohol → Ketone

3° Alcohol → Do not oxidize easily

Reagents:

Acidified KMnO₄

K₂Cr₂O₇

PCC for controlled oxidation

3. Dehydration
With conc. H₂SO₄:

Ethanol → Ethene + H₂O

With limited temperature control, ether may form:

2ROH → R–O–R + H₂O

4. Esterification

Alcohol + Carboxylic Acid → Ester + Water

Catalyst: Concentrated H₂SO₄

This reaction is used in the formation of fragrances.

5. Reaction with Hydrogen Halides

ROH + HX → RX + H₂O

Order of reactivity:

3° > 2° > 1°

6. Lucas Test (Distinguishing Test)

Reagent: ZnCl₂ + HCl

3° alcohol → immediate turbidity

2° alcohol → turbidity in 5 minutes

1° alcohol → no turbidity at room temperature

9. DISTINGUISHING TESTS OF
ALCOHOLS

1. Lucas Test

2. Chromic Acid Test

3. Iodoform Test (for ethanol and methyl-ketone-derived alcohols)

4. Sodium Metal Test

5. Ceric Ammonium Nitrate Test

10. USES OF ALCOHOLS

 As industrial solvents

 As antiseptics and disinfectants

 In pharmaceuticals and medicines

 As fuels (ethanol blends)

 In perfumes and cosmetics

 As antifreeze (ethylene glycol)

 In food and beverages

 In the manufacture of plastics and polymers

 11. HARMFUL EFFECTS

 Methanol causes blindness and death

 Excess ethanol damages liver (cirrhosis)

 Addiction leads to neurological disorders

 Overuse can damage internal organs

 Creates environmental pollution when misused as fuel

12. ALCOHOLS IN DAILY LIFE

Alcohols appear in:

 Sanitizers

 Mouthwash

 Perfumes
  Deodorants

 After-shave lotions

 Cough syrups

 Antifreeze

 Room fresheners

 Soaps and detergents

13. CONCLUSION

Alcohols form one of the most important functional groups in organic

chemistry. Their versatile reactivity, broad industrial applications, and
significant biological roles make them essential for study at academic and
industrial levels. Understanding their structure, reactions, preparation, and
uses gives students a strong foundation in synthetic organic chemistry and
practical applications.

14. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. NCERT Chemistry Class XII

2. Pradeep’s New Course Chemistry

3. Modern ABC Chemistry

4. Comprehensive Organic Chemistry

5. Chemistry LibreTexts

6. IUPAC Official Nomenclature

7. Standard Organic Chemistry References