Endorsements : A 1 , A 68 1 74

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Multi-engine Study Guide & PA-44-180 Systems

Multiengine Aerodynamics

What is the Critical Engine?

- The Critical Engine is the engine whose failure would most adversely affect the
performance or handling qualities of an aircraft
o On twin engine airplanes with both engines turning in a conventional, clockwise
rotation (as viewed from the cockpit), the LEFT engine is the critical engine
o At LOW AIRSPEEDS and HIGH ANGLES OF ATTACK, the effective thrust
centerline shifts to the right on each engine because the descending blade
produces more thrust than the ascending blades (P-Factor).
o The right engine descending blade is farther from the centerline, which creates
greater yawing force if the left engine fails; The right engine produces the
greatest yawing moment and requires the most rudder to counteract the
adverse yaw
§ Adverse Yaw: The tendency of the nose of the airplane to initially yaw
opposite to the direction of the desired turn; A condition of flight in
which the nose of an airplane tends to yaw toward the outside of the
turn. This is caused by the higher induced drag on the outside wing,
which is also producing more life
- When an engine failure occurs in a multi-engine aircraft, asymmetric thrust and drag
cause the following effects on the aircraft’s axes of rotation:
o Pitch Down (Lateral Axis)
§ Loss of accelerated slipstream over the horizontal stabilizer causes it to
produce less negative lift, causing the aircraft to pitch down
o Roll Toward the Inoperative Engine (Longitudinal Axis)
§ The wing produces less lift on the side of the failed engine due to the loss
of accelerated slipstream. Reduced lift causes a roll toward the failed
engine and requires additional aileron deflection into the operating
engine
o Yaw Toward the Dead Engine (Vertical Axis)
§ Loss of thrust and increased drag from the windmilling propeller cause
the aircraft to yaw toward the failed engine. This requires additional
rudder pressure on the side of the operating engine.
§ Remember “Dead foot, dead engine”
- Factors determining critical engine: P.A.S.T.
o P: P-Factor [Yawing Moment] Small Arm = Small Yaw ; Large Arm = Large Yaw
§ Remember that the descending blade of the propeller has more thrust at
high angles of attack.
§ The descending blade on the RIGHT ENGINE has a longer arm therefore
creating greater asymmetrical thrust if the left engine were to fail (the
right engine thrust line is further from the centerline of the aircraft)
Multi-engine Study Guide & PA-44-180 Systems

Multiengine Aerodynamics

What is the Critical Engine?

- The Critical Engine is the engine whose failure would most adversely affect the
performance or handling qualities of an aircraft
o On twin engine airplanes with both engines turning in a conventional, clockwise
rotation (as viewed from the cockpit), the LEFT engine is the critical engine
o At LOW AIRSPEEDS and HIGH ANGLES OF ATTACK, the effective thrust
centerline shifts to the right on each engine because the descending blade
produces more thrust than the ascending blades (P-Factor).
o The right engine descending blade is farther from the centerline, which creates
greater yawing force if the left engine fails; The right engine produces the
greatest yawing moment and requires the most rudder to counteract the
adverse yaw
§ Adverse Yaw: The tendency of the nose of the airplane to initially yaw
opposite to the direction of the desired turn; A condition of flight in
which the nose of an airplane tends to yaw toward the outside of the
turn. This is caused by the higher induced drag on the outside wing,
which is also producing more life
- When an engine failure occurs in a multi-engine aircraft, asymmetric thrust and drag
cause the following effects on the aircraft’s axes of rotation:
o Pitch Down (Lateral Axis)
§ Loss of accelerated slipstream over the horizontal stabilizer causes it to
produce less negative lift, causing the aircraft to pitch down
o Roll Toward the Inoperative Engine (Longitudinal Axis)
§ The wing produces less lift on the side of the failed engine due to the loss
of accelerated slipstream. Reduced lift causes a roll toward the failed
engine and requires additional aileron deflection into the operating
engine
o Yaw Toward the Dead Engine (Vertical Axis)
§ Loss of thrust and increased drag from the windmilling propeller cause
the aircraft to yaw toward the failed engine. This requires additional
rudder pressure on the side of the operating engine.
§ Remember “Dead foot, dead engine”
- Factors determining critical engine: P.A.S.T.
o P: P-Factor [Yawing Moment] Small Arm = Small Yaw ; Large Arm = Large Yaw
§ Remember that the descending blade of the propeller has more thrust at
high angles of attack.
§ The descending blade on the RIGHT ENGINE has a longer arm therefore
creating greater asymmetrical thrust if the left engine were to fail (the
right engine thrust line is further from the centerline of the aircraft)
 § The left engine produces the thrust closest to center line; the yaw
produced by the loss of the left engine will be greater than the yaw
produced by the loss of the right engine
o A: Accelerated Slipstream [Rolling Moment]
§ P-Factor causes more thrust on the side of the descending blade, as a
result, the right wing’s Center of Lift is further from the longitudinal axis
of the plane and the left wing’s will be closer
§ Failure of the left engine will produce more of a rolling moment than
failure of the right engine.
§ The center of lift created by propeller-induced slipstream is closer to the
center of the aircraft with the left engine running
o S: Spiraling Slipstream [Yawing Moment]
§ A spiraling slipstream from the left engine hits the vertical stabilizer from
the left, helping to counteract the yaw produced by the loss of the right
engine
§ With a left engine failure, the spiraling slipstream from the right engine
hits nothing and drifts away (it doesn’t help counteract the yaw towards
the dead engine)
§ Just remember: The spiraling slipstream from the left engine aids in
directional control, the spiraling slipstream from the right engine does
not.
o T: Torque [Yawing + Rolling Moment]
§ Torque is the opposite reaction to the action of the turning propeller.
Torque tries to roll the airplane opposite of the propeller’s direction of
rotation. If the left engine fails, torque tries to roll thee aircraft to the
left, making it more difficult to raise the dead engine.
§ The clockwise turning propeller produces counterclockwise rolling; losing
the left engine causes a yaw and roll to the left
§ Newton’s Third Law of Motion helps explains torque: For every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction
§ Torque is more pronounced with the left engine inoperative due to the
added (combined) effect of P-Factor

What is VMC?
- VMC is the Minimum Airspeed at which Directional Control can be maintained with the
critical engine inoperative. VMC speed is marked on the airspeed indicator by a red radial
line.
o In the PA-44-180 VMC is 56 KIAS
o VMC is not a static number. It changes with any combination of the variables
listed below. The red line is the highest speed that VMC will be, in fact, it will most
likely be lower. The goal is to keep VMC as low as possible.
- As airspeed decreases, the rudder becomes less effective, meaning that more rudder
deflection will be required to maintain directional control. Eventually an airspeed will be
reached where full rudder deflection will be required to maintain directional control. At
 this point any further decrease in airspeed will lead to loss of directional control. It is
this airspeed at which the plane reaches VMC

- There are warning signs that VMC is occurring or about to occur. These include:
o Loss of directional control:
§ The rudder pedal is depressed to its fullest travel and the airplane is still
yawing or rolling toward the inoperative engine.
o Stall warning horn or buffeting of the controls:
§ A single-engine stall is very dangerous and could result in a spin. Light
twins do not generally have good stall/spin recovery characteristics.
o A rapid decay of control effectiveness:
§ This could lead to the loss of control of the aircraft

- To recover from VMC, you must simultaneously:

o Reduce power on the operating engine:
§ Reducing power on the operating engine reduces the asymmetric airflow.
o Pitch down:
§ Lowering the nose of the aircraft will get the air flowing again over the
control surfaces and allow you to regain directional control
- VMC is determined by aircraft manufacturers based on the conditions set by the FAA
under FAR 23.149: S.M.A.C.F.U.M.
o S: Standard Day (15o C, 29.92” Hg)
§ If atmosphere is < Standard conditions (i.e. MORE favorable), the engines
produce more power and VMC is increased (more yaw and lift on wing
with operating engine)
§ If atmosphere is > Standard conditions (i.e. LESS favorable), the engines
produce less power and VMC is decreased (less yaw and lift created on
wing with operating engine)
o M: Maximum Power in Operative Engine
§ Single most influential factor that affects VMC
§ Remember: More Power = More Yaw
o A: Aft CG
§ Forward CG = Lower VMC
§ Aft CG increases performance because there is less induced drag.
o C: Critical Engine Windmilling
§ VMC increases due to the large amount of unbalanced drag a windmilling
propeller creates
§ Performance decreases because the drag pull from the available thrust in
the operating engine
o F: Flaps Up/Gear Up
§ Flaps Up reduces aileron effectiveness; Gear Up reduces stability
§ Performance increases because there is less induced drag
o U: Up to 5o Bank
§ The horizontal component of lift reduces the sideslip condition; the
vertical stabilizer & rudder become more effective, reducing VMC
 o M: Maximum Unfavorable Weight (Lightly Loaded Aircraft)
§ Lighter aircraft have better performance, but less of a horizontal
component of life in a 5o bank

Control VMC Speed Performance

S (Standard Day) ¯ ­ ­
M (Max Power in Op. Engine) ¯ ­ ­
A (Aft CG) ¯ ­ ­
C (Critical Engine Windmilling) ¯ ­ ¯
F (Flaps Up/Gear Up) ¯ ­ ­
U (Up to 5o Bank) ­ ¯ ­
M (Max Unfavorable Weight) ¯ ­ ­

- VMC REDUCED By:

o Feathering the propeller- Much less drag and much better climb performance
o Moving CG forward- Distance from CG to rudder is increased (longer rudder
moment arm)
o Reducing power (On the R Eng.) Less P-Factor, torque, etc., however less climb
performance.
o Other than critical engine inop. Less effect of P-Factor, torque, etc.
o Higher than sea level. Typically less engine power available (also less climb
ability available).
o Gear down will reduce VMC slightly (“keel effect” of drag created by the main
gear located aft of the CG) but dramatically increase drag and decrease climb
performance
o Banking more than 5o will reduce VMC but will also dramatically reduce climb
performance
o Vortex Generators. These are small vanes affixed to upper wing surface; can
slightly reduce VMC

- VMC INCREASED By:

o Less than 5o bank. Increases rudder deflection required but also increases climb
performance. (Best climb performance will be attained somewhere between 1.5o
to no more than 3o of bank).
o Less than ¼ to ¾ ball-width out toward operating engine. Increases rudder
deflection & drag.
o Using aileron to ease the need for pressure on rudder. (Aileron use increases the
drag penalty of adverse yaw).
o Low temperature. Engine and prop of the operating engine is more efficient
(however better climb).
o Less than max weight will increase VMC slightly but also greatly increase climb
performance
o Gear UP- greatly reduces drag but slightly increases VMC
Single-Engine Performance
- Service Ceiling: (aka all-Engine Service Ceiling)
o With both engines running, it is the maximum density altitude the aircraft can
maintain a 100 fpm rate of climb at near gross weight and standard
temperature.
- Single-Engine Service Ceiling: (aka Engine-Out Service Ceiling)
o The maximum density altitude the aircraft can maintain a 50 fpm climb with only
one engine operating.
- Single-Engine Absolute Ceiling:
o The density altitude the aircraft can maintain with the critical engine feathered
and the other engine at maximum power.
- Driftdown:
o If an engine fails at an altitude above the single-engine absolute ceiling, the
aircraft will descend.
o To minimize sink rate, maintain the single-engine best rate of climb speed (VYSE).
- VXSE : 82 KIAS
o Best single-engine angle of climb airspeed; used only to clear obstructions during
OEI (One Engine Inoperative) initial climb out because it gives the greatest gain
in altitude per unit of horizontal travel.
- VYSE : 88 KIAS (Blue Line)
o Best single-engine rate of climb airspeed; it delivers the greatest gain in altitude
per unit of time, with the airplane in the following conditions
§ Inoperative engine propeller feathered
§ Maximum power on the operative engine
§ Landing gear retracted
§ Flaps in the most favorable position (Best L/D ratio)
§ Cowl flaps as required
§ Airplane flown at zero sideslip
• Zero Sideslip: A flight condition which aligns the fuselage with the
relative wind to minimize drag; Zero sideslip uses a 2o to 5o bank
into the operating engine to maintain aircraft heading, reduce
drag, and improve performance when one engine is inoperative.
- VSSE : 82 KIAS
o Safe single-engine speed is the minimum speed at which intentional engine
failures are to be performed.
- Accelerate-Stop Distance:
o The length of runway required to accelerate to Vr and assuming an engine failure
at that instant, to bring the airplane to a complete stop.
- Accelerate-Go Distance:
o The distance required to accelerate to either Vr, and assuming an engine failure
at that instant, to continue the takeoff on the remaining engine and climb to a
height of 50 feet.
PA-144-180 Systems (1979 Model)

Powerplant and Propeller

Engines: Remember L.H.A.N.D.
- Two, Lycoming, four-cylinder engines, each producing 180 horsepower at 2,730 RPM @
sea level
o Left engine, O-360
o Right Engine, LO-360 (The right engine rotates to the left, as viewed from the
cockpit)
o Both are horizontally opposed (meaning that the cylinders oppose each other)
o Air cooled and equipped with oil coolers and engine mounted oil filters
o Normally aspirates (meaning that they are not turbo or supercharged), and
carburetor equipped
o Direct Drive (meaning the crankshaft is connected directly to the propeller)
- Fuel Induction:
o The carburetor has a two-way valve which allows it to receive either induction
air through the air filter or heated air that bypasses the filter
o Carburetor heat provides heated air from the alternate air source (unfiltered air)
and should NOT be used during ground operation
- Engine Controls:
o Engine controls consist of a throttle, prop control, carburetor, and mixture lever
for each engine
§ Throttles are used to control Manifold Pressure
§ Prop control is used to control Propeller Speed (measured in RPM)
§ Mixture lever controls the Fuel-to-Air Ratio
o Carburetor heat controls are located just below the engine control levers
o All throttle operations should be smooth to prevent unnecessary engine stress

Propeller:
- 73-inch metal propeller (1979-80 model); 74-inch metal propeller (2000 model)
o Manufactured by Hartzell
o Two-bladed
o Constant Speed
§ After the RPM setting is selected with the blue propeller control handles,
the propeller governor will automatically vary oil pressure inside the
propeller hub to change the propeller blade pitch in order to maintain a
constant engine RPM
§ Because of this, changes in power setting (manifold pressure) and flight
attitude will not cause a change in RPM
o Controllable pitch
§ Controllable pitch is the ability to control engine RPM by varying the pitch
of the propeller blades
o Full feathering
§ Fully-feathered propeller blades are in alignment with the relative wind
 § Feathered propeller blades reduce drag caused by the blade area
exposed to the relative wind
§ The propeller takes approx. six seconds to feather
§ A Centrifugal Stop Pin prevents the propeller from feathering below 950
RPM, and the propeller blades remain in a low pitch upon engine
shutdown (prevents excessive loads on the engine started the next
engine start)
§ If oil pressure is lost, the propeller will feather when the RPM is above
950 RPM, regardless of the prop lever position

Prop Governor: Remember: Low Pitch-High RPM is UNFEATHERED; High Pitch-0 RPM is
FEATHERED
- The propeller governor senses the speed of an aircraft engine and changes the propeller
blade angle to maintain a selected RPM regardless of the operational conditions of the
aircraft
o It is located on the top left of the engine when facing the propeller (1979 Model)
- Blue Knob Forward
o The speeder spring pushes down on the fly weights in an under-speed condition
(or if the prop is moving too slowly)
o Thus, the pilot valve is moved down, which pushes oil into the prop hub
o When the desired RPM is reached, the flyweights will be in an on-speed
condition, which allows the pilot valve to be in a neutral position
§ This stops the oil flow from the pump and keeps/traps the constant high
oil pressure in the hub
- Blue Knob Moved Aft
o The speeder spring releases pressure on the flyweights in an over-speed
condition (or the prop is moving too fast)
o Thus, the pilot valve is mover up, which allows oil pressure to be released from
the prop hub to the oil return line back to the oil sump
o When the desired RPM is reached, the flyweights will be in an on-speed
condition, which allows the pilot valve to be in a neutral position
§ This stops the oil flow from the pop and keeps/traps the constant lower
oil pressure in the hub
- Fully Feathered / Blue Knob Full Aft
o Move the blue knob full aft into the low RPM dent, into the feathered position
o The speeder spring releases pressure on the flyweights in an under-speed
condition
o The pilot valve is moved up, which allows oil pressure to be fully released from
the prop hub to the oil sump via the oil return line
o This will allow the nitrogen-charged cylinder, spring, and centrifugal
counterweights to drive the blades to a high-pitch position

Landing Gear:
- Electrically activated, Hydraulically actuated
- Fully retractable, tricycle-type landing gear
- Limitations:
o Max Retraction Speed (VLO): 109 KIAS
o Max Extension Speed (VLE): 140 KIAS
- Hydraulic Reservoir is an integral part of the landing gear’s hydraulic system
o Accessible through the baggage compartment
- Physical characteristics:
o Nose Gear:
§ Uses combination of full rudder travel and braking
§ Steerable though a 30-degree arc either side of center
§ Gear centering spring prevents shimmy
§ Bungee assembly reduces ground steering effort
o Main Gear and Struts:
§ Air-Oil Assemblies
§ Strut exposure should be checked every flight
- Down Locks:
o J-hooks engage to hold the gear in the down position
o High tension springs assist in gear extension and locking the gear in place
§ The springs also maintain force on down-lock hooks until pressure is
released
- Convex mirror is a visual indicator of gear position (located on inside of both engine
nacelles)
- Limit Switches:
o Stop the flow of current to the hydraulic pump
o Correspond to the desired gear position selected by the handle
- Squat Switch:
o Located on the Left Main Landing Gear
§ Prevents inadvertent gear retraction on the ground with gear selector in
the Up position and the master switch On.
§ When the gear strut is fully extended off the ground, the circuit is closed,
and allows the gear to be raised with the gear selector in the Up position
- Gear Indicator Lights:
o 3 green lights
o Indicate whether the gear is down and locked
o Gear warning horn (microswitch activated and electrically powered)
§ Activated under any of the following conditions:
• The gear is not down and locked with one or both throttle levers
positioned below 15” MP
• The gear is not down and locked with flaps selected to 25o or 40o
• The gear handle is in the up position on the ground
Fuel System:
- Two 55-gallon bladder nacelle fuel tanks
- 1 gallon of fuel is unusable in each tank, giving the Seminole 108 gallons of usable fuel
- Fuel Selectors are located between the seats in the cockpit
o The selector for each tank has 3 different selection options: On, Off, & X-Feed
§ When the selector is in the on position, the fuel will flow from the tank
on the same side as the engine
§ In the X-Feed position, the fuel will flow from the opposing tank
- The filler (where the fuel goes into the tank) has a scupper drain connected to it, which
drains fuel if the tank becomes over full; it also has a fuel vent connected to it, which
controls pressure within the tank
- Fuel Flow Schematic:
o To begin, fuel flows from the fuel tank through the filters
§ The fuel flows through a filter to stop any dirt or debris from entering the
fuel system
o After the fuel is filtered, it is pumped through an electrically driven fuel pump
§ The electric fuel pumps are a backup feature for the fuel system
o The fuel then flows from the electrically driven fuel pump to the engine-drive
fuel pump
o From the engine-driven fuel pump, fuel flows to the carburetor, which will
control the air/fuel ratio into the cylinders
§ The carburetor links to the 4 cylinders in the engine vie the intake
manifold
o Before reaching he carburetor, as the fuel flows past a sensor, we will receive an
indication on the fuel pressure gauge
§ This reading will also tell us whether or not we need to use the back-up
electrically driven fuel pump in flight to increase pressure in the system
- Fuel for the Janitrol heater flows from the left fuel tank at a rate of ½ gallons per hour
- Fuel for the engine primers also flows from the left fuel tank

Oil System:
- 1979 Models have a maximum oil level of 6 quarts
- 2000 Models have a maximum oil level of 8 quarts
- Per the POH, the minimum safe quantity of oil per engine is 2 quarts
o ATP Policy is 4.5 Quarts minimum on ’79 models, and 6.5 quarts minimum on ’00
models
- There are 8 steps in the oil system flow:
§ Sump
§ Oil Strainer
§ Oil Pump
§ Thermal bypass valve
§ Oil cooler
§ Oil filter
§ Pressure relieve valve
§ Return to the pump and the flow repeats
Electrical System:
- 14 volt system; utilizes push-pull circuit breakers
- 12 volt lead-acid battery
- 2 70-amp, engine driven alternators
o Voltage regulators maintain 14 volt output from each alternator at varying
engine RPMs, effectively sharing the electrical load
- Over-voltage relay will take an alternator offline if output exceeds 17 volts
- High drain items include: lights, vent fan, heater, gear hydraulic pump, radios, and
PFD/MFD (if equipped)
o If an electrical problem arises, always check the circuit breakers
§ If a circuit breaker is popped, only reset one time
- 6 Buses; 3 sources of electricity (Battery, and the 2 alternators) B.A.T.M.A.N.
o B: Battery
§ Clock
§ Hobbs Meter
§ Tachometer
§ Heater Meter
o A: Avionics A.1
§ Com 1
§ Nav 1
§ Transponder
§ Audio Panel
§ Electric Trim (if equipped)
o T: Tie Bus
o M: Main
§ Landing gear system
§ Pitot Heat
§ Fuel system (Fuel Indicator and Fuel Pumps)
§ Starter
o A: Avionics A.2
§ Com 2
§ Nav 2
§ Marker beacon
§ ADF (if equipped)
o N: Non-essential
§ Heater
§ Cabin fan
§ Overhead blower
§ Recog. Lights
§ Standby Lights
Electrical System:
- 14 volt system; utilizes push-pull circuit breakers
- 12 volt lead-acid battery
- 2 70-amp, engine driven alternators
o Voltage regulators maintain 14 volt output from each alternator at varying
engine RPMs, effectively sharing the electrical load
- Over-voltage relay will take an alternator offline if output exceeds 17 volts
- High drain items include: lights, vent fan, heater, gear hydraulic pump, radios, and
PFD/MFD (if equipped)
o If an electrical problem arises, always check the circuit breakers
§ If a circuit breaker is popped, only reset one time
- 6 Buses; 3 sources of electricity (Battery, and the 2 alternators) B.A.T.M.A.N.
o B: Battery
§ Clock
§ Hobbs Meter
§ Tachometer
§ Heater Meter
o A: Avionics A.1
§ Com 1
§ Nav 1
§ Transponder
§ Audio Panel
§ Electric Trim (if equipped)
o T: Tie Bus
o M: Main
§ Landing gear system
§ Pitot Heat
§ Fuel system (Fuel Indicator and Fuel Pumps)
§ Starter
o A: Avionics A.2
§ Com 2
§ Nav 2
§ Marker beacon
§ ADF (if equipped)
o N: Non-essential
§ Heater
§ Cabin fan
§ Overhead blower
§ Recog. Lights
§ Standby Lights