2.

Function: any_lowercase2(s)

Here, 'c' is a literal string and never changes. 'c'.islower() is always True,
so this function always returns 'True' no matter the input. For example,
any_lowercase2("HELLO") still returns 'True'.
False: The loop does not evaluate variable c — it incorrectly checks a
constant string.
This text was adapted from Business English for Success, a text adapted
by The Saylor Foundation, under a Creative Commons Attribution
NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 License without attribution as requested
by the work’s original creator or licensee. Barbara Hall and Beth
Wallace adapted this text in 2017 under a Grant from Affordable
Learning Georgia to Georgia State University Perimeter College.
Preface College ESL Writers: Applied Grammar and Composing
Strategies for Success is designed as a comprehensive grammar and
writing etext for high intermediate and advanced level non-native
speakers of English. We open the text with a discussion on the sentence
and then break it down into its elemental components, before
reconstructing them into effective sentences with paragraphs and larger
academic assignments. Following that, we provide instruction in
paragraph and essay writing with several opportunities to both review
the fundamentals as well as to demonstrate mastery and move on to
more challenging assignments. Design: We have structured the etext into
three basic parts. Part I, Composing Strategies and Techniques, includes
a sequenced discussion from composing effective sentences through
paragraph and essay writing. This includes the prewriting and planning
stages of writing as well as the revising and editing stage in the first five
chapters. Part II, Language Use, Grammar, and Mechanics, is meant to
be used as a grammar and mechanics handbook as well as the practice
and review of idiomatic wording. Part III, All About Writing: Samples,
Topics, and Rubrics, has chapters with additional writing topics for
practice, sample student papers, and rubrics for evaluating writing. A
Note to the Instructor College ESL Writers: Applied Grammar and
Composing Strategies for Success provides instruction in steps, builds
writing, reading, and critical thinking, and combines comprehensive
grammar review with an introduction to paragraph writing and academic
essay composition. Beginning with the sentence and its essential
elements, this book addresses each concept with clear, concise, and
effective examples that are immediately reinforced with exercises and
opportunities to demonstrate learning. Each chapter that follows allows
students to demonstrate mastery of the principles of quality writing.
With its incremental approach, this book can address a range of writing
levels and abilities, helping students prepare for the next writing or
university course. Constant reinforcement is provided through examples
and exercises, and the text involves students in the learning process
through reading of student samples, problem solving, and practicing the
writing process. Each chapter also has integrated examples that unify the
discussion and form a common, easy-to-understand basis for discussion
and exploration. We are hoping that this will put students at ease and
allow for greater understanding and demonstration of mastery of the
material. Return to Table of Contents 2 Tips for effective writing are
included in every chapter as well. These exercises are especially helpful
for working with groups of students. Clear exercises teach sentence and
paragraph writing skills that lead to common English composition and
documents. A Note to the Student Writing is often a challenge, especially
when you are writing in a second language. If you ever felt challenged to
express yourself via the written word and in particular, in another
language, this book is for you. We encourage you to explore it, use the
exercises as opportunities to learn new skills, and most of all, to be
successful in your achievement of your course objectives and goals. This
text is available free online and is the result of the dedication of many
professionals who share the common goal of increasing access to
educational materials for all students. Please thank your instructor for
choosing an open source text! Features  Exercises are integrated in
each segment. Each concept is immediately reinforced as soon as it is
introduced to keep students on track.  Exercises are designed to
facilitate interaction and collaboration. This allows for peer-peer
engagement, development of interpersonal skills, and promotion of
critical-thinking skills.  Exercises that involve self-editing. This feature
develops and promotes student interest in the knowledge areas and
content.  Clear internal summaries and effective displays of
information are available. This contributes to ease of access to
information and increases students’ ability to locate desired content. 
Rule explanations are simplified with clear, relevant, and theme based
examples. This feature provides context that will facilitate learning and
increase knowledge retention.  Easy maneuverability within sections of
the book. Within the Table of Contents, you can click on the section title
to go to the appropriate section of the book. Also, at the bottom of each
page is a link to “Return to Table of Contents.”  Real student samples
that serve as good models of writing are provided. The writing samples
that we have incorporated into this book come from our own college
ESL students who have agreed to publication of their papers. They write
like you do! They are not professional writers, but have been students in
our college ESL classes.  Remember: this text is meant to be adaptable
and should be transformed to meet the particular needs of your ESL
students. Return to Table of Contents 3 Contents
Preface ........................................................................................................
. 2 A Note to the Instructor .........................................................................
2 A Note to the Student .............................................................................
3
Features ......................................................................................................
3 CHAPTER 1: WRITING BASICS – WHAT MAKES A GOOD
SENTENCE? ............................................................................................
14 1.1 Sentence
Writing .......................................................................................................
..... 14 Components of a
Sentence ......................................................................................... 14 1.2
Sentence
Structure .....................................................................................................
.....18 Sentence
Patterns .......................................................................................................
18 1.3
Pronouns ....................................................................................................
....................... 20 Pronoun
Agreement ..................................................................................................
. 20 Indefinite Pronouns and
Agreement .......................................................................... 20 Collective
Nouns .........................................................................................................
21 Subject and Object
Pronouns ..................................................................................... 22
Relative
Pronouns ....................................................................................................
.. 23 1.4 Adjectives and
Adverbs ................................................................................................ 23
1.5 Writing basics: End-of-chapter
Exercise ................................................................ 24 CHAPTER 2:
SENTENCE VARIETY - HOW DO I REFINE MY
WRITING? .............................................................................................
25 2.1 Sentence
Variety ........................................................................................................
.... 25 Incorporating Sentence
Variety ................................................................................. 25 Using
Sentence Variety at the Beginning of
Sentences ............................................. 26 Connecting Ideas to Increase
Sentence Variety ......................................................... 33 2.2
Coordination and
Subordination .............................................................................. 38
Coordination and Sentence
Combining ..................................................................... 39 Coordinating
Conjunctions ........................................................................................ 40
Return to Table of Contents 4 Conjunctive
Adverbs ...................................................................................................
40 Subordination and Sentence
Combining ................................................................... 43 Subordinating
Conjunctions ...................................................................................... 44
2.3 Sentence Structure Boundaries and Associated
Errors ....................................... 48 Sentence
Structure .....................................................................................................
48 2.4
Parallelism ..................................................................................................
.................... 60 Using
Parallelism ..................................................................................................
...... 60 Creating Parallelism Using Coordinating
Conjunctions ............................................ 61 Creating Parallelism Using
Than or As ...................................................................... 62 Creating
Parallelism Using Correlative
Conjunctions ............................................... 63 2.5 Refining Your
Writing: End-of-Chapter Exercises ............................................ 66
CHAPTER 3: WRITING PARAGRAPHS – SEPARATING IDEAS
AND SHAPING CONTENT ................................................. 67 3.1
Effective Means for Writing a
Paragraph ................................................................ 67 Developing a
Topic Sentence ..................................................................................... 67
Main Idea versus Controlling
Idea ............................................................................. 68 Characteristics
of a Good Topic Sentence .................................................................. 69
Developing Paragraphs That Use Topic Sentences, Supporting Ideas, and
Transitions
Effectively .................................................................................................
71 Identifying Parts of a
Paragraph ................................................................................. 71
Supporting
Sentences .................................................................................................
74 Concluding
Sentences.................................................................................................
76
Transitions ..................................................................................................
................ 77 3.2 Purpose, Audience, Tone, and
Content .................................................................... 79 Identifying
Common Academic Purposes ..................................................................
80 Identifying the
Audience ............................................................................................ 83
Selecting an Appropriate
Tone ................................................................................... 85 Choosing
Appropriate, Interesting Content...............................................................
86 3.3 Writing Paragraphs: End-of-Chapter
Exercises .................................................... 87 Return to Table of
Contents 5 CHAPTER 4: WRITING ESSAYS – FROM START TO
FINISH .....................................................................................................
88 4.1 The Writing Process: Prewriting and
Drafting ...................................................... 88
Prewriting ...................................................................................................
................ 88 Choosing a
Topic ........................................................................................................
89 Using Experience and
Observations .......................................................................... 89 The
Importance of Reading as Related to
Writing .................................................... 89
Freewriting .................................................................................................
................ 90 More Prewriting
Techniques ...................................................................................... 92
Topic Checklist – Developing a Good
Topic .............................................................. 94 4.2 Developing a
Strong, Clear Thesis Statement ........................................................ 94
Elements of a Thesis
Statement ................................................................................. 95 A
Strong Thesis
Statement ......................................................................................... 95
Examples of Appropriate Thesis
Statements ............................................................. 97 Thesis Statement
Revision ......................................................................................... 98 4.3
Outlining ....................................................................................................
.................... 101 Organizing
Ideas ........................................................................................................
101 Methods of Organizing Writing – What You Might See in Freshman
Composition ...............................................................................................
..................................... 101 Writing an
Outline ....................................................................................................
102 Constructing Topic
Outlines .................................................................................... 104
Checklist for Writing an Effective Topic
Outline ..................................................... 104 4.4 Writing Introductory
Paragraphs ........................................................................... 105
Attracting Interest in Your Introductory
Paragraph ............................................... 106 4.5 Writing Body
Paragraphs .......................................................................................... 107
Select Primary Support for Your
Thesis ................................................................... 107 Using Evidence to
Support Your Thesis ................................................................... 109
Choose Supporting Topic
Sentences ......................................................................... 110 4.6 More
About the Basic Elements of a First
Draft .................................................... 111 The Role of Topic
Sentences...................................................................................... 112
Return to Table of Contents 6 The Role of
Paragraphs .............................................................................................
113 Starting Your First
Draft ........................................................................................... 113
Continuing the First
Draft ......................................................................................... 116 4.7
Writing a
Conclusion .................................................................................................
. 116 The Anatomy of a Strong
Conclusion ........................................................................ 116 Writing
Your Own First
Draft ................................................................................... 117 4.8
Writing Essays: End-of-Chapter
Exercises ........................................................... 118 CHAPTER 5:
REVISING AND EDITING ..................................... 119 5.1 Reviewing
Your
Essay .................................................................................................. 119
Understanding the Purpose of Revising and
Editing ............................................... 119 The Importance of Unity and
Coherence ................................................................. 120 Being Clear
and Concise ...........................................................................................
124 Identifying
Wordiness ..............................................................................................
125 Choosing Specific, Appropriate
Words .................................................................... 126 5.2 Completing a
Peer Review ........................................................................................ 128
Using Feedback
Objectively ...................................................................................... 131
Using Feedback from Multiple
Sources .................................................................... 131 5.3 Editing Your
Draft for Standard Grammar and Mechanics .......................... 131
Formatting ..................................................................................................
.............. 134 5.4 Keeping Track of Your Sentence-Level Grammar
Errors.............................. 135 CHAPTER 6: WORKING WITH
WORDS – USAGE, FORM, &
CONTEXT ........................................................................................ 138
6.1 Commonly Confused
Words .................................................................................... 138
Recognizing Commonly Confused Words in Your
Writing ..................................... 138 Strategies to Avoid Commonly
Confused Words ..................................................... 145 6.2
Spelling ......................................................................................................
..................... 147 Common Spelling
Rules ........................................................................................... 148
Commonly Misspelled
Words .................................................................................. 149
Homonyms .................................................................................................
.............. 153 Return to Table of Contents 7 6.3 Word
Choice ........................................................................................................
......... 156 Using a Dictionary and
Thesaurus ............................................................................ 157 Using
Proper
Connotations ...................................................................................... 158
Avoiding
Slang ..........................................................................................................
159 Avoiding
Clichés .......................................................................................................
160 Avoiding Overly General
Words ................................................................................ 161 Synonyms
...................................................................................................................
161
Antonyms ...................................................................................................
............... 163 6.4 Word Form – Adjectives and Adverbs / Prefixes and
Suffixes ........................ 165 Adjectives and
Adverbs ............................................................................................ 165
Prefixes ......................................................................................................
............... 170
Suffixes ......................................................................................................
.................172 6.5 Using Context
Clues ................................................................................................. 175
Brief Definition or
Restatement ................................................................................ 175
Synonyms and
Antonyms ......................................................................................... 176
Examples.....................................................................................................
.............. 176 6.6 Working with Words: End-of-Chapter
Exercises ............................................ 178 CHAPTER 7: OVERVIEW
OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR ............ 181 7.1 Sentence
Structure .....................................................................................................
.. 181 Basic Sentence
Structures ......................................................................................... 181
Common
Prepositions ..............................................................................................
182 The Structure of
Questions ....................................................................................... 183
Adjectives ..................................................................................................
................ 183 7.2 Misplaced and Dangling
Modifiers ......................................................................... 185 Misplaced
Modifiers .................................................................................................
185 Dangling
Modifiers ...................................................................................................
186 7.3 Negative
Statements...................................................................................................
. 187 Double
Negatives ....................................................................................................
.. 189 7.4 Count and Noncount Nouns and
Articles............................................................. 190 Count and Noncount
Nouns ..................................................................................... 190 Return
to Table of Contents 8 Definite and Indefinite
Articles ................................................................................. 191 Two
Article Rules –
Reminders................................................................................ 192 7.5
Pronouns ....................................................................................................
.................... 193 Types of
Pronouns ....................................................................................................
193 Common Pronoun
Errors ......................................................................................... 195
Relative
Pronouns ....................................................................................................
196 7.6 Pronoun
Agreement ..................................................................................................
.. 198 Agreement in
Number .............................................................................................. 199
Agreement in
Person ................................................................................................ 199
Indefinite Pronouns and
Agreement ....................................................................... 200 Collective
Nouns .......................................................................................................
201 Subject and Object
Pronouns ................................................................................... 202 Who
versus
Whom ....................................................................................................
205 7.7 Overview of Verb
Forms.......................................................................................... 206
Regular Verb
Forms ................................................................................................. 206
Irregular Verb
Forms ................................................................................................ 207
Gerunds ......................................................................................................
.............. 210
Infinitives ...................................................................................................
................ 211 7.8 Verb
Tenses .........................................................................................................
.......... 213 Simple Verb
Tenses .................................................................................................. 213
To Be, To Do, and To
Have .......................................................................................217 Perfect
Verb
Tenses .................................................................................................. 218
Progressive Verb
Tenses ........................................................................................... 221
Maintaining Consistent Verb
Tense ......................................................................... 224 7.9 Modal
Auxiliaries ..................................................................................................
..... 226 Modal
Auxiliaries ..................................................................................................
.... 227 Modals and Present Perfect
Verbs ........................................................................... 229 7.10 Subject-
Verb
Agreement .......................................................................................... 231
Agreement...................................................................................................
.............. 231 Regular Verbs and
Agreement ................................................................................. 232
Return to Table of Contents 9 Verbs: Be, Have, and
Do .......................................................................................... 234 Errors
in Subject-Verb
Agreement ........................................................................... 235
Compound
Subjects ..................................................................................................
236 Separation of Subjects and
Verbs ............................................................................. 237 Indefinite
Pronouns ..................................................................................................
238 Collective
Nouns .......................................................................................................
239 The Subject Follows the
Verb ................................................................................... 239 Here or
There ..........................................................................................................
.. 239
Questions ....................................................................................................
.............. 240 7.11 Preposition
Use ..........................................................................................................
243 In, At, and
On ...........................................................................................................
243 Prepositions after Verbs or Phrasal
Verbs ............................................................... 244 Prepositions after
Adjectives .................................................................................... 245
7.12 Overview of English Grammar: End-of-Chapter
Exercises .......................... 248 CHAPTER 8: PUNCTUATION AND
CAPITALIZATION .... 251 8.1
Commas .....................................................................................................
..................... 251 Commas after an Introductory Word(s) or
Phrase(s) ............................................. 251 Commas in a List of
Items ........................................................................................ 252
Commas and Coordinating
Adjectives ..................................................................... 252 Commas
before Conjunctions in Compound Sentences (FANBOYS) .....................
253 Commas before and after Interrupting
Words ........................................................ 254 Commas in Dates,
Addresses, and the Greetings and Closings of Letters .............. 254
Commas to Introduce a
Quote ................................................................................. 257 8.2
Semicolons .................................................................................................
....................258 Semicolons to Join Two Independent
Clauses ........................................................ 258 Semicolons to Join
Items in a List ........................................................................... 258 8.3
Colons ........................................................................................................
.................... 260 Colons to Introduce a
List ........................................................................................ 260 Colons
to Introduce Examples or
Explanations ...................................................... 260 8.4
Quotes ........................................................................................................
................... 262 Return to Table of Contents 10 Direct
Quotations ..................................................................................................
... 262 Punctuating Direct
Quotations ................................................................................ 263
Quotations within
Quotations .................................................................................. 263
Titles ...........................................................................................................
.............. 264 8.5
Apostrophes ...............................................................................................
.................. 265
Possession ..................................................................................................
............... 265
Contractions ...............................................................................................
.............. 265 8.6
Parentheses .................................................................................................
................... 267 Learning
Objectives ..................................................................................................
267 8.7
Dashes ........................................................................................................
.................... 268 8.8
Hyphens .....................................................................................................
................... 269 Hyphens between Two Adjectives That Work as
One ............................................. 269 Hyphens When a Word Breaks at
the End of a Line ............................................... 269 8.9
Capitalization .............................................................................................
.................. 270 Capitalize the First Word of a
Sentence ................................................................... 270 Capitalize
Proper Nouns ...........................................................................................
270 Capitalize Days of the Week, Months of the Year, and
Holidays ............................ 272 Capitalize
Titles ........................................................................................................
272 8.10 End-of-Chapter
Exercises ........................................................................................274
Punctuation
Exercises ..............................................................................................
274 Capitalization
Exercises ........................................................................................... 277
CHAPTER 9: GOOD WRITING – MODELS AND
SAMPLES .................................................................................................
................. 280 9.1 Qualities of Good
Writing ........................................................................................ 280
More Qualities of Good
Writing ............................................................................... 281 9.2
Samples of Good Paragraph
Writing ................................................................... 283 9.3 Samples of
Good Essay Writing .............................................................................285
CHAPTER 10: SUGGESTED WRITING TOPICS & GRADING
RUBRICS ..............................................................................................
293 Return to Table of Contents 11 10.1 Suggested Writing
Topics ....................................................................................... 293 10.2
Sample Grading
Rubrics ....................................................................................... 296
Sample Rubric #1 - High Intermediate/Advanced Academic Writing
Courses ...... 296 Sample Rubric #2 - High Intermediate/Advanced
Academic Writing Courses ..... 297 Sample Rubric #3 – Freshman
Composition Courses............................................. 298 Return to Table of
Contents