Chapter-7
7. Regulating Structures
The water which enters into the main canal from the river has to be divided into different Branches and
Distributaries, in accordance with the relative determination of demand on different channels. This process of
distribution is called Regulation. To distribute water effectively, the discharge has to be adjusted to any desired
value. This necessity is achieved by means of regulators . The works which are constructed in order to
control and regulate discharges, depths , velocities etc. in canals, are known as canal regulation works.
These structures ensure the efficient functioning of a canal irrigation system, by giving full control upon the
canals. The various regulation works maybe categorized as under:
(i) Canal Falls.
(ii) Canal Regulators (Head Regulator and Cross Regulator).
(iii) Canal Escapes.
(iv) Canal Outlets and Modules.
7.1 Alignment of the off-taking channels
When a branch channel takes off from the main channel (called Parent Channel) the off-take alignment must be
carefully designed .
The best alignment is when the off taking channel makes zero angle with the parent channel initially and then
separates out in a transition ,as shown in Fig.(a). The transitions will have to be properly designed, so as to avoid
accumulation of silt quay.
As an alternative to the transitions, both the channels should make an angle with the parent channel upstream of
the off-take, as shown in Fig. (b).
When the parent channel has to be carried straight, the edge of the canal rather than the centre line should be
considered in deciding the angle of the off-take Fig.( c).
Fig.(a) Fig.(b) Fig.(c)
7.2 Functions of Head regulator ,Cross regulator , Outlet ,Drop and Escapes
Distributary Head Regulator and Cross Regulator : A distributary head regulator controls the supply of the
off taking channel while cross-regulator controls the supply of the parent channel, a head regulator provided at
the head of the off-taking channel, controls the flow of water entering this new channel. While a cross-regulator
may be required in the main parent channel downstream of the off taking channel, and is operated when
necessary so as to head up water on its upstream side, thus to ensure the required supply in the off-taking
channel even during the periods of low flow in the main channel .
The main functions of a head regulator are:
(i) To control the supplies entering the off-take channel,
(ii) To control silt entry into the off-take channel.
(iii) To serve as a meter for measuring discharge.
The main functions of a cross-regulator are :
(i) To effectively control the entire Canal Irrigation System.
(ii) When the water level in the main channel is low, it helps in heading up water on the u/s and to feed the off-take
channels to their full demand in rotation.
(iii) They help in absorbing fluctuations in various sections of the canal system. and in preventing the possibilities
of breaches in the tail reaches
(iv) Cross regulator is often combined with a road bridge, so as to carry the road which may cross the irrigation
channel near the site of the cross regulator. Itis also usually combined with a fall (if required at the site of cross
regulator): when it is called fall-regulator.
Outlet : A canal outlet (or a module) is a small structure built at the head of the water course so as to connect it
with a minor or a distributary channel. These outlets play a very prominent role in controlling the flow of water to
different areas, so as to effect an equitable distribution of available water in accordance with the needs of the
whole area.
Drop : When the available natural ground slope is steeper than the designed bed slope of the channel, the
difference is adjusted by constructing vertical "falls' or "drops' in the canal bed at suitable intervals.
Escapes :An escape is a side channel constructed to remove surplus water from an irrigation channel (main canal
branch canal, or distributary, etc.) into a natural drain. The water in the irrigation channel may become surplus due
to some mistake or difficulty in regulation at the head or due to excessive rainfall in upper matches. Sometimes,
the cultivation may find that the demand of water is over and may close their outlets suddenly. In such
circumstances, the canal supplies shall become surplus, and this excess may overflow the banks unless
[Link] minimum capacity of the escape is generally kept as half of the channel capacity at the point of the
escape
Types of Canal Escapes: Escape may be of the following two types
(i) Weir type. In this type, the crest of the weir wall is kept at R.L. equal to canal FSL, as shown in Fig.(a)
When water level rises above FSL, it gets escaped.
(ii) Regulator type(Sluice type). In this type, the sill of the escape is kept at canal bed level and the flow is
controlled by gates Fig.(b). This type of escapes are preferred these days. as they give better control and can be
used for completely emptying the canal.
Fig.(a).Weir type escape Fig.(b). Regulator type escape
7.3 Design of Regulators and Escapes (Crest , length and thickness of impervious floor)
Design of Cross Regulator and Distributary Head Regulator
Crest Levels: The crest of a cross regulator is generally kept at the upstream bed level of the channel. While,
the crest level of the distributary head regulator is generally kept 0.3 to 1.0 m higher than the crest level of the
cross regulator.
Water-way. The water-way can be worked out by using the drowned weir formula given as:
Where, Q = discharge, in cumecs
L = length of water-way, in metres
h = difference in water level u/s and d/s of the channel ,in metres
ha = head due to velocity of approach
d (or h1 in figure) = depth of d/s water level in the channel, measured above the crest
C1= constant= 0.557
C2 = constant =0.80.
Generally the velocity of approach is small, and may be neglected. Substituting the value of C1,C2 and g in above
equation, we get
Q=L. √h [1.69h + 3.54 d ]
Conditions of flow for design. The design is done for the worst of the following two conditions:
(a) Full supply discharge is passing down both the channels with all gates of cross regulator and head regulator
fully open.
(b) The discharge in the parent channel is low but the off-take channel is running full, and its FSL is maintained by
the partial opening of the gates of cross-regulator.
In the first condition, q and HL are fixed ; while in the second case q reduces and HL increases, depending upon
the low flow of the channel. The first condition of flow generally governs the design, but in certain cases, the
second flow condition may become more critical .
If the low flow record of the parent channel is not given, the design can be done for the first flow condition.
Downstream Floor Level or Cistern Level. For the above two flow conditions, q and HL, are worked out. Then
Ef2 is found from Plate 10.1. The level at which jump would form , i.e. the level of d/s floor, is then given by d/s
TEL –Ef2 ,
Neglecting velocity head, d/s TEL = d/s FSL
Level of d/s floor =d/s FSL –Ef2
If the d/s floor for the worst condition works out to be higher than the d/s bed level of the channel, the floor is
provided at the bed level itself.
Length of d/s Floor. It is worked out by calculating 5 (y2-y1). If this length comes out to be small in comparison
to 2/3 of total floor length (worked out by exit gradient considerations, i.e. b = α d.), then, the length of the d/s
floor is kept equal to 2/3 of the total floor length.
Cut-offs are provided as given below:
Upstream Cut-off. The minimum depth of u/s cut off below u/s floor level is kept
as (yu/3 +0.6 m) where yu is the depth of water in the channel upstream.
Downstream Cut-off. The minimum depth of d/s cut-off below the d/s floor level is kept as (yd/2+ 0.6 m) where
yd is the depth of water in the channel downstream .
Total floor Length. The total floor length 'b' is worked out from safe exit gradient considerations( i.e. b = α d.),
, as explained earlier. This total floor length is then suitably distributed upstream and downstream.
Uplift Pressures and Floor Thicknesses. The thicknesses of the d/s floor required ,are worked out by working
out the uplift pressures by Khosla's theory. The maximum unbalanced heads at key points are worked out for the
maximum static head. The pressure at toe of glacis is also worked out for dynamic condition. The floor
thicknesses are designed for the worst case, as explained earlier in the design of weirs. A nominal thickness of
0.3 to 0.5 m is provided on u/s side .
Protection Works. The protection works are designed for a scour depth (D) equal to(yu/3 +0.6 m) on the
upstream, and equal to (yd/2+ 0.6 m) on the downstream. The ‘C. C. blocks' and 'inverted filter' are provided in a
length approximately equal to 1.5 D. The quantity of stone in launching apron is kept as 2.25 D cu. m/metre . A
typical design of such a regulator is illustrated in the example given below:
Example-1:Design a cross regulator and a head regulator for a channel which takes off from the parent
channel with the following data :
Discharge of parent channel =140 cumecs
Discharge of distributary = 15 cumecs
FSL of the parent channel, u/s = 210.0 m
FSL of the parent channel, d/s = 209.8 m
Bed width of parent channel , u/s = 52 m, Bed width of parent channel, d/s =46 m, Depth of water in the parent
channel u/s and d/s= 2.5 m, FSL of distributary =209.1m ,Silt factor =0.80
Assume safe exit gradient =1/5
[Link] of Distributary Head Regulator.
7.4 Types of Outlet, Design of pipe outlet (free and submerged)
A canal outlet or a module is a small structure built at the head of the watercourse so as to connect it with a minor or a
distributary channel.
These outlets play a very prominent role in controlling the flow of water to different areas, so as to effect an
equitable distribution of available water in accordance with the needs of the whole area. Hence, an outlet should
be such that it fits well to the decided principles of water distribution .
Moreover, it should be simple, cheaper, efficient and easy to handle. The design of the outlet is , therefore, of
prime importance in efficient and effective management of canal irrigation system.
Types of Modules
The various available modules can be classified into three classes:
(i) Non-modular modules are those through which the discharge depends upon the difference of head between
the distributary and the water-course. The discharge through such a module, therefore, varies widely with
either a change in the water level of the distributary or that of the water-course. The common examples of
this type of module are drowned pipe outlet, masonry sluice, and wooden shoots.
(ii) Semi-modules or Flexible modules are those through which the discharge is independent of the water level
of the water-course but depends only upon the water level of the distributary so long as a minimum working
head is available. The discharge through such an outlet will, therefore, increase with a rise in the distributary
water surface level and vice versa. The common examples of this type of modules are pipe outlet, venturi
flume, open flume and orifice semi-module.
(iii) Rigid modules or Modular outlets are those through which the discharge is constant and fixed within
limits, irrespective of the fluctuations of the water levels of either the distributary or of the water course or
of both. Gibb's module is a common example of such a module.
Types of non-Modular Outlets
A non-modular outlet may be in the form of a rectangular opening or open sluice, or a simple submerged pipe.
Pipe outlet (when submerged) is a very simple type of a non-modular outlet and is extensively used.
Submerged pipe Outlet. Two types of pipe outlets are shown in Figs. (a) and (b). The pipe diameter varies from
10 to 30 cm. Pipes are generally embedded in concrete and are generally fixed horizontally at right angles to the
direction of flow . They may also be laid sloping upwards by depressing the upstream end of the pipe [as shown
in Fig. (b)] so as to increase silt conductivity . Pipes are generally laid horizontally at about 21 cm below the
water surface level of the distributary channel.
The velocity through the pipe can be precisely computed by using the relation :
HL = Total loss of head = Entry loss +Friction Loss + Velocity head at exit
= 0.5 V²/2g + f’lV2/2gd + V2/2g
Or, HL = V2/2g [1.5 + f’ l/d ]
where HL is the difference in the water level of the distributary and the water course, l is the length of the pipe, d
is the diameter of the pipe and f' is the coefficient of friction of the material of the pipe.
The discharge, however, for all practical purposes, may be easily computed by using
Q=Cd.A.√(2gHL )
Where, Q = Discharge through the outlet
Cd= Coefficient of discharge, and is as high as 0.8 for submerged pipe discharges
A = Area of the pipe
HL = Difference of head between the FSL of distributary and FSL of water course , usually called working head of
irrigation outlet.
Free Pipe Outlet. Pipe outlet discharging freely into the atmosphere is the simplest and the oldest type of a
flexible outlet. The discharge through such an outlet will depend only upon the water level of the distributary, and
will be independent of the water level of the water-course so long as the pipe is discharging freely . silt conduction
for such an outlet is quite good and efficiency is high. But a freely falling jet outlet can be provided only at a few
places where sufficient level difference between the distributary and water-course is available. The discharge can
be easily computed by using the equation
Q = Cd.A.√(2gHo)
Where, Cd is coefficient of discharge =0.62 for average condition of free over fall.
Ho = Head on u/s side measured from FSL of distributary up to the centre of pipe oulet.
A=Ares of cross-section of pipe.
Example-1:Design an irrigation outlet for the following data
FSQ of outlet = 50 lit/sec
FSL in distributary on u/s side of outlet = 200.00 m
FSL in water course on d/s side of outlet = 199.92m
FSD in distributary on u/s side of outlet = 1.05m
Solution.
Available head across the outlet = FSL of Distributary -FSL of water course = 200.00 - 199.92 =0.08 m .
Since the available head is very small, a non-modular outlet (such as a submerged pipe outlet) will have to be
provided.
The discharge in such a submerged pipe outlet is given by as:
Q = Cd. A .√(2gHL) -----------(a)
Where, Q = 50 lit/sec = 0.05 cumec ,A= Area of pipe.
HL = working head or Loss of head between u/s and d/s = 0.08 m ,Cd = 0.8.
Putting these values in the above Eqn.(a) we get
0.05 = 0.8 A √(2 x 9.81 x 0.08)
A = 0.05 m2
If a pipe of dia. d is used, then
π d2 /4 =0.05 m2
Or, d= 0.252 m.
Hence, use a pipe of dia. say 30 cm .
The R.L. of the bed of the distributary = 200.00 - 1.05 = 198.95m.
The pipe top can be fixed at about 22 cm below the FSL of the distributary. In other words, the pine can be laid
horizontally with its invert level (or sill level) i.e. at= 200.00 -0.22 -0.30 = 199.48 m
i.e, 199.48 - 198.95 = 0.53 m above the bed of the distributary.
Example-2:Design a pipe outlet for the following data:
Full supply discharge at the head of water course = 90 lit/sec
FSL in distributary = 205.00m
FSL in water course = 204.00m
Solution
Available head across the outlet =FSL of distributary -FSL of water course =205.00-204.00 =1.0 m.
This available head of 1 m is sufficient enough to make the pipe outlet discharge freely into the water course, as
the d/s end of the pipe can be fixed below the water level of the water course, thus making it a semi-module.
The discharge through such an outlet is given as:
Q = Cd.A.√(2gHo)
Where,Cd = 0.62
Ho = Head on upstream side above the center line of pipe.
Q = 90.0 lit/sce = 0.09 cumec .
Assuming the dia. of the pipe as 25 cm, we have
0.09 = 0.62 [π/4x(0.25)2] √(2x9.81xHo) = 0.62x0.049 x 4.43 √Ho
√Ho = 0.657 m.
i.e, Ho = 0.44 m
RL of the center of outlet pipe=205.00 - 0.44 = 204.56 m .
RL of invert of outlet pipe (i.e sill level) = 204.56- 0.25/2 = 204.43 m > FSL of water course i.e. 204.00m.
Hence, a pipe of 25 cm dia can be laid horizontally with its bottom or sill level at RL 204.43 m, and it will be
discharging freely as a semi-module.
7.5 Types of Drop , Design of vertical drop (crest ,length and thickness of impervious floor)
Definition and Location of Canal Falls : Whenever the available natural
ground slope is steeper than the designed bed slope of the channel, the
difference is adjusted by constructing vertical 'falls’ or 'drops' in the canal bed
at suitable intervals, as shown in figure. Such a drop in a natural canal bed
will not be stable and, therefore, in order to retain this drop, a masonry
structure is constructed. Such a pucca structure is called a canal fall or a canal drop.
Types of Canal Falls
The important types of such falls, which were used in olden and modern days, are described below:
1. Ogee falls: The 'Ogee type fall' was constructed in olden days. The water was gradually led down by
providing convex and concave curves, as shown in Fig.
2. Trapezoidal Notch Fall
It was designed by Reid in 1894. In this type a body or
foundation wall across the channel consisting of several
trapezoidal notches between side pier and intermediate
pier is constructed. The sill of the notches are kept at
upstream bed level of the canal. The body wall is made
of concrete. An impervious floor is provided to resist the
scouring effect of falling water. Upstream and downstream
side of the fall is protected by stone pitching finished with cement grouting
3. Syphon Well Drop or Well type fall : This type of a fall consists of an inlet well with a pipe at its bottom,
carrying water from the inlet well to a downstream well or a cistern. The downstream well (as shown in Fig.) is
necessary in the case of falls greater than 1.8m and for discharges greater than 0.29 cumecs. The water falls into
the inlet well, through a trapezoidal notch constructed in the staining of the well, from where it emerges near the
bottom, dissipating its energy in turbulence inside the well. This type of falls are very useful for affecting larger
drops for smaller discharges. They are commonly used as tail escapes for small canals, or where high leveled
smaller drains do out fall into a low leveled bigger drain.
4. Vertical Fall : Enclosed figures (a & b) shows the simple vertical and Sarda types canal falls, respectively. In
Figure-’a’ the U/S canal bed level is at the level of U/S curtain wall and in Figure-’b’ canal U/S bed is below the
crest of curtain wall. In both cases a cistern is formed to act as water cushion. Floor is made of concrete U/S and
D/S side stone pitching with cement grouting is provided.
5. Straight glacis fall : In this type of a modern fall, a straight glacis, (generally sloping 2:1) is provided after a
raised crest (see Fig: below). The hydraulic jump is made to occur on the glacis, causing sufficient energy
dissipation. This type of falls give very good performance if not flumed, although they may be flumed for
economy. They are suitable up to 60 cumecs discharge and 1.5m drop.
6. Montague type fall : The energy dissipation on a straight glacis remain incomplete due to vertical component
of velocity remaining unaffected. An improvement in energy dissipation may be brought about in this type of
fall (see Fig) by replacing the straight glacis by a parabolic glacis, commonly known as Montague Profile.
The Montague profile is given by the equation.
X =U√(4Y/g)+ Y
where X = The horizontal ordinate of any point of the profile measured from the d/s edge of crest .
Y = Vertical ordinate measured from the crest level and U= Initial velocity of water leaving the crest.
7. Rapids : In Western Yamuna canal, long rapids at slopes of 1 : 15 to 1:20 (i.e, gently sloping glacis) with
boulder facings, were provided. They worked quite satisfactorily, but were very expensive, and hence became
obsolete.
8. Inglis fall or Baffle fall: A straight glacis type fall when added with a baffle platform and a baffle wall (as
shown in Fig.) was developed by Englis, and is called Englis Fall or Baffle Fall. They are quite suitable for all
discharges and for drops of more than 1.5m. They can be flumed easily as to effect [Link] baffle wall is
provided at a calculated height and a calculated distance from the toe of the glacis, so as to ensure the formation
of the jump on the baffle platform.
9. Stepped or cascade-type fall: This consists of stone-pitched
floors between a series of weir blocks which act as check dams
and are used in canals of small discharges; e.g. the tail of a main
canal escape. A schematic diagram of this type of fall is shown
in Fig.
Design of Simple Vertical drop Fall
In a vertical drop fall, the energy of the flowing water is dissipated by means of impact and by sudden deflection
of velocity from vertical to horizontal direction. A water cushion is provided at the toe of the drop, so as to
reduce the impact of falling jet and thus to save the downstream floor from scour. The water cushion is formed
by depressing the floor below the downstream bed of the canal, as shown in Fig.
The following dimensions for the cistern have been suggested by
U.P. Irrigation Research Institute:
LC =5.√([Link])
X= ¼ .([Link])2/3
Where, LC = The length of the cistern in metres.
X= Cistern depression below the downstream bed in metres , H= Head of water over the crest, including
velocity head. in metres, i.e,
= (u/s TEL. - Crest level)
Design of a Sarda Type Fall:
The design criteria for various components of such a fall, based on the recommendations of Bahadarabad
Research Station, are given below:
Length of the Crest. Since fluming is not permissible in this type of falls, the length of the crest is kept equal
to the bed width of the canal. Sometimes, for future expansion , the crest length may be kept equal to (bed
width + depth).
Shape of the Crest. A rectangular crest with both faces vertical has been suggested for discharges under 14
cumecs. The top width is kept equal to 0.55 √d and the minimum base width is kept equal to (h+d )/G (Take
G=2 for masonry) where d is the height of the crest above the downstream bed level and h is the head over the
crest (See Fig. (a)]
For discharges over 14 cumecs, a trapezoidal crest with top width equal to 0.55.√(H +d) with upstream side
slope of 1 : 3 and downstream side slope of 1:8 is adopted [See Fig. (b)].
Fig. (a) Rectangular Crest for Sarda Type fall. Fig. (b) Trapezoidal Crest for Sarda Type fall.
Crest level. The following discharge formula is used to determine the height of the crest
where Cd= 0.415 for rectangular crest
= 0.45 for trapezoidal crest.
L= Length of the crest , Bt= Top width of crest.
Height of the crest above bed =(y-h)
= y-H (assuming h=H i.e,neglecting velocity of approach)
Where, y is the normal depth of channel (upstream)
Upstream Wing Wall. For trapezoidal crest, the upstream wing walls
are kept segmental with radius equal to 5 to 6 times H and subtending
an angle of 60° at centre, and then carried tangential into the berm as
shown in Fig. The foundations of the wing walls are laid on the
impervious concrete floor itself . For rectangular crest (i.e. discharge
less than 14 cumecs), the approach wings may be splayed straight at an
angle of 45°. Fig; u/s wing walls for trapezoidal crest sarda type fall.
Upstream Protection. Brick pitching in a length equal to upstream water depth may be laid on the upstream
bed, sloping towards the crest at a slope of 1:[Link] pipes should also be provided at the u/s bed level in the
crest so as to drain out the u/s bed during the closer of the channel.
Upstream Curtain Wall. 1.5 brick thick upstream curtain wall is provided, having a depth equal to 1/3rd of
water depth.
Impervious Concrete Floor. The total length of impervious floor can be determined by Bligh's theory for small
works and by Khosla's theory for large works. The minimum length of floor on d/s of the toe of the crest wall
should be = [2(water depth + 1.2 m) + drop]. The balance can be provided under the crest and on upstream.
The floor thickness required on the downstream side can be worked out for uplift pressures (using minimum
thickness of 0.4 m to 0.6 metre) and only a nominal thickness of 0.3 metre is provided on the upstream side. The
maximum seepage head will occur when water is stored up to top of crest on u/s side and there is no flow on the
downstream side.
[Link] length and depth of cistern can be worked out from equations, LC =5.√([Link]) and X= ¼ .([Link])2/3.
Downstream Protection. The d/s bed may be protected with dry brick pitching, about 20 cm thick resting on 10
cm thick ballast. The length of the d/s pitching is given by the values of Table 7.1; or 3 times the depth of
downstream water, whichever is more. The pitching may be provided between two or three curtain walls. The
curtain walls may be 1.5 brick thick and of depth equal to 0.5 the downstream depth ; or as given in table 7.1
(minimum = 0.5 m)
Slope Pitching. After the return wing, the sides of
the channel are pitched with one brick on edge.
The pitching should rest on a toe wall 1.5 brick
thick and of depth equal to half the downstream
water depth. The side pitching may be curtailed at
an angle of 45o from the end of the bed pitching, or
extended straight from the end of the bed pitching.
Downstream Wings. Downstream wings are kept
straight for a length of 5 to 8 time √([Link]) and may
then be gradually wrapped. They should be taken up
to the end of the pucca floor .
All wing walls must be designed as retaining walls, subjected to full pressure of submerged soil at their back
when the channel is closed. Such a wall generally has a base width equal to 1/3rd its height.
Example -1: Design a 1.5 metres Sarda type fall for a canal having a discharge of 12 cumecs, with the following
data:
Bed level upstream = 103.0m
Side slopes of channel = 1:1
Bed level downstream = 101.5 m
Full supply level upstream = 104.5 m
Bed width u/s and d/s =10.0 m
Soil = Good loam
Assume Bligh's Coefficient =6
Solution.
Length of crest. Same as d/s bed width = 10 m
Crest level. A rectangular crest is provided, since the discharge is less than 14 cumecs. The discharge formula is
given by
Q= 1.84.L. H3/2 [H /Bt]1/6
Approach velocity(va) =Discharge/Area.