10-04-2025

ME 222: Manufacturing Technology I

Department of Mechanical Engineering

IIT Guwahati

Module 7

Additive manufacturing

1
 10-04-2025

Additive manufacturing/3D printing

➢ Layer by layer manufacturing process

➢ Creates 3D objectives - not by subtractive methods
➢ It is additive method – Effective utilization of materials
➢ Creates object according to 3D models
➢ Computer interface is required
➢ Surface roughness – post processing is required

Is this optimum layer thickness?

3D metal printing
✓ 3D geometry of object - computer-aided design (CAD) files
✓ Slicing with layers – decide the layer thickness
✓ CAD file - converted to a format usually .STL format
✓ All date fed to 3D printer
✓ Path of melted/solidified metal – controlled by XYZ movement of table
or movement of laser source

➢ Most of the metal 3D printing technologies – SLM

➢ Transformation of powdered metal into a solid metallic object

2
 10-04-2025

Additive Manufacturing
Major AM processes based on Hopkinson and Dickens’ classification

• Stereolithography
Liquid Based • Jetting Systems
• Direct Light Processing

• Selective Laser Sintering

• Three-Dimensional Printing
• Fused Metal Deposite Systems
• Electron Beam Melting
Powder Based • Selective Laser Melting
• Selective Masking Sintering
• Selective Inhibition Sintering
• Electro photographic Layered
Manufacturing
• High Speed Sintering

• Fused Deposition Modelling

Solid Based
• Sheet Stacking Technologies

Additive Manufacturing
Broadly AM technologies: Seven groups

➢ Binder jetting
➢ Directed energy deposition
➢ Material extrusion
➢ Material jetting
➢ Powder bed fusion
➢ Sheet lamination
➢ Vat polymerization

3
 10-04-2025

Additive manufacturing

✓ Layer by layer deposition - one layer at a time

✓ 3D printing and additive manufacturing are synonyms
✓ 3D printing/additive manufacturing is the process - rapid prototyping
is the end result

Common methods for producing layers in 3D printing

SLA or SL: Stereolithography

FDM: Fused deposition modeling
SLM: Selective laser melting
SLS: Selective laser sintering
DMD: Direct metal deposition
7

Stereolithography (SLA or SL or VP)

- is widely recognized as the first 3D printing process

- is a laser-based process that works with photopolymer resins
➢ It react with the laser and cure to form a solid
➢ It is generally accepted as being one of the most accurate 3D printing
processes with excellent surface finish

Limiting factors:
- post-processing steps required
- stability of the materials over time – may more brittle
• Oldest 3D Printing technology
• High resolution but relatively low strength parts
• Also known as Vat Polymerization
8

4
 10-04-2025

Powder Bed Fusion

Powder Based System (SLS)

• Wider range of materials

• Very strength
• Functional parts
• Base material is powder
• Still at the industrial scale

Directed Energy Deposition

• Electron Beam Melting
• Medical and Aerospace
• Metal parts

10

5
 10-04-2025

Material Extrusion (FDM)

11

3D metal printing
Fused deposition modeling (FDM)
✓ Use a continuous filament of a material
✓ This is fed from a large coil
✓ Molten material is forced out of the print head's nozzle
✓ It is deposited on new layer

Direct Metal Deposition (DMD)

✓ Use a laser to melt metallic powder
✓ It is not based on a powder bed
✓ Powders are projected through nozzle
✓ Powders are fused by focused laser beam
✓ Concept is similar to FDM, but powder is used here
12

6
 10-04-2025

Material Jetting
• More professional prototypes
• Multi-material
• Common in design firms

13

Binder Jetting

14

7
 10-04-2025

Material Jetting and Binder Jetting

• More professional prototypes
• Multi-material
• Common in design firms

Material jetting - print head (similar to inkjet printing) distributes droplets of a

photosensitive material that solidifies under ultraviolet (UV) light
✓ Support structure is required
✓ Ex. Thermoset photopolymers (acrylics) in liquid form

Binder Jetting - selectively deposited onto the powder bed, bonding these areas to form a
solid part
✓ Common materials are - metals, sand, and ceramics in granular form
✓ No support structure is required

15

Liquid based AM
3D system’s SLA: Laser Curing: Shape of Single Bead
Y
Y

Z X
y
𝑡 = 𝑡1 2𝑙 𝑡 = 𝑡2
X

The intensity (𝑤/𝑚2 ) of the laser beam spot on the top surface of the resin can be defined as:
2𝑃0 2𝑟 2
𝐼= 2 exp − 2
𝜋𝜔0 𝜔0

Total exposed energy per unit area E 𝐽ൗ𝑚2 of the surface of the resin (𝑧 = 0) can be defined as:

𝐸 𝑥, 𝑦, 0 = න𝐼𝑑𝑡
𝑡2
If this energy is falling from time 𝑡 = 𝑡1 to 𝑡 = 𝑡2 on the surface of resin then: 𝐸 𝑥, 𝑦, 0 = න 𝐼𝑑𝑡
𝑡1

8
 10-04-2025

Liquid based AM
3D system’s SLA: Laser Curing: Shape of Single Bead
Y
Y

Z X
y
𝑡 = 𝑡1 2𝑙 𝑡 = 𝑡2
X
During this exposure time assume that the laser has scanned a single bead along X-direction (−𝑙 to +𝑙 where the length
of vat is 2𝑙) on the surface of resin with a velocity 𝑣𝑥 .
+𝑙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
as: 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐸 𝑦, 0 = න 𝐼
𝑉𝑥 −𝑙 𝑉𝑥

+𝑙
2𝑃0 2(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
Using expression of ‘𝐼’: 𝐸 𝑦, 0 = න 2 exp −
−𝑙 𝜋𝜔0 𝜔02 𝑉𝑥

+𝑙
2𝑃0 2𝑦 2 2𝑥 2
𝐸 𝑦, 0 = exp − න exp − 𝑑𝑥
𝑉𝑥 𝜋𝜔02 𝜔02 −𝑙 𝜔02

Liquid based AM
3D system’s SLA: Laser Curing: Shape of Single Bead
2𝑥 2
It can be observed that the laser exposure is proportional to exp − , this function falls off very rapidly with 𝑥.
𝜔02

Because of this rapid fall of the exposure a new term is defined as ‘zone of influence’ such that within this zone 99.9% of
exposure will be received; while outside of this zone only 0.01%. The influence zone length along x-axis can be
calculated as:
Typical beam spot radius is about 100 𝜇𝑚
2𝑥𝑧2 2𝑥 2
exp − 2 = 0.01% of max exp − 2 Limit of influencing zone: −214.6 × 10−6 to
𝜔0 𝜔0
+ 214.6 × 10−6 ≈ 500 × 10−6
2𝑥𝑧2
exp − = 0.0001 Hence 𝑙 can more then limit of influencing zone,
𝜔02
may be infinity
𝑥𝑧 = 2.146 𝜔0
Characteristic exposure time Characteristic exposure time
10−6 10−6
𝑡𝑒 = 500 × 𝑡𝑒 = 500 × = 50 𝜇𝑠
𝑉𝑠 10

9
 10-04-2025

Liquid based AM
3D system’s SLA: Laser Curing: Shape of Single Bead
Y
Y

Z X
y
𝑡 = 𝑡1 2𝑙 𝑡 = 𝑡2
X
+∞
2𝑃0 2𝑦 2 2𝑥 2
𝐸 𝑦, 0 = 2 exp − 2 න exp − 2 𝑑𝑥
𝑉𝑥 𝜋𝜔0 𝜔0 −∞ 𝜔0

2𝑥 2 4𝑥 2 𝜔0
let 𝑝2 = 2𝑝 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑝
𝜔02 𝜔02 𝜔0 2
+∞
𝜔0 2𝑃0 2𝑦 2
𝐸 𝑦, 0 = 2 exp − 2 න exp −𝑝2 𝑑𝑝
2 𝑉𝑥 𝜋𝜔0 𝜔0 −∞
∞
2 𝑃0 2𝑦 2 1 𝜋
𝐸 𝑦, 0 = exp − 2 න exp −𝑎𝑝2 𝑑𝑝 =
𝜋 𝑉𝑥 𝜔0 𝜔0 0 2 𝑎

Liquid based AM
3D system’s SLA: Laser Curing: Shape of Single Bead
Y
Y
X

y
Z
X
When a laser beam strikes the resin surface, it's energy got absorbed and exposed energy
decline with depth (𝑧). According to beer-lambert law the available energy at depth ‘z’ is can
be defined as:
𝑧
𝐸 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝐸 𝑦, 0 exp −
𝐷𝑝

2 𝑃0 2𝑦 2 𝑧
𝐸 𝑦, 𝑧 = exp − 2 exp −
𝜋 𝑉𝑥 𝜔0 𝜔0 𝐷𝑝

1
where 𝐷𝑝 is defined as ‘penetration depth’. It can be observed that at 𝑧 = 𝐷𝑝 the available energy is reduced to (37%).
𝑒

10
 10-04-2025

Liquid based AM
3D system’s SLA: Laser Curing: Shape of Single Bead
2 𝑃0 2𝑦 2 𝑧
𝐸 𝑦, 𝑧 = exp − 2 exp −
𝜋 𝑉𝑥 𝜔0 𝜔0 𝐷𝑝

At the location 𝑦, 𝑧 where the exposed energy crossed the critical value (𝐸𝑐 ) will got
cured. Such location can be obtained by:

𝜋 𝐸𝑐 2𝑦 2 𝑧
𝑉𝑥 𝜔0 = exp − 2 −
2 𝑃0 𝜔0 𝐷𝑝

Or
2𝐷𝑝 𝑦 2 2 𝑃0
𝑧=− + 𝐷𝑝 ln
𝜔02 𝜋 𝑉𝑥 𝜔0 𝐸𝑐

2𝐷𝑝 2 P0
𝑧 = −𝑎𝑦 2 + 𝑏 Where: 𝑎 =
𝜔02
and b=Dp ln
π Vx ω0 Ec

Liquid based AM
3D system’s SLA: Laser Curing: Shape of Single Bead

11
 10-04-2025

Welding to metal printing

Metal transfer in arc welding
GMAW
GTAW, PAW
Metal addition in laser welding – metal printing
GMAW has also been used to develop low-cost 3D metal printer

Mode of metal transfer in GMAW

Continuous mode / Pulse mode

GMAW – CMT
Cold metal transfer (CMT) is new form of gas metal arc
welding (GMAW). It's not exactly cold.
It is in lower temperature than regular GMAW process 23

Wire arc additive manufacturing - GMAW

Transfer of molten metal from consumable electrode to the weld pool

Secondary Factors
Shielding gas, composition of the electrode, diameter of the electrode

Current, Voltage, Arc gap

Types of metal transfer

o Short Circuit Transfer
o Globular Transfer
o Spray Transfer

24

12
 10-04-2025

Wire arc additive manufacturing - CMT

✓ CMT is actually a part of GMAW
✓ In principle, it works at reduced welding current and retracting the weld wire
at a short circuit condition
✓ Ensure a drop-by-drop deposit of weld material.
✓ First developed for thin materials with strict control of weld parameters

o Now-a-days, the welding of dissimilar metals and thicker materials

along with improved weld bead aesthetics are developed.

o It is one of the option of metal printing technology development.

➢ CMT process is developed by Fronius of Austria in 2004.

➢ This process differs from GMAW in terms of mechanical droplet
dethatching method 25

Difference of CMT from GMAW process

The main difference is in terms of wire feed
In GMAW – wire continuously moving forward into the weld pool
✓ In CMT - the wire is retracted the instant current flows
✓ It breaks the arc. The metal droplet detaches from the filler and fuses with the
– still molten - base metal.
✓ Again, the wire moves forward to create another arc.
✓ All these phenomena happens several times in each second
➢ CMT provides a controlled method of material deposition by sophisticated
wire feed system at low thermal input
➢ In effect, it needs high-speed digital control technology.

26

13
 10-04-2025

Additive manufacturing of metallic components

✓ Powder Bed Fusion
✓ Wire Feed Directed Energy Deposition
✓ Powder Feed Directed Energy Deposition

➢ Fusion of successive layers of metal using a focused heat source - Laser or

electron beam
➢ A well defined pre-programmed path
➢ Layer thickness, surface roughness and material deposition rate
- Focused beam diameter
- Scanning speed
- Powder particle size
- Powder flow rate
- Shielding gas type (Nitrogen/Argon)
- Shielding gas flow rate
- Solidification
27

Additive manufacturing of metallic components

- Consists of many complex physical processes
Melting/solidification, solidification shrinkage, absorption, vaporization, wetting,
sintering

Application to metallic materials

✓ Stainless steel – medical grade (316L)

✓ Maraging steel
Difficult for steel having high percentage of carbon
✓ Nickel and nickel alloy (Inconel)
✓ Aluminum and aluminum alloy
✓ Titanium alloy
28

14
 10-04-2025

Powder Based System

Powder Bed Fusion or Sintering
- Wider range of materials
- Functional parts

✓ Laser sintering is used in polyamide, titanium, and

rubber-like materials
✓ The laser fuses powder while the rest as loose powder
✓ After one layer, new layer of fresh powder is spread over
the surface by a roller
✓ No supporting structure is needed. The un-sintered/melted
powder is used as supporting material

29

Directed Energy Deposition

To make large parts with additive manufacturing

- the powder based system is limited due to inherent cost and build
time
✓ A coaxial feed of powder or wire to an laser or electron beam to form a
melted or sintered layer on a substrate
✓ Powder deposition is synchronized with the heat source
✓ Do not use powder bed system
✓ Scaling up of DED is more easy and cost-effective to produce larger parts

✓ DED can also be used to coat existing structures

✓ Important applications in repair of cracks or defects, in providing a wear-resistant coating
to a particular area, or and in protecting specific areas of an object from corrosion.

30

15
 10-04-2025

3D metal printing
Selective laser sintering (SLS)
✓ Use laser as the power source to sinter powdered material (mainly polymer)
✓ Bind the material together to create a solid structure
✓ Mainly been used for rapid prototyping and for low-volume production of
component parts
✓ Similar to direct metal laser sintering (DMLS)
✓ Same concept but differ in technical details

Selective laser melting (SLM)

✓ Material is fully melted rather than sintered – allow different properties
✓ Based on powder bed system

31

SLS/DMLS/SLM
✓ SLS used to refer to the process as applied to a variety of materials—plastics, glass,
ceramics
✓ DMLS refers to the process as applied to metal alloys
✓ Sintering process - do not fully melt the powder
✓ Heat it to the point that the powder can fuse together on a molecular level
✓ With sintering - the porosity of the material can be controlled

➢ SLM - using the laser to achieve a full melt

➢ Powder is actually melted into a homogenous part
➢ Working with an alloy – use SLS or DMLS
➢ Working with pure titanium - use SLM
➢ SLM is stronger because - it has fewer or no voids which helps prevent part failure
➢ But is only feasible when using with a single metal powder

32

16
 10-04-2025

3D metal printing
✓ In laser based metal 3D printing technologies - DMD is the only one not based
on a powder bed
✓ In SLM and DMLS, the un-fused metallic powder is used as support material
and can be reused
✓ In DMD, supports can be required to maintain the building object
✓ In DMD almost all the powder is transformed into solid
✓ DMD technology also has the ability to comply with a freeform substrate
✓ Cooling time can be considerable for laser sintering
✓ Porosity may be an issue for laser sintering
✓ Metal sintering requires much higher powered laser than plastic

33

Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

GMAW
Arc voltage
Power
Starting, main, reduced and final current
Wire type (material composition, coating, coring etc.)
Wire diameter
Filler
Wire feed rate

Gas proportion, Gas pressure. Gas flow rate, Gas pre-flow

Gas
period, Gas post-flow period

Layer thickness
Deposition Bead width
Bead height or reinforcement height
Distance between nozzle and base plate
Torch Distance between electrode contact tip and base plate
Torch speed
Type of area-filling
Path
Step over increment
34

17
 10-04-2025

Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

GMAW

𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑐𝑥 2 y

• The modeling of the bead profile is required to establish the relationship among
the different process parameters.
• The bead profile above the substrate can be assumed to be a symmetric
parabola of the form
𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑐𝑥 2
4ℎ
Where 𝑎 = ℎ and 𝑐 = −
𝑤2 35

Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

GMAW

2
• Therefore the geometric form of the parabola is 2𝑥
𝑦 =ℎ 1−
𝑤

• It is preferable to write the same parabola in terms of the process parameters

(𝑣𝑓 , 𝑣𝑑 ).
• This is achieved by equating the expressions of the bead area (A) obtained in
terms of the geometric and process parameters.
• The area of the parabolic bead in terms of its geometric parameters is:
2
𝐴 = ℎ𝑤
3
• The same in the form of process parameters can be obtained by dividing the
volume of deposited per unit time by torch speed as:

𝜋𝑑 2 𝑣𝑓
𝐴= 4
𝑣𝑑 36

18
 10-04-2025

Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

Single Bead: GMAW

2
• Therefore the geometric form of the parabola is 2𝑥
𝑦 =ℎ 1−
𝑤

• It is preferable to write the same parabola in terms of the process parameters

(𝑣𝑓 , 𝑣𝑑 ).
• This is achieved by equating the expressions of the bead area (A) obtained in
terms of the geometric and process parameters.
• The area of the parabolic bead in terms of its geometric parameters is:
2
𝐴 = ℎ𝑤
3
• The same in the form of process parameters can be obtained by dividing the
volume of deposited per unit time by torch speed as:

𝜋𝑑 2 𝑣𝑓
2 3𝜋𝑣𝑓 𝑑 2
𝐴= 4 = ℎ𝑤 ⇒ 𝑤 =
𝑣𝑑 3 8ℎ𝑣𝑑 37

Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

Single Bead: GMAW

2
16ℎ𝑣𝑑 𝑥
𝑦 =ℎ 1−
3𝜋𝑣𝑓 𝑑2

• Bead formation is the interplay of several physical phenomena such as gravity,

electromagnetic force, viscosity, surface tension, etc.
• Therefore, although both ℎ and 𝑤 depend only on the process parameters,
obtaining their relationship in terms of them is too difficult as it would involve
modeling all these phenomena.
• Therefore, above equation, a hybrid form of the parabola that includes the easily
measurable geometric parameter h is more useful. Once h is measured and the
prevailing process parameters are known, the bead profile can be obtained from
this equation.

38

19
 10-04-2025

Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

Single Bead: GMAW

• In MIG welding/cladding process the

wire feed is in synergy with the
welding current.
• In most of the welding machines it
follows a linear curve, however it
needs to be calibrated.
• One such example curve has been
shown in the following figure:

39

Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

Multi-Bead: GMAW

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐻𝐺𝐽) = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝐸𝐹𝐺)

Area (HLG) = Area (EIG)

Area (HLG) = Area (FIG)
40

20
 10-04-2025

Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

Multi-Bead: GMAW

Area (HLG) = Area (FIG)

𝑝 𝑤
2 2
න ℎ − 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑦𝑑𝑥
0 𝑝/2

𝑝 𝑤
2 2
න ℎ𝑑𝑥 = න 𝑦𝑑𝑥
0 0

2
𝑝= 𝑤
3

41

Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

Single Bead: GMAW
Given is the data for MIG welding based AM process:
Torch speed = 800 mm/min; Wire feed rate = 10 mm/min; bead height = 2 mm; penetration depth = 0.5 mm;
wire diameter = 0.8 mm; welding current =100 amp; material density = 7.8 gm/cc; efficiency = 90%
Assuming the profile bead cross-section as parabolic for both, calculate the following:

• Deposition rate 𝐶𝑝 460 𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃

• Bead width 𝑇𝑚 1800𝐾
• Optimal value of step over 𝑇0 300𝐾
• Minimum required power 𝐿 2.7 × 105 J/kg

𝜌𝐴𝑤 𝑣𝑓 𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇0 + 𝐿 + 𝜌𝐴𝑝 𝑣𝑑 𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇0 + 𝐿 3𝜋𝑣𝑓 𝑑 2

𝑃= 𝑤=
𝜂 8ℎ𝑣𝑑

42

21
 10-04-2025

Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

Multi-Layer Experiments: GMAW - Hardness Test (MS)

• The hardness variation exists only in the final layers. It falls rapidly within a thickness of
few layers
• The hardness of the core is independent of the number of thermal cycles 43

Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

Multi-Layer Experiments: GMAW - Tensile Test (MS)

Dimensions of ASTM A370 test specimen

• These specimens should

be prepared in all the three
direction viz.,
o build direction,
o torch direction and
o step over direction
• few specimens can be
prepared for each of X, Y Plan of specimens for X and Y directions Plan of specimens for Z direction
and Z directions.

44

22
 10-04-2025

Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

Multi-Layer Experiments: GMAW - Tensile Test (MS)
The Z direction is weaker by about 20% in
yield strength and 11% in ultimate strength.
This was because of insufficient penetration.

Ultimate strength in the three different directions

45

Wire Metal Additive Manufacturing

Multi-Layer Experiments: GMAW - Tensile Test (MS)

Ultimate strength
Current (A)
(MPa)
70 455
80 468
90 494
100 524

Ultimate strength in the vertical direction for different values of current 46

23
 10-04-2025

Challenges with 3D Printing

• High cost of materials due to maintaining purity of particles
and required particle shape and size
• Unreliability of machines - 20% rejection rate
• Challenges scaling up technology
• Speed of product manufacture
• Environmental Concerns
• Surface finish
• Resolution
• Mechanical properties
• Post processing
47

Thank you
for your kind attention

48

24