Chapter 1

Electrostatics

Compiled by

Md. Rifat Ul Islam

Mathematical Problems Curated by

Abdullah Al Sakib

Fall 2025

This book is a compilation of publicly available information from various online and academic sources, intended
solely for educational use in PHY102: Physics II course at Daffodil International University and similar courses at
other institutions. It should not be redistributed or republished without proper attribution to the original sources
 Chapter 1 Electrostatics MRI | AAS

Chapter 1: eleCtrostatiCs

1.1 Charge and Matter

1.1.1 Electricity and Electric Charge

Electricity is the flow of charge, and it is one of the basic forms of energy. It is associated with
electric charge, a property of atomic particles such as electrons and protons. Electric charges can
be stationary, as in static electricity, or moving, as in an electric current. Electricity can be
generated from many different sources. It can be sent almost instantly over long distances and can
also be stored. Moreover, it can be converted efficiently into other forms of energy. Due to this
versatility, electricity is an integral part of modern life. To understand electricity, we first need to
know about charges.

Charge

Charge is a fundamental and characteristic property of the elementary particle that makes up
matter. This property creates a force on one another. These properties are mainly electrons and
protons.

Types of Charge

There are two types of electric charges: positive and negative. Positively charged substances are
repelled from other positively charged substances, but attracted to negatively charged substances;
negatively charged substances are repelled from negative and attracted to positive. An object is
negatively charged if it has an excess of electrons, and is otherwise positively charged or
uncharged. The SI derived unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C).

Coulomb

A coulomb is defined as the amount of charge that flows through a given cross-section of a wire
in one second if there is a steady current of one ampere in the wire. Symbolically, it is denoted by
C.

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1.1.2 Conservation of Charge

Conservation of charge means the total net charge of any system is constant. When a glass rod is
rubbed with silk, a positive charge appears on the rod and a negative charge of equal magnitude
appears on the silk. So that rubbing does not create charge but merely transfers charge from one
object to another, slightly disturbing the electrical neutrality of each. In other words, no new charge
is created or destroyed but is slightly transferred. The net charge before and after rubbing is the
same. So, the conservation rule is satisfied, and we say that charge is conserved.

1.1.3 Quantization of Charge

Quantization of charge means the flow of charge in a conductor is not continuous, but it is made
up of a certain minimum electric charge. The minimum amount of charge is the electron charge,
or electron also the magnitude of the proton charge. The magnitude of this charge is 1.6×10-19 C.

Experimentally, it is established that all free charges are integral multiples of a basic unit of charge
denoted by e. Thus, q on a body is always given by, q = ne,

where n (1, 2, 3…) is any integer, positive or negative. This basic unit of charge is the charge that
an electron or proton carries. By convention, the charge on an electron is taken to be negative;
therefore, the charge on an electron is written as –e and that on a proton as +e. The fact that electric
charge is always an integral multiple of e is termed as quantization of charge.

1.1.4 Duality of Charge

Duality of charge means that electric charge exists in two types:

(i) Positive charge (e.g., carried by protons)

(ii) Negative charge (e.g., carried by electrons)

This dual nature is fundamental to all electrostatics.

1.1.5 Coulomb's Law

This is a law of physics describing the electrostatic interaction between charged particles. The law
was first published in 1785 by French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb. Electrostatics is

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a branch of physics that deals with the phenomena and properties of stationary or slow-moving
electric charges with no acceleration.

Statement: “The electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two stationary point charges
is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them. The force acts along the line joining the two charges.”

If the two charges have the same sign, the electrostatic force between them is repulsive; if they
have different signs, the force between them is attractive.

Explanation: Let us consider two-point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance d. According to

Coulomb’s law,

Figure 1. Two charges are separated by a distance d

𝑞1 𝑞2
F∝
𝑑2

𝑞1 𝑞2
F=k
𝑑2

Where K is a proportional constant.

1
K = (4𝜋𝜀 )
0

Finally,

1 𝑞 𝑞
F=( ) 1 22
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑑

Where, 𝜀0 is the permittivity of the free space and o = 8.854×10-12 C2/ N.m2

1
And K = (4𝜋𝜀 ) = 9×109 N.m2/C2
0

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Limitations of Coulomb’s Law

Coulomb’s law fails to explain the stability of the nucleus, since, in a nucleus, there are several
protons, all having the positive charge. According to Coulomb’s law, they should repel each other.
But actually, they do not push themselves apart because the nucleus has a stable identity. Hence,
here Coulomb’s law fails.

1.2 Electric Field

1.2.1 Definition and Concept

The space surrounding an electric charge within which it is capable of exerting a force on another
electric charge is called the field. An electric field is generated by electrically charged particles
and time-varying magnetic fields.

Figure 2 shows an electric field produced by a positive and a negative charge.

Figure 2. Electric field produced by a positive and a negative charge

1.2.2 Electric Field Strength (Intensity)

The electric field strength or electric field intensity E at a point is expressed in magnitude and
direction by the force per unit charge experienced by a small positive test charge qo placed at that
point.

Mathematically, the electric field strength or electric field intensity (E) at the point is defined as

𝐹
E=
𝑞0
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The value of qo should be so small that it should not disturb the electric field. In this case, the
above equation can be written as

𝐹
E = lim 𝑞
𝑞0 →0 0

1.2.3 Lines of Force

Lines of force are imaginary lines representing the direction and strength of an electric field. The
lines start on positive charges, end on negative charges, never cross, and are denser where the field
is stronger.

Figure 3. Lines of force between a positive and a negative charge

1.3 Electric Flux

1.3.1 Definition and Concept

Electric flux is the rate of flow of the electric field through a given area. Electric flux is proportional
to the number of electric field lines going through a virtual surface. If the electric field is uniform,
the electric flux passing through a surface of vector area S is

𝜙𝐸 = 𝑬. 𝑺 = 𝐸𝑆 cos 𝜃

Where E is the electric field, E is its magnitude, S is the area of the surface, and θ is the angle
between the electric field lines and the normal (perpendicular) to S.

Think of air blowing in through a window. How much air comes through the window depends
upon the speed of the air, the direction of the air, and the area of the window. We might call this
air that comes through the window the "air flux".

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Figure 4. Electric Flux

1.3.2 Gauss’s Law

1
Statement: “The total electric flux through a closed surface is equal to times the net charge
𝜀0
enclosed by that surface.”

𝑞
Mathematically, 𝜙𝐸 = 𝜀
0

⟹ 𝜙𝐸 𝜀0 = 𝑞 ……….. (1)

This can be written by using the integral form, 𝜙𝐸 = ∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝑺

Therefore, ∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝑺 = q

This is the mathematical expression of Gauss’s law in form. Where ds is a very small surface.

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[Link] Coulomb’s law from Gauss’s law

Let us consider a spherical surface of radius r, centered on a point charge q, from Gauss’s law

𝜀0 ∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝑺 = q ……. (1)

Figure 5. Gauss's Law applied to a point charge with a spherical Gaussian surface

In Figure 5, both E and ds at any point on the Gaussian surface are directed radially outward.
The angle between them is zero.

Therefore, E. ds = E. ds cos 𝜃 . = E ds cos 0° = E ds

Then from equation (1),

𝜀0 ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑞 ……. (2)

E is constant for all points on the surface

𝜀0 𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑆 = q ……. (3)

Here, the integral is simple and the area of the sphere, therefore,

𝜀0 𝐸 (4πr2) = q

1 𝑞
⟹ E = (4𝜋𝜀 ) 2
𝑟
….. (4)
0

Let us put a second point charge qo at the point at which E is calculated. The magnitude of the
force that acts on it is

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F = qo E ……. (5)

Combining equations (4) and (5),

1 𝑞𝑞
F = (4𝜋𝜀 ) 20
0 𝑟

This is precisely Coulomb’s law. Thus, we have deduced Coulomb’s law from Gauss’s law.

1.3.3 Applications of Gauss's Law

[Link] Flux near a wire

Figure 6. Electric flux near a wire

Let the linear charge density be λ (number of charges per unit length), and the intensity of the
electric field at point P is to be determined.

For the application of Gauss’s law, we require a Gaussian surface. For this purpose, we draw a
cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius r and axis coinciding with the linear charge AB. Point P lies
on the curved surface of the cylinder. The enclosed charge, Σq = λ l

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[Link] Flux Through a Cylindrical Surface

Figure 7. Electric flux through a cylindrical surface

Figure 7 shows a portion of a thin, nonconducting, infinite sheet of charge. Let σ be the surface
charge density, i.e., charge per unit area of the sheet. The electric intensity E⃗ at equidistant points
on opposite sides of the sheet must have the same magnitude, and the direction will be
perpendicular outwards from the sheet. Let us imagine a cylinder of length h and radius r, which
is perpendicular to the sheet, whose surface will be considered as the Gaussian surface. So, the
total amount of charge confined within the cylinder, that is, the total charge within the circular area
πr² of radius r of the sheet, is q = σπr². Let the two ends of the cylinder be bounded by plane
surfaces and be equidistant from the sheet. The direction of E⃗ at these plane surfaces will be
perpendicular to the sheet, pointing outwards. So, the direction of E⃗ and dS⃗ will be the same. At
the curved surface of the cylinder, the direction of E⃗ will be along the direction of the cylinder, so
E⃗ and dS⃗ are perpendicular to each other.

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[Link] Calculate the electric flux for a cylindrical surface immersed in a

uniform electric field. The field is parallel to the cylindrical axis

The flux can be written as the sum of three terms. The left cylindrical cap, the right cap, and the
surface.

Thus, for the left cap, the flux

ΦE = ∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝑺 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆. cos 180° = E ∮ 𝑑𝑆= - E S

Where, S = πr2

Similarly, for the right cap, the flux

ΦE = ∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝑺= ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆. cos 0° = E∮ 𝑑𝑆 = E S

Finally, for the cylindrical wall, the flux

ΦE = ∮ 𝑬. 𝒅𝑺= ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆. cos 90° = 0

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Thus, flux for the closed cylindrical surface is

ΦE = -ES + ES + 0 = 0

1.4 Electric Dipole

Definition: “An electric dipole is a system of two equal and opposite charges (+q and –q) separated
by a small distance d or 2l (direction from –q to +q).”

The dipole itself has zero net charge, but because the charges are opposite and separated, it creates
a special electric field pattern.

The strength of a dipole is measured by its dipole moment:

P = q×d = q×2l

In an external electric field, the dipole experiences a torque that tries to align it with the field.

Figure 6. Electric Dipole

1.5 Electric Potential or Electric Field Potential or Electrostatic Potential

1.5.1 Definition and Calculation

The electric potential at a point in an electric field is the work required to bring a unit positive
electric charge from infinity to the point.

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Suppose we have two points A and B in an electric field. We have a test charge qo from B to A. If
the work, done by the agent moving the charge WAB, then

𝑊𝐴𝐵
Electric potential difference VA – VB = …... (1)
𝑞0

Usually, point B is considered to be at infinite distance. In this case, VB is assumed to be zero.

Putting VB = 0 and VA = V, Equation number 1 becomes

𝑊
V=
𝑞0

This equation gives the general representation of electric potential.

1.5.2 Electric Potential due to a point charge

Let us consider two points a and b in an electrostatic field of a single isolated point charge +q.

If a unit positive charge 'q' moves from ‘a’ to 'b' without acceleration, then the potential
difference between ‘a’ and 'b' is given as

Vb – Va= ∫ E . dr = ∫ E dr cos180° [ But, E . dr = E dr cos 180° = - E dr ]

Vb – Va= - ∫ [Link] …………………………. (1)

From equation (1)

𝑞
Vb– Va = - ∫𝑟 𝑏 𝐸 𝑑𝑟 [ but E = ].
𝑟
𝑎 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

𝑞 𝑟𝑏
Vb– Va = - ∫𝑟𝑎 𝑟2 𝑑𝑟
4𝜋𝜀0

𝑞 1 1
∴ Vb– Va = [ − ]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑏 𝑟𝑎

1 𝑞
If the point 'a' is at infinity, then Vb =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑏

Choosing the reference point a to be an infinite distance, ra ⟶ ∞ and Va = 0

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Then equation (1) can be written as,

1 𝑞
Vb = V =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

From the above, it is evident that for a given charge 'q', the potential depends only on 'r'. Therefore,
if the charge is positive, the potential is positive, and if the charge is negative, the potential is
negative.

1.5.3 Electric Potential at a point due to a dipole

Let two equal and opposite charges, +q and –q, be placed at a short distance d. P is a point which
is at a distance r1 from +q distance r2 from –q charge. We need to find the electric potential at P
due to the dipole.

1 𝑞
The expression of electric potential at a point of distance r from a charge q is V =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

1 𝑞
So, the electric potential at p due to +q charge V1 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1

1 𝑞
and for – q charge V2 = (− )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
+q r1
So, mutual potential at P is

V = V1 + V2 d
1 𝑞 𝑞
= ( − ) r2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 𝑟2 -q r2 – r1
1 𝑟2 −𝑟1 From Figure
= q( )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑟2 −𝑟1
cos θ=
1 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑟1 𝑟2
= q( )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 𝑟2
Then 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 = 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
1 𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= ( ) Electric Dipole Moment,
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 𝑟2
p=q×d

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If r1 and r2 >> d, and r1 r2 == r2

Then

1 𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
V= ( 2 ) …………. (1)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

This is an expression for the electric potential at a point due to a dipole.

1.5.4 Electric Potential Energy

The electric potential energy, U, of a system of point charges is the work, W, required to assemble
the system by moving the charges from an infinite distance to their final positions. It's assumed
that the charges start at rest with zero initial kinetic energy. The work done by an external force
against the electrostatic forces is stored as the system's potential energy.

The work required, and thus the potential energy, depends on the nature of the charges:

• Like charges: The electrostatic force is repulsive, so an external force must do positive
work to bring them together. Therefore, the electric potential energy is positive (U>0).

• Unlike charges: The electrostatic force is attractive, so the external force must do negative
work (or the field does positive work) to hold them apart as they are brought together. This
results in negative electric potential energy (U<0).

The potential energy of a two-charge system is given by the equation:

𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 Where,
𝑼=𝒌
𝒓 • k is Coulomb's constant (8.99×109 N⋅m2/C2)
• q1 and q2 are the magnitudes of the two charges
• r is the distance between the charges

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Coulomb's Law
1. Two protons in an iron nucleus are at a distance of 4 × 10⁻¹⁵ m. Find the electric force acting
between them.

2. Two equally charged pith balls are separated by 2.0 mm in air. They repel each other with a
force of 4 × 10⁻⁵ N. Calculate the charge on each pith ball.

3. Values of two-point charges are +5 C and +2 C, respectively. They are situated 2 cm apart. At
which point in the line joining them will the electric intensity be zero?

4. Values of two-point charges are +90 μC and -10 μC, respectively. They are situated 20 cm
apart. At which point in the line joining them will the electric intensity be zero?

Electric Field and Electric Flux

5. A circular plane sheet of radius 10 cm is placed in a uniform electric field of 5 × 10⁵ N/C,
making an angle of 60° with the field. Find the electric flux through the sheet.

6. A small sphere charged with 1.6 × 10⁻⁹ C is placed in air. Find the electric intensity at a
distance of 0.15 m from the center of the sphere.

7. The length of a thin rod is 3 m. The rod is uniformly charged with a 6 nC charge. Find the
electric intensity 0.5 m away from the center of the rod.

8. A square surface measures 5.5 mm on each side. It is immersed in a uniform electric field of
intensity 500 N/C. The electric lines of force make an angle of 40° with the outward-pointing
normal to the surface. Calculate the flux through the surface.

9. The intensity of a uniform electric field is E = (3 î + 2 ĵ + 6 k̂) N/C. What is the electric flux
through a plane of area 50 m² placed in the YZ plane?

10. +3 × 10⁻⁶ C charge is confined in a rectangular Gaussian surface in a vacuum. Find the
electric flux through that surface.

Electric Potential and Work

11. A charge of 20 μC produces an electric field. Two points are at distances of 10 cm and 5 cm
from the charge. Find the work done in moving an electron from one point to another.

12. In each corner of a square with a side length of 2 m, charges of 2 × 10⁻⁹ C are placed.
Calculate the potential at the center of the square.