3.
Waves
3.1. General Properties of Waves
Progressive waves carry energy from one place to another without
transferring matter.
Two Types of Progressive Waves
Transverse waves
Longitudinal waves
Wavelength (λλ): Distance between 2 successive crests/ troughs.
Frequency (ff): Number of complete waves created per second,
measured in hertz (Hz).
Wave speed (v)v): Distance moved by a crest or any point on the wave
in 1 second.
Amplitude (aa): Height of a crest or depth of a trough from the
undisturbed or mean position.
Phase: Particles in ‘phase’ have the same speed and direction of
vibration.
Wave equation
Faster vibration produces a shorter wavelength.
Therefore, a higher frequency results in a smaller wavelength.
Wave equation:
v = f x λ
Wavefronts and rays
Wavefront: A straight line where the wave has the same phase at all
points.
Ray: Line drawn at right angles to a wavefront showing the direction of
travel.
Reflection of a wave at a plane surface
Straight water waves (transverse waves) hit a metal strip in a ripple
tank at xx° angle.
Angle of incidence (i)(i) and angle of reflection (r)(r)are both xx° .
Angle of incidence equals angle of reflection: (i=r)(i=r)
Same wavelength as reflected wave
Same wave speed Refraction
Continuous straight waves in shallow water have shorter wavelengths
than in deeper water.
Waves in shallower water have a smaller speed and smaller
wavelength.
When waves move from less dense to more dense regions, they bend
towards the normal (water waves speed up due to larger wavelengths),
(light waves slow down due to smaller wavelengths)
When waves move from dense to less dense regions, they bend away
from normal (water waves slow down due to smaller wavelengths),
(light waves speed up due to bigger wavelengths)
Diffraction
Straight water waves meet narrow gaps and create circular
wavefronts.
Diffraction can also occur at the edges of obstacles causing wave
spreading.
3.2. Reflection and Refraction of Light
Light travels in a path called a ray.
A beam is a stream of light shown by several rays.
Beams can be parallel, diverging, or converging.
Speed of Light
The speed of light is about 1 million times faster than the speed of
sound.
The speed of light is 3×1083×108 meters per second.
Reflection of light against a plane mirror
The normal is perpendicular to the mirror at the point where the
incident ray strikes.
The angle of incidence (i)(i) is between the incident ray and the normal.
The angle of reflection (r)(r) is between the reflected ray and the
normal.
The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle
of reflection.
Real and Virtual Images
A real image can be produced on a screen and is formed by rays that
pass through the screen.
A virtual image cannot be formed on a screen.
A virtual image is produced by rays that seem to come from it but do
not pass through it.
The image in a plane mirror is virtual. Rays from an object are
reflected at the mirror and appear to come from a point behind the
mirror where the rays would meet when extrapolated (extended)
backward.
Refractive Index
Light refracts due to speed change when entering a different medium.
In air, light travels at 300,000300,000 km/skm/s (3×1083×108 m/sm/s)
In glass, it slows to 200,000 km/skm/s (2 × 10⁸ m/sm/s)
Refractive index (n)(n) is the ratio of light speed in air to light speed in
the medium.
For glass: n=300,000km/s200,000km/s=32=1.5n=200,000km/s300,000km/s=23=1.5
Refractive index is the ratio of speeds of a wave in two different
regions.
Experimentally it is true that n=sin(i)sin(r)n=sin(r)sin(i) where (i)(i) is the
angle in air and (r)(r) is the angle in glass.
Higher refractive index means greater bending of light as it slows down
more.
Critical Angle
When light passes from an optically denser to an optically less dense
medium at small angles of incidence, there is a strong refracted ray
and a weak reflected ray.
Increasing the angle of incidence increases the angle of refraction.
Critical angle (cc) occurs when the angle of refraction is 90°.
For angles of incidence greater than (cc), light undergoes total internal
reflection.
Total internal reflection means that the light does not cross the
boundary and reflects inside the denser medium.
For the critical angle: sin(c)=1nsin(c)=n1 where nn is the refractive index.
3.3. Lenses
Converging and Diverging Lenses
A converging (or convex) lens is thickest in the center and bends light
inwards.
A diverging (or concave) lens is the thinnest in the center and spreads
the light out.
The center of a lens is its optical center (C)(C) and the line
through CC at right angles to the lens is the principal axis.
Principal focus
When a beam of light (parallel to the principal axis) passes through a
converging lens, it refracts to converge at a point called the principal
focus (F)(F).
The principal focus of a converging lens is a real focus.
A diverging lens has a virtual principal focus behind the lens, from
which the refracted beam appears to diverge.
A lens has two principal focuses, one on each side, each equidistant
from the optical center (C)(C).
The distance (CFCF) is the focal length (f)(f) of the lens.
Ray diagrams
A ray parallel to the principal axis is refracted through the principal
focus (F)(F).
A ray through the optical center (C)(C) is undeviated (not refracted) for
a thin lens.
A ray through the principal focus (F)(F) is refracted parallel to the
principal axis.
The intersection of rays (in one beam) after refraction gives the
location of the image.
How to draw a ray diagram step-by-step
Parallel Ray (Ray 1):
Draw a straight line (parallel to the principal axis).
Start the line from the top of the object towards the lens.
After refraction through the lens, draw this direct ray through the focal
point FF on the opposite side of the lens.
Central Ray (Ray 2):
Draw a straight line from the top of the object through the optical
center CC of the lens.
This ray will continue in the same direction without bending at all.
Image formed:
These two will intersect on the opposite side of the lens to form the
image of the object.
Magnification
The linear magnification (M)(M) is given by:
M=image sizeobject sizeM=object sizeimage size
Magnification can also be expressed as:
M=distance of image from lensdistance of object from lensM=distance of object from len
sdistance of image from lens
Image properties at different object positions are shown below:
Object Position Image Position Image Nature Image Size
At 2F At 2F Real, inverted Same size
Between 2F and F Beyond 2F Real, inverted Larger
At F At infinity Real, inverted Infinitely large
Object Position Image Position Image Nature Image Size
Between F and lens On the same side of lens Virtual, upright Larger
Applications of Lenses in Vision Correction
Short-Sightedness (Myopia)
Cause: The eye lens focuses light in front of the retina instead of
on it. This causes distant objects to appear blurry.
Correction: A diverging (concave) lens is used to spread out
light rays before they enter the eye, so the lens can focus them
correctly on the retina.
Long-Sightedness (Hypermetropia)
Cause: The eye lens focuses light behind the retina. This causes
nearby objects to appear blurry.
Correction: A converging (convex) lens is used to focus light
rays closer together before they enter the eye, so they focus
correctly on the retina.