Particle size and Defining a

Particle shape Size fine particles

characterization measurement of
Particle size
Course Distribution (defining a fine particles Measurement
investigation
particle/distribut
ion) Sieving
Industrial screening
equipment

Primary/Coarse size
reduction

Size Reduction Intermediate size

reduction
Particulate solid handling
Fine size reduction
and their properties Dynamics of Filtration
Classification particle in
liquid
medium Sedimentation
Solid-Liquid
separation
Separation Flotation

Miscellaneous
methods
Solid-Gas separation
Dynamics of Fluidization
Storage, Handling Storage of solids particle in gas
and Transport of medium
Solids Transport of solids
Comminution/
Size Reduction
 Resource
➢ Books

➢ Relevant journal papers mentioned in the individual topics

 Introduction

➢ Comminution is the generic term for size reduction.

➢ It is an operation that is omnipresent in process industries.
➢ Solid particles can be reduced in size by compression, shear, impact, attrition(rubbing) or by cutting or tearing.

➢ Compression, impact or shearing loads are used for breaking brittle materials like coal and minerals whereas
fibrous materials like wood and asbestos are disintegrated by exerting tearing loads.
The Mechanism of Size Reduction

Stress Strain Fracture in lines of

Released Heat
Weakness

Grinding is achieved by mechanical stress followed by rupture and the energy required
depends upon:
1. the hardness of the material
2. the tendency of the material to crack (friability).

The force applied may be compression, impact, or shear, and both the magnitude of
the force and the time of application affect the extent of grinding achieved.
Comminution Laws

Kick’s Law (1885):

The original form of the law says that “energy required to produce analogues changes of configuration of
geometrically similar bodies varies as the volumes or masses of these bodies”

➢ The above statement is not valid when new surfaces are created

The modified Kick’s law that can be applied to crushing states that “the work required for crushing a
given mass of material is constant for the same reduction ratio irrespective of original size”

P DVS ,F
W = = K k ln ……(3)
m DVS , P
Comminution Laws

➢ The laws on comminution proposed by different authors help us determine the energy consumed in
comminution.
Rittinger’s Law (1867):
➢ The law says that “The work done in crushing is proportional to the surface exposed by the operation”

P 6K R  1 1   1 1 
W = = K R ( s p − sF ) =  −  = KR 
'
− 
m  s  DVS , P DVS ,F   DVS , P DVS ,F 
1 ……(2)
KR is the Rittinger’s constant and is the Rittinger’s number.
KR
➢ Rittinger’s number is defined as the new surface created per unit mechanical energy absorbed by
the metrical being crushed.

➢ Determined by drop test method

 Force Force

X X
Cube 2

Cube 1
X'

X’
Force
Line of deformation
Line of deformation

Force
 After Breakage
Cube 1 Cube 2
Plane of breakage X-X’ Plane of breakage X-X’
New area created 2A
New area created 2× A/4

X X

X X

A A A/4 A/4

X’ X’
X’ X’

Let area of one side of the cube 1 is A

 Cube 1 Cube 2
Area of one section = A Area of one section = A/4

Let average resistance to shear per sq. in. = F

Distance traveled by the to rapture the cube = D Distance traveled by the to rapture the cube = D

Energy = F×A×D Energy = F×A/4×D

Surface Produced = 2 A Surface Produced = 2 A/4

Energy  new surface created

 Rittingers’s Number
Mineral [Link]./ft-lb Sq. cm/ft-lb Sq. cm/kg-cm
Quartz (SiO2) 37.7 243 17.56
Pyrite (FeS2) 48.7 314 22.57
Sphalerite (ZnS) 121.0 780 56.2
Calcite (CaCO3) 163.3 1053 75.2
Galena (PbS) 201.5 1300 93.8
Dependency on physical structure

➢ Marble is a metamorphic rock composed of recrystallized carbonate

minerals most commonly calcite or dolomite.

➢ Chalk is a soft, white, porous, sedimentary carbonate rock, a form

of limestone composed of the mineral calcite.

➢ Chemically there is no difference in them but they differ in their physical

structure.
Bond’s Law (1952)

➢ It stats that “total work useful in breakage that has been applied to a given weight of homogeneous
broken material is inversely proportional to the square root of the average size of product particles,
directly proportional to the length of crack tips formed and directly proportional to the square root of
new surface created”
Or

➢ It stats that “work required to form particle of size Dp from very large feed is proportional to the
square root of the surface-to-volume ratio of the product”

P  1 1 
W = = Kb  −  ……(4)
m  DP DF 
➢ Bond constant (Kb) is evaluated by defining Work index
➢ Work index (Wi) is defined as the gross energy requirement in kilowatt hours per ton
of feed needed to reduce a very large feed to such a size that 80 percent of the product
passes a 100 μm screen.
➢ If P in kilowatts, and ṁ in tons per hour,
a) K b = 100Wi = 10Wi When Dp is in microns

b) K b = 100  10−3Wi = 0.3162Wi When Dp is in millimeters

➢ If 80 percent of the feed passes a mesh size of DF millimeters and 80 percent of the
product passes a mesh size of Dp millimeters, then
P  1 1 
W = = 0.3162Wi  − 
m  D D  ……(5)
 P F 
➢ Alternatively we can also write

P 100  1 
W = = Wi  1−  ……(6)
m DP  RR 

DF
Where, Dp is in microns and RR = (Reduction ratio)
DP
Work Index (Wi)

Material Specific Gravity Work index (kWh/tonne)

Limestone 2.66 12.74
Gypsum rock 2.69 6.73
Quartz 2.65 13.57
Cement clinker 3.15 13.45
Coal 1.40 13.00
bauxite 2.20 8.78
Revised Bond’s theory

➢ In 1957, Holmes (2) pointed out that, starting from Kick’s law, Bond’s third theory should be revised as
follows:

r
P  100   1 
W = = Wi   1 − r  ……(7)
m  DP   ( RR) 

r is called a deviation from Kick’s law

He demonstrated that r varies from 0.25 to 0.73 for several materials, and that such a concept leads to
a more consistent work index, Wi, than that calculated by Bond.
Energy for size reduction

➢ For efficient grinding, the energy applied to the material should exceed, by as small a margin as
possible, to the minimum energy needed to rupture the material.
➢ Excess energy is lost as heat and this loss should be kept as low as practicable.
➢ Grinding is a very inefficient process and it is important to use energy as efficiently as possible.

➢ Three theories/laws depend upon the basic assumption that the work done/Energy required to
produce a change dL in a particle of a typical size dimension L is a simple power function of L

dL
dW = −C n ……(1) Where, dW is the differential work done, dL is the
change in a typical dimension, L is the characteristic
L length
General Form
dL
dW = −C n
L

n=1 Kick’s Law

n=2 Rittinger’s Law

n=1.5 Bond’s Law

A graph comparing the energy
requirement for crushing the particles
v/s the particle diameter for the three
laws, i.e, Rittinger’s law, Kick’s law and
Bond’s law.
Problem 1

Sugar is ground from crystals of which it is acceptable that 80% pass a 500 μm sieve
(Standard Sieve No.35), down to a size in which it is acceptable that 80% passes a 88
μm (Standard Sieve No. 170) sieve, and a motor working at 5 HP ( working at 90% of its
full power) is used for the required throughput. If the requirements are changed such
that the grinding is only down to 80% through a 125 μm (No.120) sieve but the
throughput is to be increased by 50% would the existing motor have sufficient power
to operate the grinder? Assume Bond's law to be valid.

Ans: The motor has to run 98 % of its full power to meet the requirement

22
Problem 2

A grinder is to be used ( which is 8% efficient) to handle 10 tonnes (1 tonne= 1000 kg) per
hour of an ore ( specific gravity = 2.65). The feed and product analysis are given below
Mass Fraction
Screen Size, mm
Feed Product
-3.327 +2.362 0.143 0.0
-2.362 +1.651 0.211 0.0
-1.651 +1.168 0.230 0.0
-1.168 +0.833 0.186 0.098
-0.833 +0.589 0.120 0.234
-0.589 +0.417 0.076 0.277
-0.417 +0.295 0.034 0.149
-0.295 +0.208 0.0 0.101
-0.208 +0.147 0.0 0.068
-0.147 +0.104 0.0 0.044
-0.104 0.0 0.029 23
The grinder costs Rs. 40,000. It operates on a 24 hour basis for 300 days per year and
the miscellaneous cost amount to 50% of the power cost. Electricity costs 70 p. per
kWh. If the machine depreciates on a straight line basis for 10 years, estimate the
annual processing cost of the ore if the work index of the ore is 13.57 kWh/ tonne.

Ans: Rs. 20.656 lakh

24
Ans:
Open Circuit: 68.76 kW
Closed Circuit: 19.4 kW
Effectiveness: 78.09%
 Problem 4:
Mass Fraction
Mesh size (mm)
Make-up feed Discharge Oversize
to crusher from crusher from screen
Sphalerite having density of 4000 kg/m3 is
-6.680+4.699 0.07 0 0
-4.699+3.327 0.22 0 0 fed to crusher at 10000 kg/h in a closed
-3.327+2.362 0.035 0 0 circuit. Crushed material passes through
-2.362+1.651 0.24 0 0 screen of 0.417 mm size. Rittinger’s number
-1.651+1.168 0.08 0.02 0.03 for the material being crushed is 0.573 m2/J.
-1.168+0.833 0.04 0.04 0.06
The crusher consumes 3.5 KW when running
-0.833+0.592 0 0.06 0.09
empty and 6.5 kW when crushing the
-0.592+0.417 0 0.08 0.12
material. Compute the overall and theoretical
-0.417+0.296 0 0.32 0.34
efficiency of the crusher.
-0.296+0.208 0 0.29 0.22
-0.208+0.147 0 0.12 0.09
-0.147+0.104 0 0.05 0.05
-0.104+0.074 0 0.02 0
Make-up feed to crusher = F, Discharge from crusher =Pc
oversize from screen =R
Ans:
Overall efficiency: 8.785%
Theoretical efficiency: 19.03%
Crushing Efficiency

➢ The ratio of surface energy created by crushing to the energy absorbed by the solid
is the crushing efficiency and is denoted by c

➢ If es is the surface energy per unit area, sp and sF are the specific surface areas of
product and feed, respectively, then the the energy absorbed by a unit mass of the
material (Wn)

es (s p − sF )
Wn = ………..(11)
c
➢ The surface energy created by the fracture is small in comparison with the total
mechanical energy stored in the material at the time of rupture.
Ref. McCabe, Smith
➢ Rest are converted into heat during the time of rapture.

➢ Crushing efficiency range between 0.1 to 2 %.

➢ The energy absorbed by the solid Wn is less than that fed to the machine.

➢ The ratio of energy absorbed to the energy input is  m , the mechanical

efficiency.
➢ The energy input to the machine per unit mass (W) is

Wn es (s p − sF )
W= = ………..(12)
m mc
➢ So the power required by the machine is

mes (s p − sF )
P = Wm =
mc
Where, 𝑚ሶ is the mass flow rate of the feed.

➢ If the sauter diameter of the feed and product is DVS,F and DVS,P respectively then

6mes  1 1  6
P=  −  ………..(13) sp =
mc  s  DVS , P DVS ,F   s DVS
Several probabilities involved
1. whether or not the particle hits an objective.

2. whether collision is strong enough to produce a stress larger than the breaking
stress of the material.

3. whether crack tips within a solid will propagate and eventually break the solid.

The general equation should include these three different probabilities, along
1
with n
L
Since specific surface is inversely proportional to particle size, equation 1 can
be rewritten as follows:
dL
dW = −C n
……(1)
L
ds
= C 1LN
……(8) Where, N = n-2
dE

E is the energy required to crush a unit weight of particles of the size L.

The dependence of C on particle size and crushing mechanism must be

further clarified to include the uncertainties.
The equation proposed

ds
= K ( Pc )( P )( Pa ) LN ……(9)
dE

Where,
Pc is the probability of collision,
Pσ the probability that the material’s breaking stress will be exceeded,
Pa the probability of crack tip propagation,
and K is a constant.
Pc Pσ Pa
Probability of collision

The theory governing the striking of an objective by a particle is described by the

interrelationship between target efficiency, ηT , and separation number, ψ .

L v p
2
Where, D is the diameter of the objective and v is the
=
18 D particle impact velocity and L is the characteristic length
of the particle and μ is the viscosity of the surrounding
fluid (mostly air)
 ηT = Pc

ψ
Probability of Exceeding Breaking Stress
According to Hertz , the maximum stress produced in a material at impact is expressed by:

1 3 4
−
 m1m2  2
 1 1   1 − 1 1 −  2 
5 5 5
 max = a  v  +  
5
+ 
 m1 + m2   r1 r2   1 2 
where m1 and m2 are the masses of the two bodies

r1 and r2 the radii of curvature of the bodies at an impact point

ε1 and ε2 are the moduli of elasticity; β1 and β2 are Poisson’s ratio of the bodies.
v is the relative velocity of the particle
Rumpf, H., Chem. Ing. Tech. 31, 323 (1959).
Probability of Exceeding Breaking Stress
The probability of exceeding the breaking stress of material is proposed as

r a is the breaking stress of a material

 a 
P = 1 − 
  max 

where r is an empirical constant that can be determined from experimental data.

When σa = σmax, Pσ = 0, and when σmax is much greater than σa , then Pσ approaches unity,
which corresponds to an actual crushing phenomenon.

I & EC PROCESS DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT, 5 (4), 1966

 Probability of crack tip propagation

− kP
Pa  e
P is the pressure within the crusher and k is a constant which depends on the crushing mechanism

Final Correlation
m
 a  − kP
s = E  K  Pc  1 −  e  L
N
……(10)
  max 
Problem 3

A material is crushed in a Blake jaw crusher such that the average size of particle is
reduced from 50 mm to 10 mm with the consumption of energy of 13.0 kW/(kg/s).
What would be the consumption of energy needed to crush the same material of
average size 75 mm to an average size of 25 mm :

a) Assuming Rittinger’s law applies? Ans: 4.33 Kj/kg

b) Assuming Kick’s law applies? Ans: 8.87 kJ/kg
c) Assuming Bonds’s law applies? Ans: 6.28 kJ/kg

Which of these results would be regarded as being more reliable and why ?
Ans: Consumption of energy using Bond’s law / Kick’s law will give more accurate estimate for the given
problem

41
Different stages of size reduction

➢ Coarse size reduction ( Feed size 50 to 250mm or more)

• Equipment used are Crushers ( Ex: Jaw crusher, Gyraroty crusher, Crushing
rolls etc.)

➢ Intermediate size reduction ( Feed size in the range of 25 to 75mm)

• Equipment used are Grinders ( Ex: Hammer mills, Rolling- compression mills,
Attrition mills, Tumbling mills etc.)

➢ Fine size reduction ( Feed size in the range of 5 to 15mm)

• Equipment used are Ultrafine grinders ( Ex: Fluid energy mills, Agitated mills
etc.)
Size-Reduction Equipment

Size reduction equipment is divided into crushers,

grinders, ultrafine grinders, and cutting machines.

➢ Crushers (coarse size reduction ) do the heavy work

of breaking large pieces of solid materials into small
lumps.
• Primary Crusher breaks into 50-250mm lumps.
• Secondary Crusher breaks into ~ 6mm particles.

➢ Grinders (Intermediate size reduction) reduce

crushed feed to powder.

➢ Ultrafine grinder the product size is typically 1-50μm.

➢ Cutters give particles of definite shape and size, 2-10

mm in length.
Size Reduction Equipment – Breaking Pattern
Jaw Crusher
In a jaw crusher feed is admitted between two jaws, set to form a V open at the top. One jaw, the fixed, or anvil, jaw, is nearly vertical
and does not move; other, the swinging jaw, reciprocates in a horizontal plane. It makes an angle of 20o to 30o with the anvil [Link] is
driven by an eccentric so that it applies great compressive force to lumps caught between the jaws. The jaws open and close 250 to
400 times per minute.
Jaw crushers are classified on the basis of the position of the pivoting of the swing jaw
1. Blake crusher-the swing jaw is fixed at the upper position
2. Dodge crusher-the swing jaw is fixed at the lower position
3. Universal crusher-the swing jaw is fixed at an intermediate
position

The most common type of jaw crusher is the Blake crusher.

In this machine an eccentric drives a pitman connected to two
toggle plates, one of which is pinned to the frame and the other
to the swinging jaw.
Single-toggle Jaw Crusher
 Double-toggle Jaw Crusher

Largest particle size = 0.9 × Gape

The factors of importance in designing the size of primary crushers, such as a jaw crusher, are:
Blake (Double Toggle) Originally the standard jaw Overhead Pivot (Double Toggle) Similar
crusher used for primary and secondary crushing applications to Blake. Overhead pivot; reduces
of hard, tough abrasive rocks. Also for sticky feeds. rubbing on crusher faces, reduces choking, allows
Relatively coarse slabby product, with minimum higher speeds and therefore higher capacities.
fines. Energy efficiency higher because jaw and charge
not lifted during cycle.
Overhead Eccentric (Single Toggle) Originally
restricted to sampler sizes by structural limitations. Dodge Bottom pivot gives closer sized
Now in same size of Blake which it has tended to product than Blake,but Dodge is difficult
supersede, because overhead eccentric encourages to build in large sizes, and is prone to
feed and discharge, allowing higher speeds and choking. Generally restricted to laboratory
capacity, but with higher wear and more attrition used.
breakage and slightly lower energy efficiency.
Force on the moving jaw

Fx = ( F1 L tan  ) / 2 x
Fx

Force Balance on the movable jaw of a Double-toggle (Blake) Jaw Crusher

Gyratory Crusher
It consists essentially of a fixed crushing surface around the axis of which gyrates a movable crushing surface
which has the shape of a conical in the erect position. The material to be crushed is fed into the downward
converging annular space between these two crushing surfaces. It may be looked upon as a jaw crusher
wound around a vertical axis through the mid point of the swing jaw shaft.

Parts of a gyratory crusher -

1. Plate: made of cast steel and heavily ribbed as it forms the support of the driving seats.
2. Spider: made of cast iron in small machine and of hard steel in large machines, since it is only two armed
and is supporting the breaking head, it must be heavy and strongly formed to prevent any wear.

3. Spindle: it carries the maximum load and is therefore built of great strength and capable of withstand continuous shock or load.
4. Suspension bearing: it is a split steel nut with a downward taper and fits the sleeve of the spindle. It rests on the wearing rings of the
spider.
5. Gear: it is made mostly of cast steel.
6. Counter shaft bearing: it is made as a integral part of the bottom plate and is made extra long and capable of adjustment to take up
wear on the gear and
Operation of Gyratory Crusher
The crusher can be of short spindle, long spindle or fixed spider type. The
capacity varies with different types of materials and operations. The
capacity is expressed in terms of reduction tons.
Adjustments of gyratory crusher are a) width of discharge opening, b)throw
and c) speed.

a) Width of the discharge opening is made by raising or lowering the spindle

by means of adjustment nuts. In fixed spindle type the adjustment is made
by changing the annular *. Range of adjustment is limited because of change
in nip angle.

b) Throw is adjustable by changing the eccentric sleeves.

c) Reduction ratio varies between 3 and with an average of 6.

❖ Size of a gyratory crusher = gape x mantle diameter

Size distribution: The crushed product in gyratory crusher is finer. On an average 10% material is larger than open set whereas in
jaw crusher its 25%.
Comparison of Jaw and Gyratory Crusher -
1. Cost: gyratory crushers cost 29 to 72% of that of jaw crusher per ton of feed i.e. for same hourly reduction capacity and same
reduction ratio, same gape.
2. Installation:
a. cost proportional to weight of the machine
b. foundation – stronger in jaw crusher
c. housing more in gyratory
d. head room more in gyratory
e. vertical height more in gyratory
3. Feeding: easier in gyratory crusher than jaw crusher.
4. Efficiency: reduction per unit energy more in gyratory. Idle HP 40-50% in jaw and 30% in gyratory crusher.
5. Maintenance: higher cost in gyratory, labor cost several times more in gyratory
6. Feed: jaw crusher can take very hard feed, less choking, low angle of nip, so feed not thrown out.
7. Set: easily adjustable in jaw crusher.
8. Lubrication: higher lubricant quantity in gyratory but easily controllable.
Selection: The capacity of gyratory crusher for the same gape is several times more than in jaw crusher, so the selection
is on the basis of capacity.

If hourly capacity is tons/gape in sq is

< 0.115 select jaw crusher
> 0.115 select gyratory crusher

Assume gape D=10”

So theoretical length of L= 1.7 D = 17”
L x D = 170 sq. inch
Jaw crusher capacity 10 TPH
So, ratio is 10/170 i.e. < 0.115 hence select jaw crusher.
A gyratory crusher of the same gape size has a capacity of 33 TPH
Ratio= 33/170 > 0.115

*TPH=Tons Per Hour

 Roll Crusher
Rolls are generally used in the secondary crushing stage or stages. They are adopted to feed 2” or 3”
maximum size for crushing to as fine as 10-12 mesh (1.0 to 1.5 mm) though the more popular practice
is to feed 1” or less and final product is 5 to 10 mm. Nowadays rolls are being replaced by cone
crushers.

Smooth-roll crusher
 N sinθ

The radius of the roll

θ L − d cos 
R=
θ
2θ
2(cos  − 1)
Tcosθ
To estimate the radius R of the roll, the nip angle, 2θ is required
L

Roll Crusher Geometry

Compressive force, F, exerted by the rolls on the particle just prior to crushing, operating normal to the roll
surface
T
N sin  = T cos  or tan  = =   tan −1  = 
N
T
tan   =  is the necessary condition for the particle to be nipped
N
According to Wills , the roll speed ν ( rpm) is related to the kinetic coefficient of friction of the revolving
rolls, μK, by the relation

(1 + 1.12 )
K = 
(1 + 6 )
Roll Crusher Circuit
Capacity of Roll Crushers

Q =  60 DW L  B t/h Assumption:

➢ Particles are continuously fed from a

height
Where, ➢ Rolls are kept full all the time
D = diameter of roll (m)
W = width of roll (m) ➢ Product is in the form of a continuous
ν = speed (rpm) ribbon having the width of the roll and
thickness equal to the set.
L = set or distance between rolls (m)
ρB = bulk SG of the mineral (t/m3)
Wills BA. Mineral processing technology. 2nd ed
Oxford, New York Pergamon Press; 1981.
 The actual production will depend on the ‘ribbon factor, RF’ given by the
expression
Q
RF = 0.0095
 P LW
where Q = feed rate (t/h)
νP = peripheral speed of the roll (m/s)

modified equation introducing an efficiency factor,  and expressing capacity as

Q = 3600W P L  B t/h where

B = bulk density of the feed material (t/m3)
= efficiency factor which has a value between 0.15 and
0.30, depending on the roll gap or product size
Problem 4
A smooth surfaced roll crusher had a roll diameter of 910 mm. Its suitability to crush an
ore at 10.0 t/h was being examined. Preliminary examination showed that the kinetic
friction factor was 0.036 when the speed of revolution was 33 rpm. The average diameter
of particles fed to the crusher was 200 mm and the S.G. of the ore was 2.8.
Estimate:
1. the distance between the rolls,
2. the angle of nip,
3. the width of the rolls.
 Cone Crusher
Cone crusher is an intermediate crusher, very similar in construction to the
gyratory. The essential difference lies in the shape of crushing head which is
very much flared. Another difference is that the spindle is supported on the
bottom eccentric bearing. The head gyrates within a truncated cone which is
flared outwards in the crushing chamber to allow more volume or area of
crushing and more discharge area. The depth of cone is 1/3 rd of the diameter at
the base. The throw of the head is 5-9 times the setting as against in gyratory.
The large throw allows easy discharge of material. The speed of machine is kept
high to crush the material at least twice during its passage. In cone crusher feed
opening = 2 x gape.
Cone crushers are usually denoted by the diameters of the bottom of breaking
head in inches or feet. Capacities range up to 150 TPH with ¼” closed set to 900
TPH with 2 ½” closed set. RPM of the mills varies between 435-700 and power
up to 300 HP.
To prevent damage to the crushing surface due to tramp iron etc the bowl is
usually held by spring which release when hard material falls inside the crusher.
Problem 5
A set of coarse-sized screens was constructed from steel rods and used to evaluate the efficiency of a
60× 40cm Blake jaw crusher. Calcite was fed to the crusher at the rate of 45 tonne/hr driven by a 30
HP motor. The screen analysis of the feed and product is given bellow, Calculate
(a) The efficiency of the crusher assuming the motor to be operated at an average of 1/6 th of the
normal rating and
(b) the tonne/h of quartz that can be fed to the crusher and reduced to the same size range with the
same power
Data:
SG of Calcite =2.71
SG of quartz =2.65
Rittinger’s number of Calcite =76.05 cm2/[Link]
Rittinger’s number of quartz =17.51 cm2/[Link]
1 kg-m/s = 0.01315 hp
Assume the specific surface ratio to be the same for Calcite and quartz Ans: (a) 0.96% (b)10.2 tonne/hr
The screen analysis of the feed and product
Average particle size, Mass Fraction Specific surface
cm Feed Product ratio
42.6 0.16 0.0 10.0
30.1 0.34 0.0 9.7
21.3 0.24 0.0 9.5
15.07 0.17 0.0 9.0
10.66 0.09 0.06 8.6
7.54 0.0 0.19 8.0
5.33 0.0 0.44 7.2
3.77 0.0 0.24 6.6
2.67 0.0 0.07 6.2
Problem 6 : The energy required per unit mass to grind limestone particles of very large
size to 100 um is 12.7 kWh/ton. An estimate (using Bond's Law) of the energy to grind the
particles from a very large size to 50 μm is….?

Problem 7 : In a roll crusher, rolls of diameter 1 m each are set in such a manner that
minimum clearance between the crushing surfaces is 15 mm. If the angle of nip is 31 deg
the maximum diameter of the particle (in mm) which can be crushed is…?
 Hammer Mill
➢ The hammer mill or swing hammer crusher or impactor is
used as a primary crusher for reducing runoff quarry
material to a size of less than 1” or as a secondary crusher
to crush to ¾” size feed or less.
➢ It is almost confined to softer, easily crushable such as
phosphates, gypsum, barite, asbestos rock, and cement
rock and hard limestone (being the hardest rock commonly
ground).
➢ The mill is particularly useful for clayey material that would
clog reciprocating type primary crusher.
➢ It is also used for crushing bituminous coal for coke ovens,
power plant.
➢ The hammers are suspended by pins between heavy steel
dishes which are spaced by suitable spacers. The shaft is
carried on heavy bearings.
➢ A heavy flywheel is mounted on one side of the shaft; the
other end is fitted to the drive pulley or directly to the
motor.
Force in hammer mill breaking

Let H be the hammer hitting a falling particle. If M is the change in momentum of the particle b in the
direction of the velocity of hammer, the average force of blow = F av = M/t, where t is the time taken by the
particle to reach a maximum velocity i.e.

Where W is weight of the hammer, u= velocity of the hammer, 1.5 is experimentally determined constant, t
for highly elastic substance is 0.001 sec and for inelastic substance 0.002 sec. So,

The operating variables are,

a) diameter and configuration of the hammer
b) speed
c) number of hammer
d) size of hammer
e) spacing of anvil and break plate
f) height of feed
g) spacing of grate bar
Size of product depends on,

a) characteristics of rock
b) size of feed
c) type of mill
d) grid spacing
e) hammer weight

Capacity of hammer mill is given by

Where D = rotor diameter, m, L = length of rotor, m

N = rpm, R = reduction ratio
K = constant depending upon the material (ranging from 4 to 6.2)
Tumbling Mills
➢ In a tumbling mill the grinding of the material is affected by
tumbling action of media which may be balls, rods or pebbles
contained in a steel, rubber or stone lined steel shell.
➢ The media used in the charge generally describes a tubular mill.
Thus, the medium could be steel or cast iron balls when the
mill is designated as a ball mill, or it could be steel rods where
the mill is known as a rod mill.
➢ The ball mill differs from the tube mill by its shortness in length
and as a rule doesn’t exceed the diameter.
➢ In conventional ball mills large balls are used on a coarse feed
to produce comparatively coarse product.
➢ The tube mills are long compared to ball mills, L/D > 2.
➢ The compartment mill is a combination of the above types,
consisting of a cylindrical shell divided into a number of
sections by perforated partitions.
➢ Coarse grinding takes place at one end where coarse media is
used and finishing is given at the other end with smaller balls.
➢ Due to rotation of the mills the bigger balls tend to collect at the larger diameter portion towards the feed end and the small balls
at the discharge end where the diameter is relatively small. It is thus counterpart of compartmental mills.

➢ Another type is rod mill which delivers a more uniform and granular product. The pebble is a fluid with ceramic pebbles as the
grinding media and may be lined with ceramic or any other non-metallic liner.

➢ Autogenous mills are one of the latest developments and are gradually coming into use in different industries where the specific
gravity of the material is high and contamination with the grinding media is not desired. In principle the balls are replaced by large
lumps of the ore itself which act as media.
Mechanism of Crushing in Tubular Mills
Tubular Mill Types based on discharge
Basic design parameters of the tubular mills

1. Size: diameter × length,

2. Feed system: one hopper feed, diameter 40–100 cm at 30° to 60° entry angle and top of feed hopper
at least 1.5 m above the center line of the mill for ease of entry of feed,
3. Feeder: single or double helical scoop feeder or a spout feeder,
4. Discharge system: one exit unit, about 5–110 cm lower than the center line for overflow mills.

Tumbling mill characteristics

Ball Mills
Mill Rotation and Critical Speed

M c2 If we consider ball at position A in equilibrium

R
M = mass of the ball
M 2

B
M 2 Mg cos  = v = linear velocity (m/s) of the ball
R (R − r) R, r = radii of the mill and ball,
respectively
Mg
A
At the critical speed (vc) of the ball mill  = 0 cos  = 1
θ Mg cos 
 c2 4 2 ( R − r ) 2 c2
g= =
( R − r ) ( R − r )  3600
Where v = 2(R − r)ω/60 rpm

……(8)
 At the rotational speed  , v = 2(R − r)ω/60 rpm

Substituting

[2 ( R − r ) ]2
cos  =
9.81( R − r )602
At u = 0, cos =1, the force of gravity tending to pull the ball
off the wall will be at a maximum and the speed required to
overcome this force is known as the critical speed.
Denoting the critical speed as vC,

If D and d are taken in feet, the same expression is reduced to

Problem 4

In a ball mill of 2000 mm diameter, 100 mm diameter steel balls are being used for
grinding at a speed of 15 rpm. At what speed will the mill have to run if the 100 mm
balls are replaced with 50 mm balls, all the other conditions remaining same?

Ans: 14.79 rpm

Open Circuit and Closed Circuit Grinding
Open Circuit crushing operation
Feed
➢ In open circuit crushing the material is fed to the
crusher at a rate to produce the finished product in Crusher -1
one pass through the crusher.
➢ The material to be ground must remain in the crusher Oversize
until every particle has been reduced to a minimum Screen
size, considerable energy is thereby wasted in
regrinding the material that’s already of finished size. Undersize
Crusher - 2
➢ Open circuit crushing is particularly used when
simplicity or layout may be the determining factor.

Final Product
Open Circuit

overflow

underflow
Problem 5

Crushed product of a primary crusher having 57% of +1 is sent to 1 screen. The
overflow of the screen is again crushed in a secondary crusher to –1 size and sent
along with underflow of the screen as final product.
(a) Draw the crushing circuit with all details.
(b) Calculate the rate of the material crushed in secondary crusher if the effectiveness
of the screen is 80% based on oversize
(c) Calculate the same when effectiveness of the screen is 80% based on undersize
The feed rate to the primary crusher is 100 tons/hr.

Solution:
As the product from the overflow from the screens are not fed back to the same
crusher the entire crushing cycle is an open circuit operation
Solution (contd):
The crushing circuit for the problem is shown in the Figure
100 tph
Primary
Crusher
Product
43% of -1” (U1) 57% of +1” (O1 )
Secondary
1 Screen
(O2 ) Crusher

Product all pass 1”

100 tph
(U2 )
Final Product -1”
 Weight of +1 material in feed to screen = 57% of 100 tons/hr = 57 tons/hr

Weight of material present in feed

Screen efficiency = = 0.8
Weight of overflow obtained from the screen
(Based of oversize material)

57
∴ Weight of overflow obtained from the screen = = 71.25 tons/hr (O 2 )
0.80

Material crushed in secondary crusher = 71.25 tons/hr (O2) (Ans)

Underflow from the screen = (100−71.25) = 28.75 tons/hr (U2)

Close Circuit
➢ In Close circuit operation the new feed is fed to the crusher, crusher product is fed
to the screen.
➢ The overflow from the screen is fed back to the same crusher.
➢ The quantity of the overflow material fed back to the crusher is called circulating
load.

Circulating load
Oversize
Feed Crusher Screen
Undersize
Product
Problem 6

The details of crushing plant employing gyratory crusher are as follows:

2 square screen is in closed circuit with crusher
New feed to crusher=100 tons/hr
Crusher product contains 54% < 2 and 46% > 2 fed to screen
Screen efficiency=85% (based on oversize)

a. Draw the flow diagram and find circulating load.

b. Also find circulating load if the screen efficiency is based on undersize.
Solution:
a)
Circulating load (O2=C let)
(O1 ) η = 85%

Feed Gyratory 46%> 2

2 Screen
Crusher 54%< 2
100 tph (U1 ) (U2 )
(C +100)
0.46(C +100) Product
100 tph
Let C tons/hr be the circulating load.
Load on the gyratory crusher = C +100 tons/hr

+ 2 material in crusher product =0.46(C +100) tons/hr

 +2 material in feed to the screen
Screen efficiency = = 0.85
(Based of oversize material) +2 fraction obtained from the screen

0.46(C+100)
∴ = 0.85 ⇒ C=117.95 tons/hr
C

Circulating load if the screen efficiency is based on oversize = 117.95 tons/hr (Ans (a))
b)

(C +100)
0.54(C +100)

Now screen efficiency is defined based on undersize

−2” material in crusher product = 0.54(C +100) tons/hr

 -2 fraction obtained from the screen
Screen efficiency = = 0.85
(Based of undersize material) -2 material present in the feed to the screen

100
∴ = 0.85 ⇒ C=117.86 tons/hr
0.54(C+100)

Circulating load if the screen efficiency is based on undersize = 117.86 tons/hr (Ans (b))
Problem 7

In the crushing circuit shown in Figure , calculate the circulation load (C in tph) and total load on ½ "
screen. Assume steady state operation.
Screen efficiencies (η) are based on oversize material.
Solution:
+1" material in the feed to 1" screen=0.60×200=120 tons/hr

Overflow from 1"screen= 120/0.85=141.2 tons/hr

Underflow from 1"screen=200−141.2=58.8 tons/hr

−½ "material in the feed to 1"screen=0.25×200=50 tons/hr

∴+½ " material in underflow from 1" screen=58.8−50=8.8 tons/hr

Let C be the circulating load i.e., overflow from ½ " screen

Total load on cone crushers = 141.2+C

+½ " material in cone crusher product = 0.30(C +141.2)

Load of +½ " to ½ " screen = 0.30(C +141.2)+8.8

Screen efficiency=η=0.75 = Load of +½ " to ½ "screen/circulating load
= [0.30(C + 141.2) + 8.8]/C ⇒ C = 113.7 tons/hr (Ans a)

Total load to ½ " screen=141.2+113.7+58.8=313.7 tons/hr (Ans b)

Flow diagram for closed circuit grinding system
Advantages of Close Circuit Operation-

1) increases the quantity of finished material and capacity

2) the size distribution is more uniform
3) power consumption decreases

The advantages of close circuit grinding arise from

i) marked increase in the near finished material in the feed

ii) minimize the production of fines
iii) more rapid travel (resistance time is low), hence shorter time of pass.
iv) uniformity of size
Ultrafine Grinder

Colloid mill
Working principle
➢ Colloid mill works on the principle of sharing

➢ The main function of the colloid mill is to ensure a breakdown of agglomerate or in the case of emulsions
to produce droplets of fine size around 1 micron.

➢ Rotational speed of the rotor varies from 3000-20,000 rpm with the spacing between the rotor and stator
capable of fine adjustment varying from 0.001 inch to 0.005 inch depending on the size of the
equipment.

➢ The feed being forced through the narrow clearance by centrifugal action taking a spiral path.

➢ Most of the colloid mills are fitted with water jackets and it is also necessary to cool the materials before
and after passing through the mill.
Fluid energy mill
Fluid energy mill

➢ Particle suspended in high velocity gas stream (fluidization)

➢ Elliptical or circular path.

➢ Size reduction  inter particle interaction + striking + rubbing

➢ Coarse particle remain in circulation

➢ Feed  1 ton/hr ( not sticky)

➢ Product  0.5 to 10 m

➢ 1 to 4 kg of steam or 6 to 9 kg of air per kg of product

Wet vs Dry Grinding

There are two types of grinding practices i.e. “wet” and “dry” grinding. The selection of the process is
mainly governed by type of material and use of material. If water changes physical or chemical properties
of the material, dry grinding is a must. Conversely, if the finished material is to be used as a suspension in
water and classified by hydraulic method, then we prefer wet grinding.
Wet grinding has got the following advantages:

1. Lower power consumption per ton of product (15-20%)

2. Higher capacity per cubic foot of mill volume
3. Elimination of dust problem
4. Use of simple handling methods such as pumps, pipes etc
5. Wet screening or hydraulic classification can be used for closer product control.

The following two points are in favor of dry grinding:

1. lower wear rate of mill liners and grinding media compared to wet grinding
2. Higher percentage of fines in mill product. In many cases, this is desirable e.g. cement,
talcum powder, pulverized coal etc.