Particle size and Defining a

Particle shape Size fine particles

characterization measurement of
Particle size
Course Distribution (defining a fine particles Measurement
investigation
particle/distribut
ion) Sieving
Industrial screening
equipment

Primary/Coarse size
reduction

Size Reduction Energy requirement

Intermediate size and efficiency
reduction calculation
Particulate solid handling
Fine size reduction
and their properties Filtration
Dynamics of
Classification particle in
liquid medium Sedimentation
Solid-Liquid
separation
Separation Flotation

Miscellaneous
methods
Solid-Gas separation
Prof. AKS (Tue-10-11 pm and Thu-8 am-9 am) Dynamics of Fluidization
Storage, Storage of solids particle in gas
Handling, and medium
Prof. NDG (Mon-12-1 pm and Tue-11 am-12 pm) Transport of
Solids Transport of solids
Filtration
Filtration:
• A process of separation of solids from a fluid by passing the suspension through a porous
medium that retains the solids but allows the fluid to pass through.

• When solids are present in very low concentration, i.e., not exceeding 1.0 % w/v, the process
of their separation from liquid is called clarification.

3
 Filtration:
• Slurry: Suspension to be filtered.

• Filter medium: Porous medium used to retain solids and permits only fluid to pass through

• Filtrate: Clear liquid passing through the filter

• Rate of filtration: volume of filtrate collected per unit time (dV/dt)

• Filter cake: Accumulation of solids on the filter with time forms a packed bed of solids

The thickness of the cake increases as filtration continues

offering more resistance to the flow of filtrate
reducing the rate of filtration.
4
Filtration:
• Operation of Batch Filtration:

• Constant Rate filtration: where (-ΔP) has to be increased gradually as filtration proceeds

• Constant pressure filtration: where (-ΔP) will remain constant, and the rate of filtration reduces
with cake formation.

• Preferably to operate batch filtration first at a constant rate and then at constant pressure so that
the overall filtrate will be large.
• Constant rate is continued till –ΔP is substantially high, beyond which the operation is
uneconomical.
• Then the filter is operated at constant pressure until the rate of filtration has fallen to a very low,
unacceptable value or till the required filtration is achieved. 5
Filtration:
• What happens after filtration:
• Cake is then washed off with wash water and drained
• Filter is then opened
• Cake is disposed off
• Filter is cleaned
• And then Filter is reassembled.

• Batch filtration cycle involves:

• Filtration
• Draining the liquor
• Filling with wash water
• Washing
• Draining the wash water
• Opening, dumping and reassembling
• Filling with slurry 6
Filter medium:
• The function of the filter medium is primarily to act as an impermeable barrier for particulate
matter.

• The filter medium should have sufficient mechanical strength, should be resistant to the corrosive
action of fluids being processed, and should offer low resistance to the flow of filtrate.

• The liquid-solid filtration is often called cake filtration because of the continuous decomposition
of the cake on the filter medium.

• Commonly used filter mediums: Filter paper, woven material. Non-woven fiber pads, sintered
and perforated glass, sintered and perforated material, ceramics, synthetic membrane

7
Types of filtration:

8
Mechanism of filtration:
• Surface filtration: Particles are not allowed to enter filtration medium.

• Cake filtration and particle filtration are based on surface filtration

9
Mechanism of filtration:
• Depth filtration: Particles are not allowed to penetrate the pores and pore networks present
in the filtration medium.

10
Classification of filters:

11
 Plate and frame filter press:
• Principle: The PFFP is a surface filtration process.

• Used particularly when the cake is valuable and relatively small in quantity.

• Plates and frames are assembled alternatively with filter cloths over each side of the plate.

• Screws hold the assembly.

• The suspension enters the frame by pressure and flow through the filter medium on either side of the
plates, and thus, cake is deposited on the sides of the plate.

• The filtrate is taken out from the plates.

• A good number of frames and plates are used to increase the surface area, and consequently, large
volumes of cell-suspended liquid can be processed.
12
 Plate and frame filter press:
• Once the frames are full, the cake feed is cut off and the cake is washed.

• Wash water enters the cake and passes towards the plate on either side.

• If the wash liquor is fed through the same channel as the slurry and follows the same path as the
filtrate, then it is called simple filtration.

• Through wash: where wash liquor enters through a separate channel behind the filter cloth on
alternate plates and flows through the entire thickness of the cake.

• cake is dewatered by passing air

• The press is opened and cake is dumped off.

13
 Plate and frame filter press: • Simple in construction
• Made from wood to cast iron, stainless steel.
• Low maintenance cost
• Low power cost
• Can be operated at high pressures (2MN/m2)
• Intermittent in operation
• Due to high labor costs, limited to small-scale
operations.
• Provides a large surface area in a small space
• Cloths can be readily replaced
• Capacity can be varied by changing the
number and size of filter presses.

[Link] 14
Rotary vacuum drum filter:
• Most widely used continuous vacuum filters.
• RVF consists of a drum rotating at a very low speed (1 rpm).
• The RVF drum consists of a drum rotating in a tub of liquid to be filtered.
• The drum has a perforated surface over which filter cloth is fixed.
• A vacuum is applied to the segment that is submerged in slurry, and filtrate is drawn in
through the filter medium, depositing suspended solids on the surface of a cake.
• Cake thickness depends on the speed of drum rotation.
• At high speed thinner cake is formed, giving a higher rate of filtration.
• An RVF is suitable for a slurry containing a highly suspended solid, which can clog other
forms of filter.

15
Rotary vacuum drum filter:
The operation of an RVF is discussed as follows:

• Rotary drum filters work on the principle of filtering suspended solids through a fine muslin
cloth embedded on the rotating drum surface, operated under a vacuum.

• The solid cake is washed by sprinkling water on the drum surface. The solid is removed by
using a knife to touch the surface of the rotating drum.

• Principle: Rotary drum filter works on the principle of function of filtering the slurry through
sieve-like mechanism on a rotating drum surface under the condition of vacuum.

• In addition, compression drying (using hot air) and removing the filter cake by scrapper
(doctor knife) are possible. 16
Rotary vacuum drum filter:
• High cost
• Large capacity
• Operate continuously and automatically with
the least manpower requirement
• Vacuum filtration leads to limitations on the
maximum available pressure
• Not for impermeable cake formation or
difficult-to-remove cake
• Not suitable for hot liquids
• Widely used because of its high filtration rate
and excellent washing

[Link] [Link] 17
 Filter Aids:
• Used for sludges that form relatively permeable cakes.

• Slurries containing very fine solids

• Slimy and gelatinous materials that easily plug or clog the filter medium.

• Ex: Kieselguhr, diatomaceous earth, asbestos, etc.

• These materials form a bed of high voidages and therefore increase the final porosity of the filter
cake, reducing the cake resistance.

• This also increases the thickness of the cake and therefore must be used in optimum quantity.

18
Principles of cake filtration:
• Filtration is a special example of flow through porous media.

• In filtration, flow resistance increases with time as the filter medium becomes clogged or a filter
cake builds up.

• Important quantities of interest are the flow rate through the filter and pressure drop across the
unit.

• As time passes during filtration, the flow rate reduces or the pressure drop rises.

• In constant pressure filtration, the pressure drop is held constant and the flow rate allowed to fall
with time.

• Pressure drop gradually increases, called constant rate filtration.

19
Principles of cake filtration:

• In cake filtration, liquid passes through two resistances in series –

• Cake resistance

• Filter medium resistance

• Medium resistance is important during the early stage of filtration.

• Cake resistance is zero at the start and increases with time as filtration proceeds.

• Overall pressure drop at any time is the sum of pressure drops over the medium and cake.
20
Principles of cake filtration:
• Pa – Inlet Pressure

• Pb – Outlet pressure

• P’ – Pressure between the boundary of the cake and the medium

• ΔP = (Pa-P’) + (P’ – Pb)

ΔPc ΔPm

• ΔP – Overall pressure drop

• ΔPc – Pressure drop over cake

• ΔPm – pressure drop over medium

21
Principles of cake filtration:
• Pressure drop through filter cake:

• The figure shows the filter cake and filter medium from start to time t.

• Where the thickness of the cake is Lc.

• Filter area is measured perpendicular to the direction of flow (A)

• Consider a thin layer of cake of thickness dL lying in the cake at a

distance L from the medium.

• Let the pressure at this point be P.

• A layer consists of a thin bed of solid particles through which the filtrate flows.

• In a filter bed, velocity is sufficiently low to ensure laminar flow. 22

Principles of cake filtration:
• Pressure drop through filter cake:

• Accordingly, as a starting point for treating pressure drop through

the cake a Kozney-carman equation is applicable for flow through

beds at a particular Reynolds number about 1 is used.

• Here ΔP/L is dP/L
2
Δ𝑃 150 𝑢 𝜇 1 − 𝜖
=
𝐿 𝜙𝑠2 𝐷𝑝2 𝜖 3

• 𝜙𝑠 is the surface to volume ratio for a sphere of diameter Dp divided by surface to volume ratio
6Τ𝐷 𝑝
for a particle of nominal size Dp. 𝜙𝑠 =
𝑠𝑝 Τ𝑣𝑃

23
Principles of cake filtration:
• Pressure drop through filter cake:
• The figure shows a non-linear pressure gradient in the cake, which is
typical because of the lower cake porosity near the filter medium.
• Pressure drop is expressed as a function of surface-to-volume ratio
instead of particle size.
• Using 6(Vp/Sp) for 𝜙𝑠 Dp.
2
ⅆ𝑃 4 ⋅ 17𝜇𝑢 1 − 𝜖 𝑠𝑃 Τ𝑣𝑃
=
ⅆ𝐿 𝜖3
Where,
Dp/dL – pressure gradient at thickness L
𝜇 – viscosity of filtrate
𝑢 – linear velocity of filtrate based on filter area
Sp – surface of single particle
Vp – volume of single particle
24
𝜖 – porosity of cake
Principles of cake filtration:
• Pressure drop through filter cake:
• 𝑢 – linear velocity of filtrate based on filter area is given as –
ⅆ𝑉 Τⅆ𝑡
𝑢=
𝐴
• V – volume of filtrate collected from 0 to t.
• Filtrate must pass through entire cake.
• V/A is same for all layers and u is independent of L.

• The volume of solids in the layer is

A (1- 𝜖) dL
• ρp particle density
• dm – mass of solids in layer is –
dm = ρp (1- 𝜖) A dL

• Now, eliminating dL and k1 is used instead of 4.17

𝑘1 𝜇𝑢 𝑠𝑃 Τ𝑣𝑃 2 1−𝜖
ⅆ𝑃 = dm
𝜌 𝐴𝜖3 25
𝑃
Principles of cake filtration:
• Compressible and incompressible filter cake:
• Under low pressure drops of slurries containing rigid uniform particles
all factors in above equation or RHS are independent of L except m.
• And the equation is integrable directly over cake thickness
• mc – total mass of solids in the cake
𝑃𝑎 𝑚𝐶
2
𝑘1 𝜇𝑢 𝑆𝑃 Τ𝑣𝑃 1 − 𝜖
න ⅆ𝑃 = 3
න ⅆ𝑚
𝜌𝑝 𝐴𝜖
𝑃′ 0
𝑘1 𝜇𝑢 𝑆𝑃 Τ𝑣𝑃 2 1−𝜖
Pa - P’ = 𝑚𝑐 = ΔPc
𝜌 𝐴𝜖3
𝑃

• Filter cake of this type is called as incompressible cake.

ΔPc𝐴
• Specific cake resistance α is defined as 𝛼 =
𝜇𝑢𝑚
𝐶

𝑘1 𝑆𝑃 Τ𝑣𝑃 2 1−𝜖
𝛼=
𝜌 𝜖3
𝑃
26
Principles of cake filtration:
• Compressible and incompressible filter cake:
• Now, cake resistance 𝛼 may also be expressed in terms of particle size Dp
with new coefficient k2 -
𝑘2 1−𝜖
𝛼=
𝜌 𝜖3 𝜙𝑠2 𝐷𝑝2
𝑃

• For incompressible cake 𝛼 is independent of pressure drop and position

in cake.
• Dimensions of 𝛼 are [LM-1]
• 𝛼 is influenced solely by the physical properties of the cake, especially
the particle size Dp and porosity 𝜖.

27
Principles of cake filtration:
• Compressible filter cake:
• Where cake resistance 𝛼 varies with distance from the septum.
• Since the cake nearest to the septum is subjected to the greatest
compressible force has the lowest void fraction.
• Therefore, pressure gradient is non-linear.

• Filter medium resistance:

𝛼𝑚𝑐
• Rm can be defined by analogy with cake resistance
𝐴
𝑃′ −𝑃𝑏 ΔPm
• The equation is, Rm = =
𝜇𝑢 𝜇𝑢

• Rm is expressed in m-1.
• Typical values are of the range of 1010 to 1011 m-1

28
Principles of cake filtration:
• Compressible filter cake:
• Rm may vary with pressure drop.
• Since higher liquid velocity caused by a large pressure drop may force
additional particles of solid into the filter medium.
• Rm may also vary with age and the cleanliness of the filter medium.
• Since it is important during the early stage of filtration, it can be assumed that it is constant during
filtration.

ΔP = ΔPc + ΔPm

𝑚 𝛼
ΔP = 𝜇𝑢 𝐶 + 𝑅𝑚 eq. (a)
𝐴

ΔPm ΔPc 𝐴
Where, , Rm = and 𝛼 =
𝜇𝑢 𝜇𝑢𝑚
𝐶

29
Principles of cake filtration:
• Compressible filter cake:
• Strictly, cake resistance 𝛼 is a function of ΔPc rather than ΔP if the cake is
of appreciable thickness.
• ΔPm is small in comparison to ΔPc
• In eq. (a) it is convenient to replace linear velocity (u) of filtrate and mc
• mc – total mass of solids in the cake
• V – total volume of filtrate collected in time t
ⅆ 𝑉 Τⅆ 𝑡
𝑢=
𝐴
• Material balance relates mc and V.
• If C is the mass of the particles deposited in the filter per unit volume of filtrate, then the mass of
solids in the filter at time t is V C.
mc = V C
30
Principles of cake filtration:
• Compressible filter cake:
• Using u, mc from above and using eq. (a)
ⅆ𝑡 𝜇 𝛼𝐶𝑉
• We get, = + 𝑅𝑚
ⅆ𝑣 A ΔP 𝐴

• Constant pressure filtration:

• When ΔP is constant and V and t are variables, t=0, V=0, and ΔP = ΔPm
𝜇𝑅𝑚 ⅆ𝑡 1
= =
𝐴 Δ𝑃 ⅆ𝑉 0 𝑞0

ⅆ𝑡 1 1
= = 𝑘𝐶 V +
ⅆ𝑣 𝑞 𝑞0

𝜇𝐶𝛼
Where, 𝑘𝐶 = 31
𝐴2 Δ𝑃
Principles of cake filtration:
• Constant pressure filtration:
• Integrating for 0 → t and 0 → V
𝑡 𝑘𝑐 1
= V+
𝑉 2 𝑞0

• t/V Vs V is a linear plot

𝑘𝑐
• Slope =
2
1
• Intercept =
𝑞0

• Then 𝛼 and Rm can be calculated

32
Principles of cake filtration:
• Empirical equation for cake resistance:
• Compressible - 𝛼 increases with ΔP
• Incompressible - 𝛼 independent of ΔP
𝛼 = 𝛼0 ΔP s

• 𝛼0 − is empirical constant
• s- compression coefficient
• s – zero for compressible cake and positive for compressible cake and
varies from 0.2 to 0.8

33
Principles of cake filtration:
• Constant rate filtration:
• If filtrate flows at a constant rate, the linear velocity u is constant and –
ⅆ𝑉 Τⅆ𝑡
𝑢= = V/At
𝐴
• mc = V C
ΔPc 𝐴
• 𝛼=
𝜇𝑢𝑚
𝐶

ΔPc 𝜇𝐶 𝑉 2
• Then = eq. (b)
𝛼 𝑡 𝐴
• If 𝛼 is known as function of ΔPc and if ΔPm is the pressure drop through
filter medium.
• Then above equation (b) can be used directly to relate overall pressure drop to time when
the rate of flow of filtrate is constant.
s
• If we use 𝛼 = 𝛼0 ΔP and ΔPc = ΔP - ΔPm
34
Principles of cake filtration:
• Constant rate filtration:

ΔP - ΔPm 𝑉 2
= 𝜇𝑐𝑡
𝛼0 Δ𝑃𝑐 𝑠 𝐴𝑡

1−𝑠 𝐕 2
Δ𝑃𝐶 = 𝛼0 𝜇𝑐𝑡 = (ΔP – ΔPm)1-s
𝐴𝑡

• Assuming filter medium resistance is constant during a given constant

rate filtration.

• ΔPm is constant in eq. (b).

• The only variable is ΔP and t.

• Now the equation can be written as - (ΔP – ΔPm)1-s = Kr t

• Where Kr = μu2c α0
35
Batch Filtration example: (Please refer to class notes for the solution)
Laboratory filtrations conducted at constant pressure drop on a slurry of mass CaCO3 in H2O gave
the data as shown in the Table. The filter area was 440 cm2. The mass of solid per unit volume of
filtrate was 23.5 g/L, and the temperature was 25 C. Evaluate the quantities α and Rm as a function
of pressure drop.

Filtrate volume V (L) t (s)

0.5 17.3
1 41.3
1.5 72
2 108.3
2.5 152.1
3 201.7

36