Electrical Technology (EE11003)-Mod D

Electromagentic Circuit

Prof. Alok Kanti Deb

Department of Electrical Engineering, IIT Kharagpur
alokkanti@[Link]
Applicable to Transformers, Motors and Generators.
A closed restricted path in which magnetic flux is established is known as a
magnetic circuit.
The magnetic circuit consists of structure composed, for the most part of
magnetic material of high permeability.

Simplest form of a magnetic circuit is a ring made of a ferromagnetic material

such as iron, around which is wound a current carrying conductor.

The iron ring is called the core. The current flowing through the coil sets up a
magnetic flux within the ring.
A small amount of flux may take a path through air is called leakage flux.

v N turns

2
 Biot Savart Law


µ idl × r
dB = .
4π r 3
 µ − permeability constant of the medium
dl r
P
To obtain the total magnetic field,

∫
B = dB

3
Infinitely Long Wire

For an infinitely Long wire, magnetic flux density

d
P
µo I
B= T or Wb/m2
2πd
I

r µ0 I
B=
2r

4
 B
Magnetic field intensity, H= (A/m)
µ

Wb
Permeability µ = µ 0 µ r µ 0 = 4π × 10 −7
ATm
,
µ r − relative permeability of the medium

>>> 1 Ferro - magnetic

µr = 1 
For free space, µ r =  > 1 Paramagnetic
 < 1 Dia - magnetic


For an infinitely long wire in free space, magnetic intensity at a distance d,

I
H=
2πd

5
 Flux and magnetic field intensity

Magnetomotive Force
A steel ring of mean radius r metres and a circular cross section of diameter d
metres with a coil of N turns wound around it through which a current of I
amperes flows.

6
 φ (flux)

I
N turns r πd 2
A=
4

Leakage flux

Magnetomotive Force (M.M.F.), ℑ = NI Ampere turns, AT

H is defined as the ampere turns per unit length of the magnetic circuit,

H=
NI
=
NI Flux Φ in the steel core φ = B × A weber
l 2πr
ℑ
Substituting, B = µr µ0 H φ = µ 0 µ r H × A weber φ = µ0 µr × ×A weber
l
ℑ ℑ
φ= φ= weber Reluctance, ℜ =
l
l ℜ µ0 µr A
(AT/Wb)
µ0 µr A
1
Permeance P=
ℜ 7
 Ampere’s Circuital Law
Electric current flowing through a number of turns of a conductor produces
a magnetic field in its vicinity.
The collective effect of all the turns will equal the line integral of the magnetic
field intensity around a closed magnetic path.

∫
NI = ℑ = Hdl = Hl

8
 Analogy between Electric and Magnetic Circuit
Path of flux ɸ

ℜa

N − turns
ℑ = NI ℜc
Air gap

Core

ℑ, magnetomotive force driving the flux φ through two reluctances

Two series connected reluctances ℜ c − reluctance of iron core

ℜ a − reluctance of air gap

9
Comparison of electric and magnetic circuits

Electric Circuits Magnetic Circuits

EMF (V) MMF (AT)
Electric Field Strength (E) (V/m) Magnetic Field Strength (H) (AT/m)
Current (Ampere) Magnetic Flux (Weber)
Resistance (Ω) Reluctance (AT/Wb)
Conductivity (1/Ω m) Permeability (Wb/Am)
Voltage drop (V) MMF drop (AT)

For an electrical circuit, For a magnetic circuit,

V = IR ℑ = φℜ
Ex.1 A mild steel ring has a mean diameter of 20 cm and cross-sectional area of
400 mm2. Calculate the (a) reluctance of the ring and (b) mmf to produce a flux of
500 µWb. Assume relative permeability of mild steel to be 1000.

Mean length of the ring, l = π × mean dia of the ring = π × 0.2m

Cross-sectional area of the area ring
A = 400mm 2 = 400 × 10 −6 m 2
Relative permeability of steel = 1000

Reluctance of the ring

l 0.2π
ℜ= =
µ0 µr A 400 × 10 −6 × 4π × 10 −7 × 1000
= 1.25 × 10 6 AT/Wb
−6
Flux φ = 500 µWb = 500 × 10 Wb

The magnetomotive force, ℑ = φ × ℜ

= 500 × 10 −6 × 1.25 × 10 6
= 625 AT
11
Ex 2. A cast steel magnet has an air gap of length 2 mm and an iron path of 30 cm.
Find the number of ampere turns necessary to produce a flux density of 1.2 Wb/m2.
The relative permeability of cast steel is 900. Neglect leakage and fringing.

Length of the air gap, l a = 2 × 10 −3 m Length of the cast steel core l s = 0.3m

Required Flux density B = 1.2Wb / m 2

B 12
Now for the air gap, B = µ0 H a Ha = = = 0.955 × 10 6 AT/m
µ0 4π × 10 −7

Magnetomotive force for the air gap, ℑa = H × l = 0.955 × 10 6 × 2 × 10 −3 = 1910 AT

B 1.2
For cast steel ring, B = µ 0 µ r H s Hs = = = 1061.03 AT / m
µ0 µr 4π × 10 −7
× 900

The magnetomotive force for the air gap ℑ s = H s × l s = 1061× 0.3 = 318.3 AT

Total MMF ℑa + ℑ s = 1910 + 318.3 = 2228.3 AT

Magnetization Characteristics of Ferromagnetic Materials
Ferro-magnetic material are characterized by high values of relative permeability.
Iron, nickel, cobalt and gadolinium are ferro-magnetic elements.
φ (flux) B, µ r
Bsat

I B-H curve
T
N turns r Knee
µr-H curve

Slope gives
Leakage flux initial µr

H
B
B = µ0 µr H µr =
µ0 H

It is not possible to describe analytically the characteristics of magnetic material

It is customary to get the relevant information about magnetic characteristics of

a sample from the manufacturer’s bulletin, based on measured magnetic
quantities of the test samples.
 Hysteresis Loop

B(T)
Bmax A
Coercive force

Residual flux density

C
H (AT/m)
−Hmax O F Hmax

D −Bmax
Magnetiziation Curve

15
 B(T)
For increase of current from i to i+di
G A
Magnetizing force H undergoes an
infinitesimal change by PQ, dH
Flux density increases by dB
J
dφ = AdB
dB
Instantaneous emf induced,
K dH
H (AT/m)
dφ dB M O F PQ C
e = −N = − NA
dt dt
Energy supplied to the magnetic field
Instantaneous power
E when H increases from 0 to OC=EFAGE J/m3
supplied to magnetic field
Energy returned to the source from the
dB magnetic field as H is reduced from OC to 0=
p = ei = NiA (W ) AGJA J/m3
dt D −Bmax
Energy supplied to the magnetic field
dw = NiAdB (J ) Net energy absorbed by the
Ni magnetic field = EFAJE J/m3
OP=H= OP × l
l i= Hysteresis loss for one complete cycle
N
OP × l = DEFAJKD J/m3
dw = N A × dB = OP × lA × dB (J)
wh = [area of hysteresis loop]
J
N
= v × OP × dB = v × area of shaded strip (J) m 3 × cycle
16
= area of shaded strip (J/m 3 )
 wh = [area of hysteresis loop]
J
m 3 × cycle

wh =
energy power × time power Ph
= = =
volume × cycles volume × cycles volume × cycles/second vf

Ph = wh vf

Ph = hysteresis power loss in watts

f = frequency of variations of H in hertz or cycles/second

Based on experimental work, Steinmetz developed an empirical relation to

determine power loss due to hysteresis

Ph = K h vfBmax
n
watt

K h is a constant whose value depends on the material of the core and range of flux density
f is the frequency of alternating magnetization in hertz
n is Steinmetz constant
v is the volume of the magnetic core in m 3
Bmax is the maximum value of flux density in Wb/m 2 1.5 < n < 2 17
 Eddy Current Losses
Ferromagnetic material of the core subjected to time varying flux induces emf in
the core, which in turn produced circulating current in the core. The currents so
generated are called eddy currents.
The effect of eddy current is to dissipate energy in the form of heat.
If the magnetic circuit is made of solid iron, the power loss in the core would be
considerable owing to the very low resistance of the core.

If the core is made of laminations insulated from one another, the resistance of
path of eddy current is increased due to decrease in cross-sectional area, and the
flow of currents being confined to the respective laminations reduces eddy current
loss.

18
As induced emf and currents are proportional to the frequency and the flux
density, it is reasonable to expect the power loss due to eddy currents to be
proportional to the square of the frequency and the square of the flux density.

An empirical formula for eddy current loss is,

Pe = k e f 2 Bmax
2
τ 2 v watt

k e − characteristic constant of the core material

f − frequency of variation of flux

Bmax − maximum flux density (Wb/m 2 )

τ − thickness of the lamination (m)

v − volume of the material (m 3 )

Reference
E. W. Golding and F. C. Widdis, “Electrical Measurements and Measuring
Instruments”, 5th ed, Wheeler, 1989, Ch XIV

19
 Transformer Principles
Electric energy is generated in generating stations where resources for electric
power generation is available.
Energy is transmitted over long distances where it is utilized in industries, houses,
offices etc.
Power generation is at a voltage level that ranges between 6.6 kV and 33kV.
Uneconomical to transmit large amounts of power over long distances at this
voltage level due to large voltage drops and excessive power losses, because of
the flow of very high currents.
Reduction in voltage drops and power losses can be achieved by increasing the
transmission voltage level.
AC transmission voltage in India is usually 110kV, 132kV, 220kV or 400kV
However the utilization voltage for the domestic, commercial and industrial users
is 230/415 V
Large industrial motors operate at 3.3 kV, 6.6 kV or 11 kV.
At generating stations, voltage has to be stepped up to the transmission
voltage level.
At the consumer end, the transmission voltage has to be stepped down to the
value suitable for utilization. 20
Transformer is an electromagnetic device used to transfer energy between two
or more electrical systems with a magnetic field as the coupling device.

It can be used to step up or step down the voltage levels.

A transformer thus is an important and essential component of an electric

energy system, as it makes it possible to generate electric energy at the most
economic level, transmit electric energy at the most economic transmission
voltage, and distribute electric power at the voltage suitable for electric drives,
lighting loads, heaters etc at the consumer end.

The common form of transformer consists of two coils mutually coupled through
a ferromagnetic core.

The ferromagnetic core ensures a high value of magnetic flux linkage between
the coils. Such a transformer is called a iron-core transformer.

One of the coils, called the primary winding, is connected to the power supply to
receive power.
The other coil, called the secondary winding is connected to the load circuit and
delivers power to it.
21
 Response of Magnetic Circuits to AC Voltages
φ
v−e = 0
iφ a
diφ
+ eab = e = L
dt
v +
e N turns
− L is the inductance of the coil
−
diφ
b v=e=L = eab
dt

Since the applied voltage is sinusoidal, assuming a linear magnetization of the

ferromagnetic core, the magnetizing current iᵠ is also sinusoidal and is
iφ = 2 I φ Sin(wt )
represented by,

I φ is the rms value of the magnetizing current w is the angular frequency given as 2πf rad/sec
v = e = 2 wLI φ Cos (wt )
 π
= 2 wLI φ Sin wt + 
 2
 π
= 2 ESin wt +  E = wLI φ = the rms value of inductance reactance drop
 2
 π
= E m Sin wt +  E m = 2 E = the maximum value of the induced emf
 2 22
V = E = E ab
= iφ wL
φ = φm Sin(wt )

dφ
eab = e = + N
dt
dφ
90  eba = −e = − N
Ref w dt
iφ φ
CCW
dφ  π
= − N (φ m Sin(wt )) = − Nwφ m Cos (wt ) = E m Sin wt − 
d
eba = −e = − N
dt dt  2

E m = Nwφ m = 2πfNφ m volts

Em 2πfNφ m
The rms value of the induced voltage E= = = 4.44 fNφ m volts
2 2
A m 2 is the area of cross - section of the core
l metres is the mean length of the flux path

Bm Wb/m 2 is the maximum flux density of the core

E = 4.44 fNBm × A

RMS value of the emf per turn, Et

Et = 4.44 fBm × A

= 4.44 fφ m

Since the current produces the flux, the current and flux may be considered
to be in phase

24
 Core Losses
The core of the transformer is subjected to cyclic flux density variations due to
the sinusoidal current.

The cyclic flux density variation give rise to losses, which appear in the form of
heat. These losses are called core losses or iron losses.

Hysteresis Loss Eddy Current Loss

In electromagnetic equipment, core losses play a significant role in determining
equipment rating, efficiency and temperature rise

25
 Hysteresis Losses
When the core is energized from an ac source, the magnetizing current varies
sinusoidally with time and hence the magnetizing force H applied to the
magnetic field is also alternating. The variation of the flux density B when
plotted against the magnetizing force H for one cycle of ac excitation is in the
form of a loop, called the hysteresis loop.
In each cycle of magnetization , the hysteresis loss appears as heat.
The larger the loop area, greater is the hysteresis loss.

Ph = k h vfBmn watts

k h is a constant whose value depends on the material of the core and range of flux density

f is the frequency of the alternating magnetization in Hertz

v is the volume of the magnetic core in m 3

Bm is the maximum value of flux density in Wb/m 2

n is Steinmetz constant; 1.5 < n < 2.0

26
 Eddy Current Losses
The time varying flux in the ferromagnetic core induces emfs in it and
causes circulating currents in closed paths within the body of the
ferromagnetic material. These currents are called eddy currents.
It gives rise to i2r losses.
These losses are called eddy losses.
The losses in the core would depend on the effective resistance and the
length of the eddy current paths.
An increase in effective resistance of the eddy-current paths can be
achieved by using silicon steel (4% silicon) as core material.
Laminated sheets parallel to the direction of the flux, small thicknss are used
for the construction of the core.

Pe = k e f 2 Bm2 τ 2 v watts

k e is the characteristic constant of the core material

τ is the thickness of the lamination in metre

f is the frequency of alternating magnetization in Hertz

Bm is the maximum value of flux density in Wb/m 2

v is the volume of the magnetic material in m 3 27

 Construction of Transformers
Yoke Magnetic circuit
Core type

Limb

Shell type
Magnetic circuit
Yoke

Limb

28
 Magnetic Core

Different forms of sheet steel punching

L-shaped E-shaped F-shaped

29
Interleaved joints

Typical cross section of large transformers

30
 Windings and Insulation

Windings

HV

Insulation
LV
Core

LV
insulation
HV

Core

31
 Transformer Tank

Terminals

Oil level indicator

Buchholz relay

Tank

Support Base

32
 Working Principle of a Transformer
φm
I1 I2
+ Primary
+
winding P
+
V1 E1 φL2 E2 V2 Load
−
φ L1
− Secondary −
winding S

Ferromagnetic core
φm
emf induced in S N 2 × emf per turn N
= = 2
emf induced in P N1 × emf per turn N1
The current drawn by the primary winding is small and the induced emf in the
primary winding can be taken as almost equal to the applied voltage V1
Neglecting the losses in the transformer,
V2 N 2
=
V1 N1 V1 I1 × primary power factor = V2 I 2 × secondary power factor

At full-load operating condition, the primary power factor is approximately equal

to the secondary power factor,
V1 I1 = V2 I 2 I 1 V2
= 33
I 2 V1
 φm
I1 I2
+ Primary
+
winding P
+
V1 E1 φL2 E2 V2 Load
−
φ L1
− Secondary −
winding S

Ferromagnetic core
When secondary is open circuit, primary will draw a small current I1 and mmf in
the primary winding, ℑ1 = I1 N1 AT
This primary current is the magnetizing current or no-load current of the
transformer and is usually 3% to 5% of the full load primary current.
When load is connected across the secondary, I2 flows from instantaneous +ve
polarity to the load to cause an mmf, ℑ2 = I 2 N 2 AT
I2 will produce flux opposite to the mutual flux ɸm
Secondary AT will have a demagnetizing effect on the main flux.
Consequently the flux and E1 in the primary both are slightly reduced.
Difference between V1 and E1 cause an increase in the primary current and
counter mmf is generated to oppose the mmf produced by the secondary.
I 1 N 2 V2
I 1 N1 ≅ I 2 N 2 ≅ ≅ 34
I 2 N1 V1
 φm
I1 I2
+ Primary
+
winding P
+
V1 E1 φL2 E2 V2 Load
−
φ L1
− Secondary −
winding S

Ferromagnetic core

Dots marked at the top of the primary and secondary windings indicate +ve
polarity of the ac voltage induced in both the primary and secondary windings.

Current flowing into the dot in one winding and flowing out of the of the dot in
the other winding will tend to produce magnetic fluxes in the core that are in
opposite directions.

Corresponding current directions are considered instantaneously +ve.

35
 Ideal Transformer
i) All magnetic flux created by the primary winding links with the secondary
winding. There is no leakage flux.

ii) The primary and secondary windings have zero resistance, hence there is no
resistive voltage drop and no resistive heat loss.

iii) The leakage of the windings being zero, there is no reactive voltage drop in
the windings.

iv) The power efficiency is 100%, ie, there is no hysteresis losses, eddy-current
losses and heat losses due to resistance.

v) The permeability of the core is infinite so that it requires zero mmf to create
flux in the core.

vi) The transformation ratio or the turns ratio is equal to the ratio of its primary to
secondary voltages and also the ratio of its secondary and primary current
 Ideal Transformer on No Load
φ Assumption:
i1 1 Transformer is open circuited, ie,
2
+ I2 = 0
ℑ1 ℑ2 +
+
v1 e1 N1 N2 e2 v2 Load
−
−
−
1’ 2’

dφ  π
v1 = Vm Sin(wt ) φ = φm Sin(wt ) e1 = N1 = wN1φ m Cos (wt ) = wN1φ m Sin wt + 
dt  2
dφ
With assumption (i) and (ii), applying KVL in primary circuit, v1 = e1 = N1
E 2 = V2 dt
dφ Dividing,
v1 e1 N1
= =
v 2 = e2 = N 2 v 2 e2 N 2
dt
V E N
Expressed in terms of rms values, 1 = 1 = 1
V2 E 2 N 2
E 2 > E1 (or V2 > V1 ) Step up transformer E1 = V1

E 2 < E1 (or V2 < V1 ) Step down transformer

Transformation ratio or turns ratio, a 90 
Ref w
V N
a= 1 = 1 I1 φ 37
V2 N 2 CCW
 φ

i1 1
2
+ ℑ2
ℑ1 +
+
v1 e1 N1 N2 e2 v2 Load
−
−
−
1’ 2’

dφ  π
v1 = Vm Sin(wt ) φ = φm Sin(wt ) e1 = N1 = wN1φ m Cos (wt ) = wN1φ m Sin wt + 
dt  2
2π
RMS value of the induced emf, E1 = fN1φ m = 2πfN1φ m = 4.44 fN1φ m
2
As the voltage drop in the primary circuit is zero, the counter emf E1 equals the
applied voltage V1. V1 V1
φm = =
2πfN1 4.44 fN1
Flux is determined solely by the applied voltage, f and number of winding turns
V1
For Fixed N1, maximum core flux decided by,
f
V
Maximum core flux is constant for constant, 1 38
f
 Ideal Transformer Under Load
φ

i1 1
2 i2
+ ℑ2
ℑ1 +
+
v1 e1 N1 N2 e2 v2 Load
−
−
−
1’ 2’

If terminals 2-2’ are connected to the load, i2 passes through load.

MMF in the secondary coil that opposes the core flux, ℑ2 = i2 N 2 AT
Current i1 must flow in the primary winding such that mmf in the secondary
winding is balanced by the primary winding.
ℑ1 = ℑ2 i1 N1 = i2 N 2 MMF balance equation
V1 N1
= v1i1 = v2 i2
V2 N 2
=> Volt-ampere rating of the transformer is the same for both the primary and
secondary
A transformer is a high-efficiency static device that can transform the
voltage levels of energy but cannot vary the energy levels. 39
 φ

i1 1 i1 N 2 1
2 i2 = =
i 2 N1 a
+ ℑ2
ℑ1 +
+
v1 e1 N1 N2 e2 v2 Load
−
−
−
2’ I1 N 2 1
1’ = =
I 2 N1 a

E 2 = V2 I2 Complex power in primary and

secondary can be written as,

E1 = V1 I1 S1 = V1 × I1* = V2 × I 2* = S 2
ϕ
90 
Ref w
φ
CCW
Phasor diagram of an ideal transformer
40
under load condition
 Equivalent Circuit of an Ideal Transformer

1
I1 = I2 I2 = aI1
a
+

+
1
V1 = aV2 N1 N2 V2 = V1
a
− −

V1
a= V1 = V2' = aV2 V2' − secondary voltage referred to the primary
V2 1
I1 = I 2' = I 2 I 2' − secondary current referred to primary
a

1
V2 = V1' = V1 V1' − primary voltage referred to secondary
a
I 2 = I1' = aI1 I1' − primary current referred to secondary

41
 I1 I2 I1 Z L' = a 2 Z L I2 I1
+
+ + +

V1 N1 N 2 V2 ZL V1 V1 Z L' = a 2 Z L

− − − −
V1
V
ZL = 2 ZL = a
I2 aI1
V1
= a 2 Z L = Z L'
I1

Z L' − equivalent impedance referred to the primary side

42
 Ex. A 10kVA, 6600/220 V, 50 Hz transformer is rated at 2.5V/turn of the winding coils.
Assume transformer to be ideal, calculate a) step-up transformation ratio, b) step down
transformation ratio, c) the total turns of the high voltage and low voltage coils, d) the primary
current as a step down transformer, e) the secondary current as a step down transformer
V1 220 1
a) As a step-up transformer, primary voltage, V1=220 V. Hence turns ratio, a = = =
V2 6600 30
V1 6600
b) As a step-down transformer, primary voltage, V1=6600 V. Then, a= = = 30
V2 220

rated voltage 6600

c) Number of turns in high voltage coil, = = 2640
voltage per turn 2.5

rated voltage 220

d) Number of turns low voltage coil, = = 88
voltage per turn 2.5

kVA × 10 3 10 × 10 3
e) Primary current as a step-down transformer = = 1.515 A
6600 6600

kVA × 10 3 10 × 10 3
f) Secondary current as a step-down transformer = = 45.45 A
220 220
 Practical Transformer
It is impossible to have core of infinite permeability and zero hysteresis and eddy
current losses.
Assuming operation at linear portion of the magnetization curve & the magnetic
core of reluctance ℜ
ℜ ×φ ℜ × φ m Sin(wt )
ℑ = N1 × iφ = ℜ × φ iφ = iφ =
N1 N1
Magnetizing current is in phase with the core flux
ℜ × φm ℜ V1
RMS value of the magnetizing current, I φ = Iφ = ×
2 × N1 2 × N1 2πfN1
ℜ × V1 ℜ × V1 V wN12
Iφ = = = 1 Xm = is the magnetizing reactance
2πf × N12 w × N12 Xm ℜ
V 1
In phasor form, I φ = 1 = − jBmV1 Bm = is the susceptance
jX m Xm
Alternating flux produced due to current in the primary winding causes core or
iron loss.
Flux (ɸm) is proportional to V1 Hysteresis loss ∞ V11.6 Eddy current loss ∞V12
V12
Considering both the losses due to an equivalent resistance RC PC =
RC
V1
Component of current causing core loss IC = = GCV1
RC
Exciting (or no load or magnetizing ) current I0 required to set up flux in the
core and to account for the core loss, is drawn from the supply source consists
of 2 components, magnetizing current Iɸ and the core loss current, IC

I 0 = Iφ + I C

I 0 = I φ2 + I C2
E1 = V1
Cos (ϕ 0 ) =
IC
I0

E 2 = V2

I0
IC
ϕ0
Ref
w
Iφ φ
CCW

No load phasor diagram after accounting core losses

45
 I2
I 2' =
I1
a I2 = aI1
+ +
+ I0 +
IC Iφ
1
V1 RC Xm E1 E2 V2 = V1 Load
a
− −
− −
N1 N2
Ideal Transformer

V V1 = V2' = aV2 V2' − secondary voltage referred to the primary

a= 1
V2 1
I1 = I 2' = I 2 I 2' − secondary current referred to primary
a
I1
E1 = V1

I2
= I 2'
a
E 2 = V2

ϕ I0
IC
ϕ0
Ref
w
Iφ φ
CCW
 Incorporating Resistances and Leakage Reactances in the Ideal Transformer and
Equivalent Circuits
When transformer is on no-load, entire flux set up by the primary current links the
secondary winding as the leakage through the core is negligible compared to flux
passing through core
When transformer is on load, r.m.s. current I2 flows from instantaneous +ve
polarity to the load.
Secondary MMF, I2N2 AT will oppose the core flux ɸ.
The primary current I1 must increase by an amount such that the increased MMF
of the primary balances the MMF of the secondary.
Total flux by the primary cab be divided into 2 components- the resultant mutual
flux restricted to the magnetic core & the combined effect of the primary and
secondary currents & the primary leakage flux that links the primary winding only.
The effect of the leakage flux can be accounted by attaching to the primary a
leakage inductance equal to the leakage flux linkage of the primary per unit
primary current or a leakage reactance x1

Additionally, there is a voltage drop due to resistance of primary winding

V1 is then opposed by the phasor drops I1r1, I1x1 and the emf E1 induced in the
primary by the resultant mutual flux.
47
Resultant mutual flux links both primary and secondary and is created by their
combined MMFs.
The primary current has 2 components-an exciting component I0 to produce the
mutual flux and a load component I2’ which exact balance MMF of the secondary
current I2, ie,
I 2' N1 = I 2 N 2

The secondary current I2 creates a secondary leakage flux.

The secondary terminal voltage V2 differs from the secondary induced voltage
E2 by the voltage drops in the secondary resistance r2 and the secondary
leakage reactance x2

I1 r1 x1 I 2' I2
x2 r2
+ +
+ I0 + +
+

IC Iφ
V1 RC Xm E1 E2 V2

−
− −
−
N1 N2
Ideal Transformer
The resistance r2 and the leakage reactance x2 of the secondary windings can be
referred to the primary side as r2’ and x2’
r2' = a 2 r2 x2' = a 2 x2
The secondary current and voltage can be referred to the primary side as

I2
I 2' = V2' = aV2
a

r1 x1 x2' r2'
+
+ I0 + +
+

I1
IC Iφ I 2'
V1 RC Xm E 2' V2'

−
−
−

49
 r1 x1 x2' r2'
+
+ I0 + +

+
I1
IC Iφ I 2'
V1 RC Xm E 2' V2'

−
−
−

V1
jI1 x1

I1r1
ϕ1 − phase angle between V1 and I1 is the
E1 = aE 2
I power factor angle of the primary side
j 2 x2
E2 aI 2
r2
a
aV2 I1
ϕ 2 I 2 = I 2'
ϕ1 a
IC ϕ0 I0
Ref
w
Iφ φ
CCW
 Usefulness of the Equivalent Circuit
An equivalent circuit of a transformer forms the basis of determining its
performance in respect of its efficiency and regulation.
V1 I 2 N1
Transformation ratio, a = = =
V2 I 1 N 2

Transfer of primary quantities to secondary quantities

Sl. No. Quantity From primary To secondary
1 Voltage V1 V1’ =V1/a
2 Current I1 I1’ =aI1
3 Impedance Z1 Z1’ =Z1/a2

Transfer of secondary quantities to primary quantities

Sl. No. Quantity From secondary To primary
1 Voltage V2 V2’ =aV2
2 Current I2 I2’ =I2/a
3 Impedance Z2 Z2’ =a2Z2
51
 Approximate Equivalent Circuits
The equivalent circuit can be modified to form approximate equivalent circuits
whereby the computations can be considerably reduced

The shunt branch representing the exciting current may be moved from the
middle of the circuit to either the primary or secondary.

Req = r1 + a 2 r2 X eq = x1 + a 2 x2
+ I0
I +
I1 I 2' = 2
IC Iφ
a
V1 RC Xm V2' = aV2

− −

I2
Req = r1 + a r2
2
X eq = x1 + a x2 2 I 2' =
a
+ I0 +
I1 I1
IC Iφ
X m V2 = aV2
'
V1 RC

− −
52
Equivalent circuit is further simplified by neglecting the exciting current, in which
the transformer is represented by equivalent impedances.
Z eq = Req + X eq

Req X eq
+ +
I2
I1 = = I 2'
a
V1 V2' = aV2

− −

For large power transformers, the equivalent resistance is small compared to

the equivalent reactance and can be neglected.

X eq
+ +
I1 = I 2'

V1 V2' = aV2

− − 53
Ex: A 1-ɸ, 100kVA, 2200/220V, 50Hz transformer has a resistance of 0.75Ω & leakage
reactance of 1.15Ω for its HV winding. The corresponding values of the resistance & leakage
reactance of the LV winding are 0.007Ω & 0.009Ω. The shunt excitation branch parameters GC
and Bm determined at the rated voltage and frequency as viewed from the LV side are 0.0035S
& 0.025S respectively. Draw the equivalent circuit referred to (i) the LV side, ii) the HV side.

LV side leakage impedance = r2 + jx2 = (0.007 + j 0.009 )Ω

N1 2200
Turns ratio, a = = = 10
N2 220
HV side leakage impedance = r1 + jx1 = (0.75 + j1.15)Ω
HV impedance referred to the LV side 1= r '
+ jx ' =
1
1
(r + jx1 )
2 1
2
a
1
=   × (0.75 + j1.15) = (0.0075 + j 0.0115)Ω
 10 
Shunt branch admittance referred to the LV side GC − jBm = (0.0035 − j 0.025)S
Equivalent circuit referred to the LV side
0.0075Ω j 0.0115Ω j 0.009Ω 0.007Ω
+
+

HV 0.0035S − j 0.025S LV

54
LV impedance referred to the HV side = r2' + jx2' = a 2 (r2 + jx2 )

= (10)2 (0.007 + j 0.009) = (0.7 + j 0.9 )Ω

Magnetizing admittance referred to HV side
1
2
(GC − jB m ) = 10 −2
(0.0035 − j 0.025) = (0.000035 − j 0.00025)S
a
Equivalent circuit referred to HV side
0.75Ω j1.15Ω j 0.9Ω 0.7Ω
+
+

HV 0.000035S − j 0.00025S LV

For the approximate equivalent ckt, the magnetizing admittance is neglected for
the exact equivalent circuit
The equivalent impedance referred to LV side
(r
2 ) ( )
+ r1' + j x2 + x1' = (0.007 + 0.0075) + j (0.009 + 0.0115) = (0.0145 + j 0.0205)Ω

0.0145Ω j 0.0205Ω
Equivalent ckt referred to LV side
55
Equivalent impedance referred to HV side

(r + r )+ j(x + x ) =
1
'
2 1
'
2 (0.75 + 0.7 ) + j (1.15 + 0.9) = (1.45 + j 2.05)Ω

Equivalent circuit referred to HV side

1.45Ω j 2.05Ω

56
 Transformer Testing
Testing of transformers is undertaken to find the parameters of the equivalent circuit
and then compute the efficiency and regu;lation without actually loading it..

Transformer testing by actual loading is not practical due to

i) Large amount of energy required for testing, which is simply a loss,
ii) Accuracy required in measuring the input and output power since the two
are close to each other
iii) Difficulty in arranging the load for testing purpose

The two tests employed to determine the parameters are

a) Open circuit test
b) Short circuit test

57
 Open Circuit (OC) Test
Connection diagram for performing the OC test is shown in figure.
Test is conducted on the LV side of the transformer as the normal rated voltage
on the LV side is more likely to be in the range of usually available instruiments
and for less hazard for working on LV side
I0 W
LV HV
A

AC supply
V
voltage

A Low pf wattmeter is used as only low power factor magnetizing current is drawn
from the supply.
LV winding is subjected to rated primary voltage and frequency and the other
side is open circuited. Voltmeter, Ammeter and wattmeter readings are noted.
I0
+ V1
I0
IC
V1 GC Bm YC ϕ0
58
− Im
Since the HV side is open circuited, the ammeter reading shows the no-load current

A steady state the no load current is 2% to 5% of the full-load current and hence
I2R loss in the primary winding is small and can be neglected. The wattmeter
reading indicates the core loss of the transformer.

Primary voltmeter reading, V1 Ammeter reading, I 0 Wattmeter reading, PC

I0
Admittance of the core, YC =
V1 Susceptance of the core, Bm = YC2 − GC2
P
Conductance of the core, GC = C2
V1

No Load power factor, Cos (ϕ 0 ) =

PC
V1 I 0
If needed, employing the method of transformation, the parameters of the shunt
branch can be referred to the HV side also.

GC (hv ) = a 2 GC (lv ) Bm (hv ) = a 2 Bm (lv ) N lv

a=
N hv

59
 Short Circuit (SC) Test
LV winding of the transformer is short circuited and a reduced voltage is applied
on the HV side is adjusted such that the full-load current flows in the HV winding.
Readings of the ammeter, voltmeter and the wattmeter are noted.
ISC W
HV LV
A
Low
voltage
variable V
supply

As the LV winding is shorted, the current in the HV winding is limited by the

series resistance and the leakage reactance of the transformer.

A small magnitude (2% to 5%) of the rated voltage of the HV is sufficient to

circulate the full-load current in the HV

60
 X eq
ISC Req X eq Req
VSC
+ I 0(SC ) +
I SC

VSC GC Bm VSC

− ϕ SC
− I SC
The no load component of the short circuit current is 0.1 to 0.5% of the full-load
current. Hence, effect of magnetizing shunt branch is negligible and can be ignored.

Voltmeter reading, VSC Ammeter reading, I SC Wattmeter reading, PSC

P
Equivalent resistance of the transformer, Req = SC
2
I SC
V
Equivalent impedance of the transformer, Z eq = SC
I SC

Equivalent reactance of the transformer, X eq = Z eq

2
− Req
2

Equivalent resistance and reactance values transferred to the LV side,

Req (lv ) = a 2 Req ( hv ) X eq (lv ) = a 2 X eq ( hv )

61
Ex: The open-circuit and short circuit test on a 4kVA, 200/400V, 50 Hz single
phase transformer gave the following results:
OC test on the LV side: 200V, 1A, 100W
SC test with the LV shorted: 15V, 10A, 85W
a) Determine the parameters of the equivalent circuit. b) Draw the equivalent
circuit referred to the LV side.
I0 1
From the oc data, admittance of the core YC = = = 0.005S
V1 200
PC 100 1
Conductance of the core GC = = = = 0.0025S
V12 200 2 400

Susceptance of the core Bm = 0.005 2 − 0.0025 2 = 0.0433S

P 85
From the sc data, equivalent resistance Req = 2
= 2
= 0.85Ω
I Sc 10

VSC 15
Equivalent impedance Z eq = = = 1.5Ω
I SC 10

Equivalent leakage reactance X eq = 1.5 2 − 0.85 2 = 1.236Ω

 200 1
turns ratio, a = = = 0.5
400 2
Equivalent impedance referred to the LV side,
'
Req = 0.5 2 × 0.85 = 0.2125Ω
'
X eq = 0.5 2 × 1.236 = 0.309Ω

'
Z eq = 0.5 2 × 1.5 = 0.375Ω

Equivalent circuit referred to the LV side

I1 I 2' j 0.309Ω 0.2125Ω

VAN
+ I0 +
+

− j 0.0433S V2'
V1 0.0025S

− −

63
 Transformer Regulation
Voltage regulation of a transformer is defined as the ratio of the change in the
magnitude of the secondary voltage when full load at a specified power factor is
thrown off, with the primary voltage and frequency held constant.
change in voltage magnitude with load V2, no load − V2,full load
% Regulation = × 100 = × 100
rated full - load secondary voltage magnitude V2,full load
Practicing engineers use regulation to maintain voltage within specified limits at
the consumer terminals by regulating the primary voltage
I1 Req
X eq
(
V1 = V2 + Req + jX eq I1 ) (
V1 − V2 = R + jX eq I1 )
+ −
+ I1 is the full-load current
When load is thrown off, I1 = 0
V1 V2 Load
V1 = V2, no -load
−
jI1 X eq
V1

δ
θ V2 θ
I1 Req
I1
Req and Xeq are small in magnitude compared to V1 and V2

δ between V1 and V2 is small (only a few degrees)

C
jI1 X eq
Phasor diagram for
V1 lagging pf
θ
δ A B
O
θ V2 θ
I1 Req D
I1
I1 Req Cos (θ ) I1 X eq Sin(θ )
OC ≈ OB
V1 = OB V1 − V2
%Voltage regulation =
V1 − V2 = OB − OA V2

= AB =
(
I1 Req Cos (θ ) + X eq Sin(θ ))
(
= I1 Req Cos (θ ) + X eq Sin(θ ) ) V2

65
 V1 jI1 X eq Phasor diagram for
leading pf
θ

I1
%Voltage regulation =
(
I1 Req Cos (θ ) − X eq Sin(θ ) )
I1 Req
θ V2
δ B A
O V2
Voltage regulation is often represented in per unit (pu) rather than in percent.
The per unit value of a quantity is the ratio of the actual value to the base or
reference value of a quantity.
If the voltage V2 and the current I1 are taken as the base voltage and base
current respectively, then the base value of the impedance is given by,

V2 Ractual Ractual × I1 X actual X actual × I1

Z base = R pu = = X pu = =
I1 Z base V2 Z base V2
pu regulation = R pu Cos (θ ) ± X pu Sin(θ )

For lagging pf, pu regulation would be calculated with + sign and for a leading
pf, pu regulation would be calculated with the − sign.
66
Ex: A 4kVA, 200/400 V, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer gave the following test figures:
Low voltage data for no load: 200V, 0.7A, 60W
High voltage data for short circuit: 9V, 6A, 21.6W
Calculate a) the magnetizing current and the component corresponding to iron loss at normal
voltage and frequency; b) the efficiency on full-load and unity power factor, c) the secondary
terminal voltage on full load at power factors of unity, 0.8 (lag) and 0.8 (lead)

No Load test data for the LV side: V1 = 200V PC = 60W I 0 = 0.7 A

I 0 0.7 PC 60
YC = = = 0.0035mho GC = = = 0.0015 mho or S
V1 200 V12 (200) 2

Bm = (0.0035)2 − (0.0015)2 = 0.00316 mho or S I m = Bm × V1 = 0.00316 × 200 = 0.632 A

SC test data for the HV side: VSC = 9V I SC = 6 A PSC = 21.6W

PSC 21.6 VSC 9
R= 2
= = 0.6Ω Z eq = = = 1.5Ω X eq = Z eq
2
− Req
2
= 1.5 2 − 0.6 2 = 1.375Ω
I SC 62 I SC 6
As the SC test data is on the HV side, referring the parameters of the series
branch on the LV side, 200
a= = 0.5
400
'
Resistance referred to LV side Req = a 2 × R = 0.25 × 0.6 = 0.15Ω
'
Reactance referred to LV side X eq = a 2 × X = 0.25 × 1.375 = 0.344Ω
67
 j 0.344Ω 0.15Ω
VAN
+ 0.7 A +

V1 = 200V 0.0015S − j 0.316 S

0.632 A
−
4 × 10 3
Output on full load at unity pf=4000W Full load current, I fl = = 20 A
200
Copper loss at full load= I 2fl × R = (20)2 × 0.15 = 60W Iron loss = 60W
output 4000
% Efficiency = = × 100 = 97.08%
output + iron loss + copper loss 4000 + 60 + 60

( )
V1 − aV2 = I1 Req Cos (θ ) + X eq Sin(θ ) V2 =
1
[ ( )]
V1 − I1 Req Cos (θ ) + X eq Sin(θ )
a
200 − 20 × 0.15
Terminal voltage on full load at upf V2 = = 394V
0.5
200 − 20(0.15 × 0.8 + 0.344 × 0.6 )
Terminal voltage on full load at 0.8 pf (lag) V2 = = 386.94V
0.5
200 − 20(0.15 × 0.8 − 0.344 × 0.6 )
Terminal voltage on full load at 0.8 pf (lead) V2 = = 403.45V
0.5 68
 Transformer Efficiency
Power losses in a practical transformer are of two types:
i) The iron or core losses which comprise hysteresis and eddy current losses.
Both these losses occur in the iron core and are proportional to the maximum
value of flux in the core. The no-load current is about 2-5% of the full-load
current, and therefore core losses are taken as constant and independent of
the load on the transformer.
ii) I2r losses take place in the transformer windings. These losses are
dependant on the loading condition of the transformer.

Efficiency of the transformer is given by

output power input power - losses losses losses
η= = = 1− = 1−
input power input power input power output power + losses
Let the primary and secondary winding resistances be r1 and r2 respectively
and the turns ratio a
r
Equivalent resistance referred to the secondary side, Req = 12 + r2
a
Let the load voltage be V2 and the pf be Cos(θ) lagging, core loss be PC
V2 I 2 Cos (θ ) V2Cos (θ )
η= = For maximizing η,
V2 I 2 Cos (θ ) + PC + I 22 Req  PC 
V2 Cos (θ ) +   + I 2 Req denominator to be minimized.
 I2 
 V2Cos (θ )
η=
P 
V2 Cos (θ ) +  C  + I 2 Req
 I2 
 
d
 2
V Cos (θ ) +
PC
+ I 2 eq  = 0
R −
PC
+ Req = 0 ∴ PC = I 22 Req
dI 2  I2  I 22

PC
Load for which the maximum efficiency occurs I 22 =
Req 2
 I2 
Dividing both sides by square of the full-load current, I2,fl   = PC
 I 2, fl  I 22, fl Req
 
I2 PC
= = m, a constant
I 2. fl full load I 2 R loss

Efficiency is maximum when load current is mI2,fl

70
 All Day Efficiency of a Transformer
A transformer in an electrical distribution system is energized round the clock for
24 hrs a day and supplies varying load.
Transformers are subjected to core losses throughout the day independent of the
load.
On the other hand I2R loss being proportional to the square of the load current,
varies according to the load.
In order to assess the performance of such a transformer, all day efficiency (also
known as operational efficiency) is computed. All-day efficiency is defined as

energy output in kWh for 24 hours

η all-day =
energy input in kWh for the corresponding 24 hours

Higher all-day efficiency can be achieved by minimizing core losses.

Minimization of core losses can be achieved by designing transformers with

load flux densities.
Ex. A transformer has its maximum efficiency 0.98 at 15kVA at upf. On a day its load was :
2kW at pf 0.5 for 10 hrs
12kW at pf 0.8 for 8 hrs
18kW at pf 0.9 for 6 hrs. Find its all-day efficiency.
Output 15
Output at upf = 15 kW η max = 0.98 At ηmax and upf Input = = = 15.306kW
η max 0.98
Losses = Input − Output = 15.306 −15.0 = 0.306kW
0.306
At maximum efficiency, iron loss PC = I2R loss ∴ PC = I 2 R loss = = 0.153kW
2
Since iron loss is independent of load, the energy loss due to iron loss in 24 hrs = 0.153 ×
24 = 3.672 kWh
Duration, hours 10 8 6
Load, kW 2 at 0.5 pf 12 at 0.8 pf 18 at 0.9 pf
Rated output at
15 × 0.5 = 7.5 15 × 0.8 = 12 15 × 0.9 = 13.5
given pf, kW
2 2 2
I2R loss at  2   12   18 
  × 0.153 = 0.0109   × 0.153 = 0.153   × 0.153 = 0.272
given pf, kW  7 . 5   12   13 .5 
Energy loss due 0.0109 × 10 = 0.109 0.153 × 8 = 1.224 0.272 × 6 = 1.632
to I2R loss, kWh
Energy output, kWh 2 × 10 = 20 12 × 8 = 96 18 × 6 = 108
Total energy output during the day = 20+96+108=224 kWh
Energy loss due to I2R loss = 0.109+1.224+1.632 = 2.965 kWh
224
η all −day = = 0.9712
224 + 3.672 + 2.965
 Auto-Transformers
An auto-transformer is a transformer having a part of its winding common to the
primary and secondary circuit.
Input and output are electrically connected and the input and output currents are
superimposed in the common part of the winding
I1 AB with total primary turns N is tapped at any
A 1
+ convenient point C & number of secondary
I2 turns between C and B is N2. Supply voltage
C
V1 + V1 is applied across AB & the load being
I 2 − I1 V2 Load connected across CB has a voltage V2
− − V1 N1 E1
B
= = =a
V2 N 2 E 2
I N 2
= 1
=a
MMFs in the 2 windings balance each other N 2 (I 2 − I1 ) = (N1 − N 2 )I1 I1 N2
a −1
Power transferred inductively or by transformer action V2 ( I 2 − I 1 ) = V2 I 2
a
The weight of a conductor is proportional to the product of the current & no. of turns
Comparing a 2 winding transformer and an auto-transformer of the same input-
output specification, same core flux and current density
W AT I1 (N1 − N 2 ) + (I 2 − I1 )N 2 2(I 2 − I1 )N 2 I V 1
= = = 1− 1 = 1− 2 = 1−
WT I 1 N1 + I 2 N 2 2I 2 N 2 I2 V1 a
=> An auto-transformer is lower in weight than a 2-winding transformer of same rating 73
I2R loss of an auto-transformer is lower than a 2-winding transformer.

Efficiency of an auto-transformer is higher than a 2-winding transformer

Auto-transformers are mainly used for interconnecting systems that are

operating at roughly the same voltage, for starting cage type induction motors.

74
Ex: A 200/400V, 10kVA, 50 Hz single phase transformer has a core loss of 75 W and full
load copper loss of 150W. a) Calculate the efficiency of the transformer at full load of 0.8 pf,
b) The transformer is now connected as an auto-transformer to give 400/600V. Calculate the
kVA rating and efficiency at full load 0.8 pf.

Two-winding transformer Power output = 10×0.8= 8 kW Losses=75+150= 225W

8
Efficiency = × 100 = 97.26%
8 + 0.225 I 2 = 50 A
Auto-transformer
10 × 1000
I2 = = 50 A
200 200V
10 × 1000 I1 = 75 A
I1 − I 2 = = 25 A ∴ I1 = 75 A
400
600 × 50 I1 − I 2
kVA rating = = 30kVA 600V
1000 400V = 25 A
Power output = 30 × 0.8 = 24kW

24
Efficiency = × 100 = 99.07%
24 + 0.225
=> As the 2-winding transformer is connected as an auto-transformer, the rating
goes up from 10kVA to 30KVA and efficiency increases from 97.26% to 99.07%
75
 References
1) Chester L Dawes, “A course in Electrical Engineering: Vol I-Direct
Currents; Volume II-Alternating Currents”, McGraw Hill
2) I J Nagrath and Kothari, “Basic Electrical Engineering”, Tata McGraw
Hill, New Delhi, 1991
3) T. K Nagsarkar and M. S. Sukhija, “Basic Electrical Engineering”, Oxford
University Press, 2012
4) Hughes, “Electrical and Electronic Technology”, Pearson, 2011
5) Cotton, “Advanced Electrical Technology”, Reems Publication (P)
Limited, 1990
6) J P Tiwari, “Basic Electrical Engineering”, New Age Int Pvt Ltd, 2012

76
Thank You

77