MORE PRACTICE QUESTIONS ON RING THEORY
A. EXAMPLES OF RINGS
1. Show that the set R of all real valued continuous functions de fined in the closed interval
[ 𝟎, 𝟏] is a commutative ring with unity with respect to the addition and multiplication of
functions defined pointwise as follows:
(𝒇 + 𝒈 )(𝒙 ) = 𝒇 (𝒙 ) + 𝒈(𝒙)
And (𝒇𝒈 )(𝒙 ) = 𝒇(𝒙 )𝒈 (𝒙 ),
where f, g are any two functions in R.
2. Show that the ring of integers modulo p is a field [Link] addition and modulo p, where p
is any prime.
3. Prove that the set of residue classes modulo p is a commutative ring with respect to
addition and multiplication of residue classes. Further show that the ring of residue classes
modulo p is a field if and only if p is a prime.
4. Give an example of a skew field which is not a field.
(B) CHARACTERISTIC OF A RING
1. Define characteristic of a ring.
2. Show that the characteristic of a ring with unity is 0 or n > 0 according as the unity
element 1 regarded as a member of the additive group of the ring has the order zero or n.
3. Show that the characteristic of an integral domain is 0 or n > 0 according as the order of
any non-zero element regarded as a member of the additive group of the integral domain is
either 0 or n.
4. Show that each non-zero element of an integral domain D, regarded as a member of the
additive group of D, is of the same order
5. Show that the characteristic of an integral domain is either 0 or a prime number.
6. Define characteristic of a field.
(C) IDEALS & PRINCIPAL IDEAL
1. Define ideal.
2. Show that the intersection of any two left ideals of a ring is again a left ideal of the ring.
3. Show that an arbitrary intersection of left ideals of a ring is a left ideal of the ring.
4. Define ideal generated by a set.
5. Let 𝑺𝟏 , 𝑺𝟐 be ideals of a ring R and let
𝑺𝟏 + 𝑺𝟐 = { 𝒔𝟏 + 𝒔𝟐 : 𝒔𝟏 ∈ 𝑺𝟏 , 𝒔𝟐 ∈ 𝑺𝟐 } .
Then show that 𝑺𝟏 + 𝑺𝟐 is an ideal of R generated by 𝑺𝟏 ∪ 𝑺𝟐 .
𝒂 𝟎
6. Show that the set N of all 𝟐 × 𝟐 matrices of the form where a, b are integers is a
𝒃 𝟎
left ideal but not a right ideal in the ring R of all 𝟐 × 𝟐 matrices with elements as integers.
7. Show that a field has no proper ideals.
8. Show that a commutative ring with unity is a field if it has no proper ideals.
We first show that the set 𝑅𝑎 = {𝑟𝑎 ∶ 𝑟 ∈ 𝑅} is an ideal of R.
So, Ra is an ideal of R.
9. Define principal ideal.
10. Define principal ideal ring.
11. Show that the ring of integers is a principal ideal ring.
12. Show that every field is a principal ideal ring.
(D) QUOTIENT RING OR RING OF RESIDUE CLASSES
1. What is quotient ring or ring of residue classes?
This ring is called the quotient ring or ring of residue classes.
2. Show that if S is an ideal of a ring R, then the set 𝑹/ 𝑺 = { 𝑺 + 𝒂 ∶ 𝒂 ∈ 𝑹 } of all residue
classes of S in R forms a ring for the two compositions in 𝑹/ 𝑺 defined as follows:
(𝑺 + 𝒂 )(𝑺 + 𝒃 ) = 𝑺 + (𝒂 + 𝒃 ) [Addition of residue classes]
(𝑺 + 𝒂 )(𝑺 + 𝒃 ) = 𝑺 + 𝒂𝒃 [Multiplication of residue classes]
(E) RING HOMOMORPHISM AND ISOMORPHISM
1. Define ring homomorphism.
2. Show that if f is a homomorphism of a ring R to a ring R′, then (i) 𝒇 (𝟎) = 𝟎′ where 0 is
the zero element of the ring R and 0′ is the zero element of R′. (ii) 𝒇(− 𝒂) = −𝒇(𝒂) ∀ 𝒂 ∈ 𝑹
3. Let φ be a homomorphic mapping of a ring R into a ring R′. Let S′ be the homomorphic
image of R in R′. Then show that S′ is a subring of R′.
4. Define kernel of a homomorphism.
5. Show that if f is a homomorphism of a ring R into a ring R′ with kernel S, then S is an
ideal of R.
6. Define ring isomorphism.
7. Show that the homomorphism φ of a ring R to a ring R′ is an isomorphism of R to R′ if
and only if I(φ) = (0), where I(φ) denotes the kernel of φ.
8. State and prove fundamental theorem of ring homomorphism OR First isomorphism
theorem for rings.
Let 𝚽 ∶ 𝑹 → 𝑹′ be a homomorphism of R onto 𝑹′, i.e. 𝑹′ is the homomorphic image of R
and let S be the kernel of 𝚽. Then S is an ideal in R and
𝑹
≅ 𝑹′
𝑺
Proof:
9. State and prove the second isomorphism theorem for rings.
Let 𝑹 be a ring, 𝑨 be a subring of 𝑹, and 𝑰 be an ideal of 𝑹. Then
𝑨 𝑨+𝑰
≅
𝑨∩𝑰 𝑰
Proof:
Let 𝑅 be a ring, 𝐴 be a subring of 𝑅, and 𝐼 be an ideal of 𝑅.
We first show that 𝐴 + 𝐼 is a subring of R.
Let 𝑎 + 𝑖 , 𝑏 + 𝑖 ∈ 𝐴 + 𝐼.
Then (𝑎 + 𝑖 ) − ( 𝑏 + 𝑖 ) = (𝑎 − 𝑏) + (𝑖 − 𝑖 ) ∈ 𝐴 + 𝐼.
Also, (𝑎 + 𝑖 )( 𝑏 + 𝑖 ) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑖 + 𝑖 𝑏 + 𝑖 𝑖 = 𝑎𝑏 + (𝑎𝑖 + 𝑖 𝑏 + 𝑖 𝑖 ) ∈ 𝐴 + 𝐼.
So, 𝐴 + 𝐼 is a subring of R.
We next show that 𝐴 ∩ 𝐼 is an ideal of A.
Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐼.
Since A is a subring so 𝑥 − 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴.
Also since I is an ideal so 𝑥 − 𝑦 ∈ 𝐼.
So, 𝑥 − 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐼.
Next let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐼.
Since I is an ideal, so 𝑎𝑥 ∈ 𝐼.
Also since A is a subring, so 𝑎𝑥 ∈ 𝐴.
So, 𝑎𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐼.
Similarly, 𝑥𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐼.
So, 𝐴 ∩ 𝐼 is an ideal of A.
We next consider a mapping Φ: 𝐴 → defined as
Φ(𝑎) = 𝑎 + 𝐼
Since the quotient map 𝑅 → is a homomorphism, so Φ is a homomorphism.
Then the kernel of Φ is
ker Φ = {𝑎 ∈ 𝐴: 𝑎 + 𝐼 = 𝐼}
⇒ ker Φ = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐼.
Now every element of is of the form (𝑎 + 𝑖) + 𝐼 = 𝑎 + 𝐼 = Φ(𝑎)
So, the image of Φ is
By, the fundamental theorem of homomorphism,
≅ 𝐼𝑚(Φ)
𝑨
⇒ ≅
∩
(F) QUOTIENT FIELD
1. Show that every integral domain can be embedded in a field.
Let R be an integral domain. We consider the set of ordered pairs
𝑆 = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑏 ≠ 0}
We define a relation ~ on S as follows
(𝑎, 𝑏)~(𝑐, 𝑑) 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐
We show that ~ is an equivalence relation.
Let (𝑎, 𝑏), (𝑐, 𝑑), (𝑒, 𝑓) ∈ 𝑆.
(i) Reflexive:
Since 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎, so (𝑎, 𝑏)~(𝑎, 𝑏)
(ii) Symmetry:
Let (𝑎, 𝑏)~(𝑐, 𝑑)
⟹ 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐
⟹ 𝑏𝑐 = 𝑎𝑑
⟹ 𝑐𝑏 = 𝑑𝑎
⟹ (𝑐, 𝑑)~(𝑎, 𝑏)
(iii) Transitive:
Let (𝑎, 𝑏)~(𝑐, 𝑑) and (𝑐, 𝑑)~(𝑒, 𝑓)
⟹ 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐 and 𝑐𝑓 = 𝑑𝑒
⟹ 𝑎𝑑𝑐𝑓 = 𝑏𝑐𝑑𝑒
⟹ 𝑎𝑓 = 𝑏𝑒
⟹ (𝑎, 𝑏)~(𝑒, 𝑓)
Hence, ~ is an equivalence relation.
So, the relation ~ partitions S into mutually disjoint equivalence classes.
Let [𝑎, 𝑏] (or 𝑎/𝑏) be the equivalence class of (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑆 and 𝐹 be the set of all equivalence
classes.
We show that 𝐹 is a field [Link] the two operations defined as
Addition: [𝑎, 𝑏] + [𝑐, 𝑑] = [𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐, 𝑏𝑑]
Multiplication: [𝑎, 𝑏][𝑐, 𝑑] = [𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑑]
Addition operation is well defined:
Let [𝑎, 𝑏] = [𝑎′, 𝑏′] and [𝑐, 𝑑] = [𝑐′, 𝑑′].
We need to show that [𝑎, 𝑏] + [𝑐, 𝑑] = [𝑎′, 𝑏′] + [𝑐′, 𝑑′].
Now, [𝑎, 𝑏] = [𝑎′, 𝑏′] ⟹ 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎′ (1)
and [𝑐, 𝑑] = [𝑐′, 𝑑′] ⟹ 𝑐𝑑 = 𝑑𝑐′ (2)
Now, (𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)𝑏 𝑑 = 𝑎𝑑𝑏 𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐𝑏 𝑑
= 𝑎𝑏 𝑑𝑑 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑑
= 𝑏𝑎 𝑑𝑑 + 𝑏𝑏′𝑑𝑐′ by (1) and (2)
= 𝑏𝑑𝑎 𝑑 + 𝑏𝑑𝑏 𝑐
= 𝑏𝑑(𝑎 𝑑 + 𝑏 𝑐 )
So, [𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐, 𝑏𝑑] = [𝑎 𝑑 + 𝑏 𝑐 , 𝑏𝑐]
⟹ [𝑎, 𝑏] + [𝑐, 𝑑] = [𝑎′, 𝑏′] + [𝑐′, 𝑑′].
Multiplication operation is well defined:
Now, 𝑎𝑐𝑏 𝑑 = 𝑎𝑏 𝑐𝑑
= 𝑏𝑎′𝑑𝑐′ by (1) and (2)
= 𝑏𝑑𝑎′𝑐′
So, [𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑑] = [𝑎 𝑐 , 𝑏 𝑑 ]
⟹ [𝑎, 𝑏][𝑐, 𝑑] = [𝑎′, 𝑏′][𝑐′, 𝑑′].
Now we show the remaining field properties:
Let [𝑎, 𝑏], [𝑐, 𝑑], [𝑒, 𝑓] ∈ 𝐹
(A1) Closure property for addition:
[𝑎, 𝑏] + [𝑐, 𝑑] = [𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐, 𝑏𝑑] ∈ 𝐹
(A2) Associativity for addition:
Now, ([𝑎, 𝑏] + [𝑐, 𝑑]) + [𝑒, 𝑓] = [𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐, 𝑏𝑑] + [𝑒, 𝑓]
= [(𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐)𝑓 + (𝑏𝑑)𝑒, (𝑏𝑑)𝑓]
= [𝑎𝑑𝑓 + 𝑏𝑐𝑓 + 𝑏𝑑𝑒, 𝑏𝑑𝑓]
and [𝑎, 𝑏] + ([𝑐, 𝑑] + [𝑒, 𝑓]) = [𝑎, 𝑏] + [𝑐𝑓 + 𝑑𝑒, 𝑑𝑓]
= [𝑎(𝑑𝑓) + 𝑏(𝑐𝑓 + 𝑑𝑒), 𝑏(𝑑𝑓)]
= [𝑎𝑑𝑓 + 𝑏𝑐𝑓 + 𝑏𝑑𝑒, 𝑏𝑑𝑓]
So, ([𝑎, 𝑏] + [𝑐, 𝑑]) + [𝑒, 𝑓] = [𝑎, 𝑏] + ([𝑐, 𝑑] + [𝑒, 𝑓]).
(A3) Existence of zero element:
There exists [0,1] ∈ 𝐹 such that
[𝑎, 𝑏] + [0,1] = [𝑎1 + 𝑏0, 𝑏1] = [𝑎, 𝑏]
(A4) Existence of additive inverse:
For every [𝑎, 𝑏] ∈ 𝐹, there exists [−𝑎, 𝑏] ∈ 𝐹 such that
[𝑎, 𝑏] + [−𝑎, 𝑏] = [𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏(−𝑎), 𝑏𝑏]
= [𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏, 𝑏𝑏]
= [0,1] ∵ (0, 𝑏𝑏)~(0,1) as (0)(1) = (𝑏𝑏)(0) = 0
So, the inverse of [𝑎, 𝑏] is [−𝑎, 𝑏].
(A5) Commutativity for addition:
Now, [𝑎, 𝑏] + [𝑐, 𝑑] = [𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐, 𝑏𝑑]
= [𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎𝑑, 𝑏𝑑]
= [𝑐𝑏 + 𝑑𝑎, 𝑑𝑏]
= [𝑐, 𝑑] + [𝑎, 𝑏]
(M1) Closure for multiplication:
[𝑎, 𝑏][𝑐, 𝑑] = [𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑑] ∈ 𝐹
(M2) Associativity for multiplication:
Now, ([𝑎, 𝑏][𝑐, 𝑑])[𝑒, 𝑓] = [𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑑][𝑒, 𝑓] = [(𝑎𝑐)𝑒, (𝑏𝑑)𝑓]
= [𝑎(𝑐𝑒), 𝑏(𝑑𝑓)]
= [𝑎, 𝑏][𝑐𝑒, 𝑑𝑓]
= [𝑎, 𝑏]([𝑐, 𝑑][𝑒, 𝑓])
(M3) Existence of unity element:
There exists [1,1] ∈ 𝐹 such that
[𝑎, 𝑏][1,1] = [𝑎1, 𝑏1] = [𝑎, 𝑏]
(M4) Existence of multiplicative inverse for non-zero elements:
For every non-zero element [𝑎, 𝑏] ∈ 𝐹, there exists [𝑏, 𝑎] ∈ 𝐹 such that
[𝑎, 𝑏][𝑏, 𝑎] = [𝑎𝑏, 𝑏𝑎]
= [1,1] ∵ (𝑎𝑏, 𝑏𝑎)~(1,1) as (𝑎𝑏)(1) = (𝑏𝑎)(1)
So, the inverse of [𝑎, 𝑏] is [𝑏, 𝑎].
(M5) Commutativity for multiplication:
Now, [𝑎, 𝑏][𝑐, 𝑑] = [𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑑]
= [𝑐𝑎, 𝑑𝑏]
= [𝑐, 𝑑][𝑎, 𝑏]
(DL) Distributive laws:
[𝑎, 𝑏]([𝑐, 𝑑] + [𝑒, 𝑓]) = [𝑎, 𝑏][𝑐𝑓 + 𝑑𝑒, 𝑑𝑓]
= [𝑎(𝑐𝑓 + 𝑑𝑒), 𝑏(𝑑𝑓)]
= [𝑎𝑐𝑓 + 𝑎𝑑𝑒, 𝑏𝑑𝑓]
[𝑎, 𝑏][𝑐, 𝑑] + [𝑎, 𝑏][𝑒, 𝑓] = [𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑑] + [𝑎𝑒, 𝑏𝑓]
= [(𝑎𝑐)(𝑏𝑓) + (𝑏𝑑)(𝑎𝑒), (𝑏𝑑)(𝑏𝑓)]
= [𝑎𝑐𝑏𝑓 + 𝑏𝑑𝑎𝑒, 𝑏𝑑𝑏𝑓]
= [(𝑎𝑐𝑓 + 𝑎𝑑𝑒)𝑏, (𝑏𝑑𝑓)𝑏]
= [𝑎𝑐𝑓 + 𝑎𝑑𝑒, 𝑏𝑑𝑓][𝑏, 𝑏]
= [𝑎𝑐𝑓 + 𝑎𝑑𝑒, 𝑏𝑑𝑓] ∵ (𝑏, 𝑏)~(1,1) as (𝑏)(1) = (𝑏)(1)
So, [𝑎, 𝑏]([𝑐, 𝑑] + [𝑒, 𝑓]) = [𝑎, 𝑏][𝑐, 𝑑] + [𝑎, 𝑏][𝑒, 𝑓]
Similarly, ([𝑐, 𝑑] + [𝑒, 𝑓])[𝑎, 𝑏] = [𝑐, 𝑑][𝑎, 𝑏] + [𝑒, 𝑓][𝑎, 𝑏]
So, F is a field.
Let 𝐾 = {[𝑎, 1]: 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅}
Then K is clearly a sub-field of F.
We consider a mapping 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝐾 defined as
𝑓(𝑎) = [𝑎, 1]
(i) f is one-one:
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏)
⟹ [𝑎, 1] = [𝑏, 1]
⟹ (𝑎, 1)~(𝑏, 1)
⟹ 𝑎1 = 1𝑏
⟹𝑎=𝑏
(ii) f is onto:
Since every element [𝑎, 1] ∈ 𝐾 has the pre-image 𝑎 ∈ 𝑅, so 𝑓 is clearly onto.
(iii) Homomorphism:
Now, 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏) = [𝑎 + 𝑏, 1]
= [𝑎, 1] + [𝑏, 1]
= 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑏)
Also, 𝑓(𝑎𝑏) = [𝑎𝑏, 1]
= [𝑎, 1][𝑏, 1]
= 𝑓(𝑎)𝑓(𝑏)
So, R is isomorphic to K, which is a sub-field of F.
So, the integral domain R is embedded in the field F.
∴ Every integral domain can be embedded in a field.
2. Define quotient field.
Let R be an integral domain. Then the field of quotients of R is the field
𝐹= = [𝑎, 𝑏]: 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑏 ≠ 0
where = [𝑎, 𝑏] represents the equivalence class of the ordered pair (𝑎, 𝑏) [Link] the equivalence
relation ~ defined as
(𝑎, 𝑏)~(𝑐, 𝑑) ⟺ 𝑎𝑑 = 𝑏𝑐
with addition and multiplication defined as
Addition: [𝑎, 𝑏] + [𝑐, 𝑑] = [𝑎𝑑 + 𝑏𝑐, 𝑏𝑑] or + =
Multiplication: [𝑎, 𝑏][𝑐, 𝑑] = [𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑑] or =
together with the embedding homomorphism 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝐹 defined as
𝑓(𝑎) = [𝑎, 1] =