UNIT 1 – METAL CASTING & FORMING
Introduction
Metal casting is one of the oldest manufacturing processes used to create metal components of various
shapes and sizes. In this process, molten metal is poured into a pre-prepared mold cavity and allowed
to cool and solidify into the desired shape. Casting is especially useful when the required parts are
large, complex, or have internal cavities that are difficult or impossible to create through machining or
forming. One of the main advantages of casting is its ability to produce components made from
materials that are otherwise difficult to machine or form economically. For example, metals with very
high melting temperatures or metals that harden quickly can be cast more easily. Because of its
versatility, casting is widely used in industries for manufacturing parts like exhaust manifolds, engine
blocks, gearbox housings, and pump casings.
Introduction – Diagram
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Steps in Sand Casting
Sand casting is the most widely used casting method because it is simple, inexpensive, and suitable for
almost any metal. The first step in sand casting involves making a pattern, which is an exact replica of
the final product. This pattern is placed inside a molding box, and specially prepared molding sand is
packed tightly around it. Once the sand is compacted, the pattern is removed, leaving behind a hollow
cavity that resembles the final component. After creating the cavity, the gating system—including the
sprue, runner, and gate—is added to guide the flow of molten metal. The next step is pouring the
molten metal into the mold. As the metal cools, it changes from liquid to solid, taking the shape of the
cavity. After it has fully solidified, the mold is broken apart to retrieve the cast component. Finally, the
casting may require cleaning, fettling, and machining to achieve the necessary dimensional accuracy
and surface finish.
Steps in Sand Casting – Diagram
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Elements of Sand Casting
A sand-casting setup consists of several important elements. The flask is the frame that holds the
molding sand; it is made of wood or metal and includes the cope (top section), drag (bottom section),
and cheek (middle section, if needed). The molding sand is a mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture
that must be strong enough to hold its shape and porous enough to allow gases to escape. The pattern,
usually made of wood, metal, or plastic, creates the cavity. Cores are used when the casting requires
internal cavities or hollow sections; they are made of special sand that can withstand high
temperatures. The gating system consists of the sprue, runner, and gates, which guide the molten
metal. The riser acts as a reservoir of molten metal to compensate for shrinkage during solidification.
Chaplets are small metal supports used to hold cores in place and prevent sagging or floating.
Elements of Sand Casting – Diagram
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Pattern Allowances
When designing patterns, several allowances must be considered to compensate for changes occurring
during casting. Shrinkage allowance is provided because metals contract when they cool from molten to
solid state. Draft allowance is a slight taper given to vertical surfaces of the pattern to facilitate easy
removal from the mold without damaging the cavity. Machining allowance is an extra thickness added to
surfaces that will later be machined to ensure dimensional accuracy and smoothness. Distortion
allowance is used in patterns where uneven cooling may cause warping; the pattern shape is slightly
modified to counter this effect. These allowances ensure that the final casting meets the required
dimensions and quality standards.
Pattern Allowances – Diagram
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Casting Defects and Prevention
Casting defects arise due to improper design, faulty molding practices, or poor metal flow. Blowholes
occur when gases get trapped inside the mold due to poor venting or excessive moisture. Shrinkage
cavities form when the molten metal is not adequately fed during solidification; proper riser placement
helps prevent this. Cold shut happens when two streams of metal fail to fuse, often due to low pouring
temperature or poor fluidity. Hot tears occur due to restrained contraction in complex shapes. Proper
gating system design, controlled pouring temperature, and improved mold quality can prevent these
defects.
Casting Defects and Prevention – Diagram
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Forging and Extrusion (Forming Processes)
Forging is a forming process where metal is shaped by applying compressive forces, usually at
elevated temperatures. Forging improves the mechanical properties of the metal because the grain
structure becomes more refined and oriented along the shape of the part, making it stronger and more
resistant to fatigue. Closed-die forging allows highly complex shapes to be produced accurately.
Extrusion is another important forming process where a heated metal billet is forced through a die to
create long components with a uniform cross-section. Hot extrusion reduces the force needed to shape
the billet and produces high-quality results. Cold extrusion provides better surface finish and higher
dimensional accuracy but requires more force.
Forging and Extrusion (Forming Processes) – Diagram
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