SSCS Raghav

Unit-3
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1. Write any two requirements of a magnetic sensor. (CO3 K2)

 High sensitivity to weak magnetic fields.

 Good temperature stability and low hysteresis.

2. What is a heading sensor? Give examples. (CO3 K1)

 A heading sensor measures the direction or orientation of an object relative to magnetic north.
 Examples: Magnetic compass, Fluxgate sensor.

3. What is gyroscopic effect? (CO3 K1)

 The gyroscopic effect is the tendency of a rotating body to maintain its axis of rotation due to angular
momentum.

4. List two advantages of gyroscope-based heading sensors. (CO3 K1)

 Provide accurate and stable heading information.

 Not affected by external magnetic disturbances.

5. Write a short note on inclinometers. (CO3 K2)

 Inclinometers are sensors used to measure the angle of tilt or slope with respect to gravity.
 They are used in vehicles, robotics, and structural monitoring systems.

6. Define sensitivity of a strain gauge. (CO3 K1)

 Sensitivity is the change in electrical resistance per unit strain applied to the strain gauge.

7. What is meant by gauge factor? (CO3 K2)

 Gauge factor (GF) is the ratio of fractional change in resistance to the fractional change in length (strain).

8. Mention any two limitations of Hall Effect sensors. (2 Marks)

  Limited accuracy at high temperatures.
 Sensitive to external magnetic interference.

Unit-4
1. Define a photoconductive cell. (CO4 K1)

 A photoconductive cell is a light-sensitive resistor whose resistance decreases when the intensity of
incident light increases.

2. State the principle of a photovoltaic cell. (CO4 K2)

 It works on the photoelectric effect, where light energy striking a semiconductor surface generates an
electromotive force (voltage).

3. Write two applications of LDR. (CO4 K1)

 Automatic street light control.

 Light intensity meters or alarm systems.

4. Differentiate between photoconductive and photovoltaic cells. (CO4 K2)

Photoconductive Cell Photovoltaic Cell

Changes resistance with light. Generates voltage when exposed to light.
Needs external bias. No external power required.

5. What is the principle of fiber optic sensors? (CO4 K2)

 They work on the principle of modulation of light intensity, phase, or wavelength transmitted through
optical fibers in response to a physical change.

6. List two advantages of bellows type pressure sensors. (CO4 K1)

 Simple construction and high sensitivity.

 Can measure both positive and negative pressures.

7. State the working principle of piezoelectric sensors. (CO4 K2)

  They work on the piezoelectric effect, where mechanical stress applied to a crystal generates an electric
charge.

8. List two types of IC temperature sensors. (CO4 K1)

 LM35 and AD590.

9. Write the working principle of RTD. (CO4 K2)

 RTDs work on the principle that the electrical resistance of a metal changes linearly with temperature.

10. Differentiate between thermocouple and RTD. (CO4 K2)

Thermocouple RTD
Works on Seebeck effect. Works on resistance-temperature relationship.
Measures wide temperature range. Gives higher accuracy and stability.

11. Define acoustic sensors. (CO4 K1)

 Acoustic sensors detect sound waves or vibrations and convert them into electrical signals.

12. Write any two methods of flow measurement. (CO4 K1)

 Orifice plate method.

 Venturi meter method.

13. What is a radiation sensor? (CO4 K1)

 A radiation sensor detects and measures ionizing radiation such as alpha, beta, or gamma rays.

14. Define a smart sensor. List any two applications of MEMS sensors. (CO4 K2)

 A smart sensor is a sensor with built-in signal conditioning, processing, and communication capability.
 Applications of MEMS sensors:
o Airbag deployment systems.
o Smartphone motion detection.

15. What is a Nano sensor? (2 Marks)

  A Nano sensor is a sensor that detects physical or chemical properties at the nanoscale (10⁻⁹ m), offering
high sensitivity and fast response.

Unit-5
1. Define signal conditioning. (CO5 K1)

 Signal conditioning is the process of modifying a sensor signal into a suitable form for processing, such as
amplification, filtering, or conversion.

2. What is the role of amplification in signal conditioning? (CO5 K2)

 Amplification increases the magnitude of weak sensor signals to a measurable level for further processing
or digitization.

3. List two applications of filtering in instrumentation. (CO5 K2)

 To remove unwanted noise from sensor signals.

 To separate specific frequency components in signal analysis.

4. What is the function of a sample and hold circuit? (CO5 K1)

 It samples an analog signal and holds its value constant during the conversion process in an ADC.

5. List the main components of a DAQ system. (CO5 K1)

 Sensors and transducers.

 Signal conditioning and ADC unit.
 Computer or microcontroller for data processing.

6. Mention two types of ADCs. (CO5 K2)

 Successive Approximation ADC (SAR).

 Flash ADC.

7. List two applications of DAC. (CO5 K2)

 Audio signal generation and playback.

 Motor speed and position control.

8. What is an interface in DAQ systems? (CO5 K1)

  An interface is a communication link between the DAQ hardware and computer for data transfer and
control.

9. Write two examples of bus systems. (CO5 K2)

 USB (Universal Serial Bus).

 I²C (Inter-Integrated Circuit).

10. What is sensor integration? (CO5 K1)

 Sensor integration is the process of combining multiple sensors or sensor data into a unified system for
improved accuracy and functionality.

11. Define signal transmission. (CO5 K1)

 Signal transmission is the process of transferring electrical signals from one point to another through wired
or wireless means.

12. Write two types of signal transmission methods. (CO5 K2)

 Wired transmission (e.g., coaxial, twisted pair).

 Wireless transmission (e.g., Wi-Fi, Bluetooth).

13. What is a wireless sensor network (WSN)? (CO5 K1)

 A WSN is a network of spatially distributed sensors that communicate wirelessly to monitor and collect
data about environmental or physical conditions.

14. Mention two applications of WSN. (CO5 K2)

 Environmental monitoring.
 Industrial process automation.

15. What is an industrial DAQ system? (2 Marks)

 An industrial DAQ system is a data acquisition system designed for harsh environments to monitor, record,
and control industrial processes in real time.

Unit-3
Part-C
[Link] the principles, advantages, and limitations of heading sensors (Compass,
Gyroscope, Inclinometer) with suitable case studies.

1. Compass (Magnetic Heading Sensor)

Principle:

 A compass works on the Earth’s magnetic field principle.

 It aligns itself with the magnetic north, allowing measurement of direction or heading.
 Electronic compasses (Fluxgate or Hall-effect types) convert magnetic field variations into electrical
signals.

Advantages:

 Simple and inexpensive.

 No need for external power (in basic magnetic compasses).
 Provides absolute heading reference.

Limitations:

 Affected by nearby magnetic materials or electrical interference.

 Requires calibration to correct declination errors.

Case Study:

 Used in smartphones and autonomous robots for navigation and orientation correction.

2. Gyroscope

Principle:

 Based on the gyroscopic effect, where a spinning mass tends to maintain its axis of rotation due to angular
momentum.
 Measures angular velocity and orientation changes.
 MEMS gyroscopes use the Coriolis effect for angular rate detection.

Advantages:

 Provides high stability and quick response.

 Not affected by external magnetic fields.
 Works well for dynamic systems like drones or aircraft.

Limitations:

 Prone to drift errors over time (especially MEMS types).

 Requires frequent calibration and sometimes sensor fusion (with accelerometer or compass).

Case Study:

 Used in drones and aircraft autopilot systems to maintain stable heading and attitude control.
3. Inclinometer (Tilt Sensor)

Principle:

 Measures the angle of tilt or slope of an object with respect to gravity.

 Works on the change in capacitance, resistance, or acceleration caused by inclination.

Advantages:

 Provides accurate angle or slope information.

 Compact and easy to integrate with control systems.
 Works even in the absence of external magnetic or optical references.

Limitations:

 Sensitive to vibration and dynamic motion.

 Limited measurement range (usually ±90°).

Case Study:

 Used in construction machinery and robotic arms to monitor platform levelling and stability.

Comparison Summary

Sensor Type Measured Quantity Key Advantage Main Limitation

Simple, absolute Affected by magnetic
Compass Magnetic heading
direction interference
Angular
Gyroscope Fast and accurate Drift over time
velocity/orientation
Precise slope
Inclinometer Tilt/angle Sensitive to vibration
measurement

Part-c
Unit-4
1. Design and explain an optical sensing system using LDR and fiber optic sensors for
light intensity and displacement measurement.
Introduction

An optical sensing system that uses an LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) for general light-intensity measurement
and a fiber-optic sensor for displacement (position) sensing gives a low-cost, flexible solution covering coarse
ambient light monitoring and high-precision/mechanically isolated displacement measurement. This combined
system is useful in industrial monitoring, robotics, and remote or hazardous environments.

Objectives & requirements

 Measure ambient/scene light intensity (0.1–10,000 lux) with LDR.

 Measure small linear displacement (microns to mm) with fiber optic technique.
 Provide conditioned analog outputs (0–10 V or 4–20 mA) and digital readings to DAQ/PLC.
 Good immunity to EMI (use fiber for displacement channel where needed).
Components

 LDR (cadmium sulphide or modern photoconductive resistor) with bias resistor.

 Optical source for fiber channel: LED or laser diode.
 Optical fiber (multimode) with connectors and mechanical probe.
 Receiver photodiode / phototransistor (for fiber intensity method) or Fibre Bragg Grating + interrogator
(for high-precision).
 Signal conditioning: amplifiers, filters, ADC (SAR ADC 12–16 bit), reference, isolation.
 Microcontroller / DAQ + display / PLC interface.
 Mechanical mounting, target (reflective surface) for displacement sensing.

Working principles

LDR (photoconductive) — Light intensity

Fibre-optic displacement — Intensity modulation (practical)

 A light source launches light into a transmitting fiber. The fiber end faces a reflective target; part of light is
coupled back into the receiving fiber. The received optical power depends strongly on gap/angle between
fiber end and target (displacement).
 Photodiode converts returned optical power to current → transimpedance amplifier → voltage proportional
to displacement.
 Alternative high-precision approach: Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) — strain/axial displacement shifts the
reflected Bragg wavelength; an interrogator detects wavelength shift → highly accurate, temperature-
compensated measurement.

System design & block diagram

Design notes:
  LDR channel: choose bias resistor for good sensitivity in expected lux range; add sample & hold if
multiplexing.
 Fiber displacement channel: choose LED wavelength, fiber numerical aperture, and separation geometry
for desired linear range; design photodiode TIA gain so full-scale output matches ADC input.

Signal conditioning & calibration

 LDR channel: linearize (software) using calibration table or polynomial fit because LDR response is
nonlinear. Add anti-alias low-pass filter (~10 Hz for ambient light). Provide offset/gain trim pots for
zero/span. Optionally output 4–20 mA via transmitter.
 Fiber channel: use transimpedance amplifier (TIA) with low noise, bandwidth matching displacement
dynamics. Add high-pass filter if measuring dynamic displacement only. For FBG use wavelength
interrogator electronics (optical spectrum or tunable filter + photodetector). Temperature compensation:
include second, reference FBG or thermistor.
 Calibrate by known lux sources (for LDR) and calibrated micrometer displacements (for fiber sensor).
Store calibration coefficients in MCU.

Advantages & Limitations

Advantages

 LDR: very low cost, simple, good for coarse light monitoring.
 Fiber-optic: immune to EMI, suitable for remote/hazardous areas, high resolution (especially FBG),
electrically passive at sensing point.
 Combined system covers both coarse ambient sensing and precise displacement.

Limitations

 LDR: slow response (~tens to hundreds of ms), nonlinear, temperature dependent, limited precision.
 Intensity-based fiber sensor: limited linear range and sensitive to alignment; ambient light leakage must be
prevented.
 FBG: higher cost and needs specialized interrogator; temperature cross-sensitivity needs compensation.

Practical application & example

Example: A packaging-machine station where light level controls vision-inspection illumination (LDR channel),
and a fiber-optic displacement probe monitors the position of a moving cam or plunger (fiber intensity) to detect
micro-misfeeds. LDR decides adaptive lighting; fiber sensor gives real-time position feedback to PLC to reject
misfeeds. Use 12-bit ADC (0–5 V), update rates: LDR 10 Hz, fiber channel 1 kHz (or as required).

Maintenance, safety & installation tips

 Shield LDR from direct heat sources; provide enclosure with optical window.
 Secure fiber routing, avoid tight bends (min bend radius), use protective tubing.
 Periodic recalibration against references; clean fiber endfaces and reflective targets.

Conclusion

This design integrates an LDR for inexpensive ambient light measurement and a fiber-optic sensor (intensity or
FBG) for accurate, EMI-immune displacement sensing. Proper signal conditioning, calibration and installation
produce a robust optical sensing system suitable for industrial use.
 Unit-5
Part-C
[Link] analyze the performance of ADC and DAC in modern DAQ systems with
examples.
1. Introduction

In modern Data Acquisition (DAQ) systems, Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADC) and Digital-to-Analog
Converters (DAC) play crucial roles in converting real-world analog signals to digital data and vice versa. Their
performance directly affects accuracy, speed, and reliability of measurement and control systems.

2. ADC – Working Principle and Role

An ADC converts a continuous analog signal into a discrete digital representation using sampling and
quantization.
Common ADC types: Flash, Successive Approximation (SAR), Sigma-Delta, and Dual Slope.

 Input: Analog voltage/current.

 Output: Binary digital code.

Used for sensor signal acquisition in instrumentation, control, and automation systems.

3. DAC – Working Principle and Role

A DAC performs the reverse operation — it converts a digital signal into a proportional analog output (voltage or
current).
Common DAC types: Binary-weighted, R-2R ladder, and Sigma-Delta DACs.

Used in control actuators, waveform generation, and feedback systems.

4. Performance Parameters of ADC

Parameter Description Impact
Number of bits determines smallest
Higher resolution = more
Resolution detectable voltage step. (e.g., 12-bit =
precise measurements.
1/4096 FS)
Higher rate captures fast
Sampling Rate Number of samples per second (SPS).
signal changes.

Accuracy & Affects overall measurement

Deviation from ideal conversion curve.
INL/DNL linearity.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio / Effective Number of Determines usable
SNR / ENOB
Bits. resolution.
Latency & Important for real-time
Delay between sampling and output.
Conversion Time control.

Example:

 A 16-bit SAR ADC (e.g., ADS1115) offers 0.003% FS accuracy for slow sensors.
 A 14-bit, 10 MSPS ADC (e.g., AD9648) is used in vibration or ultrasound DAQ for high-speed sampling.
5. Performance Parameters of DAC
Parameter Description Impact

Resolution Defines smallest output step voltage. 12-bit → 1 mV per step (for 4 V range).

Settling Time Time required to reach final output value. Crucial for control loop stability.
Linearity
Output deviation from ideal response. Affects signal fidelity.
(INL/DNL)
Glitch Energy Sudden spikes during code transitions. Causes noise in precision systems.

Monotonicity Output always increases with code. Ensures stable control.

Example:

 DAC80508 (16-bit, 1 µs) used in process control actuators.

 Audio DACs (24-bit, 192 kHz) used in sound analysis and playback systems.

6. Comparative Analysis in Modern DAQ Systems

Feature ADC DAC
Function Converts analog → digital Converts digital → analog
Typical Resolution 12–24 bits 10–20 bits
Speed Up to GSPS (Flash/SAR) Up to 100 MSPS
Primary Use Measurement Control/actuation
Errors Quantization noise, aliasing Linearity error, glitches
Example Sensor signal acquisition Motor/valve control, waveform generation

Modern DAQ Integration:

 Use multi-channel, simultaneous-sampling ADCs with calibrated DAC outputs for closed-loop control.
 Example: NI CompactDAQ and PXI systems use 24-bit Σ-Δ ADCs and 16-bit DACs for precision
measurement and actuation.

7. Challenges & Improvements

 Drift and temperature effects: compensated using on-chip calibration.

 Power vs. speed trade-off: low-power Σ-Δ ADCs for slow signals, high-speed SAR/Flash for dynamic
inputs.
 Integration: modern mixed-signal ICs combine ADC, DAC, and amplifiers (e.g., TI ADS1262, Analog
Devices AD5758).
 Digital filtering & oversampling enhance effective resolution.

8. Conclusion

Modern DAQ systems rely on high-resolution, low-noise ADCs for accurate sensing and high-speed DACs for
precise actuation. Performance optimization involves balancing resolution, speed, linearity, and cost. Advances
in sigma-delta, SAR, and integrated mixed-signal technologies continue to improve accuracy and reliability
across industrial, biomedical, and automation domains.