NANOTECHNOLOGY

Nanotechnology is a branch of physics that deals with the design construction

and utilization of functional structures with at least one characteristic dimension
measured in nanometer. Such materials and systems can exhibit novel and
improved remarkable properties, phenomena, and processes due to their limited
size constituent particles or molecules. This is due to the intermediate behaviour
in an extent between individual particles and the bulk material called
mesoscopic behaviour. Richard Feynmann in the year 1959 promoted the idea
of Nanotechnology. The “Nanotechnology” was named so in the year 1974 by
Norio Taniguchi.
Nanomaterials
It has been observed that the values of some of the physical quantities like
Young’s Modulus and thermal conductivity are independent of the size for bulk
materials. But these parameters hold good when a certain extent of limiting size
(nanoscale) is reached, below which the physical properties are size dependent.
Thus, the material exhibits a remarkably interesting behaviour in this state
called the mesoscopic state. A conductor exhibits semiconducting behaviour
when the bulk material is reduced to a nanometre dimension (Cluster of metal
atoms). The cluster of atoms is called a Nanoparticle. Nanomaterials are made
of nano-structures like Quantum Dots, Quantum wires, Carbon Nanotubes and
Fullerenes.
Classification of nanomaterials:
Nanomaterials can be divided into five categories depending on their size, place
of origin, structural configuration, pore size, and potential toxicity.
1. Classification of nanomaterials based on origin
2. Classification of nanomaterials based on the structural
configuration/composition
3. Classification of nanomaterials according to the number of dimensions
4. Classification of nanomaterials based on pore dimensions
5. Classification of nanomaterials based on potential toxicity
Classification of nanomaterials based on origin
Natural and artificial nanoparticles are the two groups into which nanomaterials
are divided based on origin.
i) Natural nanomaterials
Natural nanomaterials can be found in a variety of forms in nature, including
viruses, protein molecules, minerals like clay, natural colloids like milk and
blood (liquid colloids), fog (aerosol type), gelatin (gel type), mineralized natural
materials like shells, corals, and bones, insect wings and opals, spider silk, lotus
leaves, gecko feet, volcanic ash, and ocean spray
ii) Artificial nanomaterials
Artificial nanomaterials are made consciously using precise mechanical and
manufacturing procedures. Example: Carbon nanotubes and semiconductor
nanoparticles like quantum dots (QDs)
Classification of nanomaterials based on the structural
configuration/composition
According to their structural makeup, nanoparticles can be broadly divided into
four groups: organic/dendrimers, inorganic, carbon-based, and composite
i) Organic/ dendrimers
 On the nanoscale, organic compounds are converted into organic
nanomaterials. Examples: liposomes, dendrimers, micelles, and
ferritin.
Non-toxic biodegradable nanoparticles known as nanocapsule micelles and
liposomes have hollow interiors and are sensitive to heat, electromagnetic
radiation, and light.
The surface of a dendrimer is coated with numerous chain ends that can perform
specific chemical reactions. Dendrimers are used in molecular recognition, nano
sensing, light harvesting, and optoelectrochemical systems. Furthermore,
because three-dimensional (3D) dendrimers feature internal holes that can hold
additional molecules, they may be useful for drug administration
ii) Inorganic nano materials
Inorganic nanoparticles are nanoparticles that lack carbon atoms. Inorganic
nanoparticles are typically classified as those composed of metal-based or metal
oxide-based nanomaterials, semiconductor based, ceramic based,
a) Metal-based nanoparticles
Aluminum (Al), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), gold (Au), iron
(Fe), lead (Pb), silver (Ag), and zinc (Zn) are metal materials that are
frequently used in nanoparticle synthesis. Because of their quantum
effects and huge surface-to-volume ratio, metal nanoparticles have
excellent ultraviolet-visible sensitivity, as well as electrical, catalytic,
thermal, and antibacterial properties. Metal nanomaterials are used in a
variety of research fields because they have outstanding optical
properties.
b) Metal oxide nanoparticles
Metal oxide nanomaterials, are composed of positive metallic ions and
negative oxygen ions. Examples of metal oxide nanoparticles that are
frequently synthesized include silicon dioxide (SiO2), titanium oxide
(TiO2), zinc oxide (ZnO), and aluminum oxide (Al2O3). These
nanoparticles exhibit remarkable properties compared to their metal
analogs.
c) Semiconductor nano materials
Semiconductor nanomaterials exhibit the same properties as metals and
insulators. They are classified into three groups.
 i. Concentrated magnetic semiconductor nanomaterials that exhibit
spontaneous magnetic order and can be a binary compound such as EuTe
(antiferromagnetic).
ii. Non-magnetic semiconductor nanomaterials that contain no
magnetic ions and are used for information processing and
communications have had great success using the charge of electrons in
semiconductors, but are not used for mass storage of information in
dispensable information technology.
iii. Diluted magnetic semiconductor nanomaterials are made magnetic
by adding a few magnetic impurities to the host matrix, in which some of
the diamagnetic host cations are randomly replaced by magnetic (TM)
cations. These materials not only retain semiconducting properties but
also possess magnetic properties that are a mixture of ordinary and
magnetic semiconductors.

d) Ceramic nanomaterials
These are inorganic solids made up of carbides, carbonates, oxides,
carbides, carbonates, and phosphates synthesized via heat and successive
cooling. The ceramic nanoparticles can be formulated in drug delivery
systems, especially in targeting tumors, glaucoma, and some bacterial
infections and catalysis, photocatalysis, photodegradation of dyes, and imaging
applications.

e) Lipid-based nanomaterials
These are generally spherical, with diameters ranging between 10 and 100
nm. It consists of a solid core made of lipids and a matrix containing soluble
lipophilic molecules. Lipid-based nanoparticles have applications in the
biomedical field as a drug carrier and RNA release therapy in cancer therapy.
iii) Carbon based nano materials
Carbon-based nanomaterials are composed of carbon and include five main
materials, namely, carbon nanotubes, Graphene, fullerenes, Carbon Nano
fiber, and Carbon black
Spherical and ellipsoidal nature configured of carbon nanomaterials are
referred as fullerenes are called Bucky balls. Fullerenes are the spherical
structure with diameters up to 8.2 nm for a single layer and from 4 to 36 nm
for multi-layered fullerenes, which form from 28 to 1500 carbon atoms.
 Graphene is a hexagonal network of honeycomb lattices made up of carbon
atoms on a two-dimensional (2D) planar surface, with the sheet around 1 nm.
Nanotubes are cylindrical structures. Hollow cylinders form nanotubes with
diameters as low as 0.7 nm for a single-layered and 100 nm for a multi-
layered carbon nanotube and lengths varying from a few micrometers to
several millimeters.
Graphene Nano fossils are used to produce carbon Nano fiber, and an
amorphous material made up of carbon, generally spherical in shape, with
diameters from 20 to 70 nm is known as carbon black.
Carbon-based nanomaterials are used mainly for structural reinforcement as
they are stronger than steel at times. Carbon-based nanomaterials are
thermally conductive along the length and non-conductive across the tube.

iv) Composite nano materials

Composites Nanomaterials are made up of nanoparticles combined with
other nanoparticles, nanoparticles combined with larger-scale materials, and
nanomaterials combined with bulk-type materials. These Nanomaterials are
already being used to improve mechanical, thermal, and flame-retardant
properties in products ranging from auto parts to packaging materials.
3) Classification of nanomaterials according to the number of
dimensions
Nanomaterials are classified into four types based on their size dimensions:
0D, 1D, 2D, and 3D.
Zero-dimensional nanomaterials 0D nanomaterials: These nanomaterials
have all three dimensions (x, y, and z) within the nanoscale range or are not
dimensional outside the Nano metric range (>10 nm). QDs, fullerenes, and
nanoparticles are examples of 0D nanomaterials. They can be amorphous or
crystalline, single crystalline or polycrystalline, exhibit various shapes and
forms, and be metallic or ceramic.
One-dimensional nanomaterials 1D nanomaterials: Nanomaterials in this
class have two of their three dimensions (x, y) in the nanoscale range, but
one dimension of the nanostructure is outside the non-metric range (>10
nm). 1D nanomaterials, such as nanofibers, nanotubes, nanohorns, nano
rods, thin films, and nanowires, are examples of needle-shaped
nanomaterials. They can be amorphous or crystalline, single crystalline or
polycrystalline, chemically pure or impure, standalone materials, or
embedded within another medium, such as metallic, ceramic, or polymeric.
1D nanoparticles can be metallic, ceramic, or polymeric.
Two-dimensional nanomaterials 2D nanomaterials have plate-like shapes
with two dimensions outside the nanometer range, but 1D (x) is at the
nanoscale (between 1 and 100 nm). Coatings and thin-film multilayers,
Nanosheets or nanowalls, free particles, tubes, fibers, ultrafine-grained over
layers, wires, and platelets are examples of 2D nanomaterials. 2D
nanomaterials can be amorphous or crystalline, made of various chemical
compositions, deposited on a substrate, or integrated into a surrounding
matrix material, metallic, or polymeric.
Three-dimensional nanomaterials 3D nanomaterials or bulk materials are
nanomaterials that are not confined to the nanoscale in any dimension or
dimension range. All dimensions of a 3D material are outside the nanometer
range or greater than 100 nm, but the bulk material is made up of individual
blocks that are in the nanometer scale (1–100 nm), so 3D nanomaterials have
three arbitrary dimensions above 100 nm. It includes nanoparticle dispersion,
bundles of nanowires and nanotubes, and multi-nano layers in which the 0D,
1D, and 2D structural elements are in close contact and form interfaces. Thin
films with atomic-scale porosity, colloids, and free nanoparticles with
various morphologies are examples of 3D nanomaterials.
4) Classification of nanomaterials based on pore dimensions
Nanomaterials are classified into three groups based on the length of their
diameter dimensions, which are microporous materials, mesoporous
materials, and macroporous materials.
The diameter of the pores determines the size of molecules and provides
information about the diffusion and interaction properties. If the guest
molecules are smaller than the pore size, there will be less molecule-wall
interaction and more molecule-molecule interaction during the diffusion
process. They are useful for adsorption and diffusion applications that rely
on this parameter.
Microporous materials are materials that have very narrow pores with
diameters less than 2 nm. They may only house small molecules such as
gases or linear molecules. They have slow diffusion kinetics and high
interaction properties. Na-Y and naturally occurring clay materials have slow
diffusion kinetics and high interaction properties. Na-Y and naturally
occurring clay materials are examples of micro porous materials. They are
used in gas purification systems, membrane filters, and gas storage materials.
Mesoporous material have pores with a diameter large enough to hold some
large molecules larger than 2 nm but smaller than 50 nm. Mesoporous
materials include MCM41, MCM-48, SBA-15, and carbon mesoporous
materials, which can be used as nanoreactors for polymerization or
adsorbing systems for liquids or vapors.
Macroporous materials are materials with pores with enough diameters
(greater than 50 nm) to host very large molecules, such as polyaromatic
systems or small biological molecules. Carbon micro tubes, porous gels, and
porous glasses are examples of macro porous materials. These materials are
principally used as matrices to store functional molecules, as scaffolds to
graft functional groups such as catalytic centers, and as sensing materials.
5) Classification of nanomaterials based on potential toxicity
Nanomaterials are classified into three groups based on their potential
toxicity. These are fiber-like nanoparticles, persistent granular nanoparticles,
and CMAR nanoparticles (carcinogenic, mutagenic, asthma genic,
reproductive toxin).
Fiber-like nanoparticles are like rigid, bio permanent carbon nanotubes,
fiber-like metal oxides, and carbon nanotubes, but they do not have the
asbestos-like properties.
Bio-persistent granular nanoparticles are like gold, silver, cobalt,
lanthanum, lead, iron, iron oxide, cerium oxide, antimony oxide, and tin
oxide.
 CMAR (Carcinogenic, Mutagenic, Asthma genic, Reproductive toxin)
nanoparticles Nickel, cadmium-containing QDs, chromium VI, beryllium,
arsenic, and zinc chromate are examples of CMAR nanoparticles.
SYNTHESIS METHODS OF NANOMATERIALS
Nanomaterials are synthesized using a variety of methods, which are categorized
into two main cate,
1. top-down methods 2. bottom-up methods
Top-down methods
The top-down method, also known as a destructive method, decomposes bulk
materials into smaller materials, which then transform into nanomaterials.
Lithography, mechanical milling or ball milling, laser ablation, sputtering, electron
explosion, arc discharge, and thermal decomposition are examples of the top-down
method.
Mechanical milling method
Mechanical milling is the most widely used topdown method for producing
various nanoparticles. It is used in the manufacture of oxide- and
carbidestrengthened aluminum alloys, wear-resistant spray coatings,
aluminum/nickel/magnesium/copper-based nano alloys, and a variety of other
nano composite materials.
Nanolithography method
It is the process of printing a required shape or structure on a light-sensitive
material and selectively removing a portion of the material to create the desired
shape and structure. Lithography is a practical method for creating
nanoarchitectures with a concentrated electron or light beam. The main advantages
of nanolithography are its ability to produce a cluster with the desired shape and
size from a single nanoparticle. The disadvantages are the requirement for
complex equipment and the associated costs.
Laser ablation method
Laser ablation synthesis generates nanoparticles by striking the target material
with a powerful laser beam. Metal atoms vaporize in a laser ablation experiment
and are immediately solvated by surfactant molecules to form nanoparticles in the
solution.
Sputtering method
Sputtering is the phenomenon of nanoparticle deposition using ejected particles
colliding with ions. Sputtering is typically defined as the deposition of a thin layer
of nanoparticles followed by annealing.
Thermal decomposition method
The breakdown was caused by heat. This process is endothermic. The chemical
bonds are broken and divided into smaller ones by heat. The metal is broken down
at particular temperatures to form the nanoparticles, which are subsequently
produced by a chemical reaction.
The arc discharge method
This technique can be used to create a variety of nanostructured materials.
Fullerenes, carbon nanohorns (CNHs), carbon nanotubes, few-layer graphene
(FLG), and amorphous spherical carbon nanoparticles are some of the carbon-
based materials produced. This method is extremely important in the production of
fullerene nanomaterials.
Bottom-up method
The bottom-up method, also known as the constructive method, involves the
building of material from atoms to clusters to nanoparticles. CVD, sol-gel,
spinning, pyrolysis, and biological synthesis are all examples of bottom-up
methods.
Sol-gel method It is the process by which a suitable chemical solution serves as a
precursor. Metal oxide and chloride are common sol-gel method precursors. Metal
oxides and chlorides are the most common sol-gel precursors.
Spinning method The synthesis of nanoparticles by spinning is carried out by a
spinning disc reactor (SDR). It consists of a rotating disc placed within a chamber
or reactor where physical parameters such as temperature can be controlled. It is
determined by several factors, like disc surface, liquid/precursor ratio, disc rotation
speed, liquid flow rate, and feed location. Magnetic nanoparticles were created
using spinning disc processing.
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method CVD is depositing a thin film of
gaseous reactants onto a substrate. When a heated substrate encounters a combined
gas, a chemical reaction occurs. This reaction forms a thin product film on the
substrate surface, which is recovered and reused. The disadvantages of CVD are
the requirement of special equipment and the fact that the gaseous by-products are
highly toxic.
Solvothermal and hydrothermal methods This method produces nanostructured
materials through a heterogeneous reaction carried out in an aqueous hydrothermal
method. Hydrothermal and solvothermal methods are typically used in closed
systems. Hydrothermal and solvothermal methods are useful for producing various
nanogeometries of materials such as nanowires, nanorods, nano sheets, and nano
spheres.
Soft and hard templating methods Soft and hard template methods are
extensively used to produce nanoporous materials. The soft template method is a
simple conventional method for the generation of nanostructured materials. In this
method, nano porous materials are produced using plenty of soft templates, such
as block copolymers, flexible organic molecules, and anionic, cationic, and non-
ionic surfactants.
Reverse micelle method The reverse micelle method is also useful for producing
nanomaterials with the desired shapes and sizes. In nature, reverse micelles are
formed in the case of a water-in-oil emulsion, with the hydrophilic heads pointing
towards a water-containing core.
Biosynthesis/biological method Biosynthesis is an environmentally friendly and
green approach to the synthesis of non-toxic and biological nanoparticles. Green
synthesis nanoparticles have distinct and enhanced properties that make them
suitable for biomedical applications. Microorganisms (bacteria, algae, and fungi),
biological templates, and various plant parts are used in biosynthesis.
High-energy ball milling
High-energy ball milling is a mechanical deformation process, frequently used
for the production of nanocrystalline metals or alloys in powder form. This
technique belongs to the comminution or attrition approach. In high-energy ball
milling, coarse-grained structures undergo dissociation due to severe
cyclic deformation induced by milling with stiff balls in a high-energy shaker
mill.
This process has been successfully used to produce metals with minimum
particle sizes from 4 to 26 nm. Initially, the high energy ball milling technique
was used to prepare high-temperature alloys, by
which amorphous alloys, nanocrystalline, quasicrystalline, supersaturated solid
solutions , and nanostructures have been successfully prepared.
The nature of the raw materials, milling method, and the process variables are
important components of the high-energy ball milling process. The particle size
of raw materials used for high-energy ball milling should be in the range of 1–
200 μm, smaller than that of the milling ball size. The ball mills mainly include
shaker mills, attritor mills and planetary ball mills. For the preparation of alloy
fuels, planetary ball mill is the most appropriate.
The high energy ball milling method has been employed to prepare the
composites of Mg, Al, Ni, Fe, Mo.
Disadvantages
A serious problem of this technique is the contamination from milling media
(balls and vial) and/or atmosphere. Therefore, a number of improvements,
including the use of surfactants, alloy-coated milling media, and protective
atmospheres, have been developed to alleviate the contamination problem.
The main problem associated with this method is the safety issue for
manufacturing nano-sized metal fuels or other energetic materials. The powder
should not be exposed to the atmosphere immediately after milling, as it easily
catches fire when interacting with the oxygen, especially for highly reactive
metal fuels.
Advantages
The high-energy ball milling technique is simple and has high potential to scale
up to produce tonnage quantities of materials.
The main advantage of using high-energy ball milling it is easy to scale up and
cost-effective. This method is also facile and easy to operate.
The fine powder (in nano or submicron sizes) produced from ball milling can be
consolidated to bulk form for large-scale applications such as hip implants and
bone screws.

Pulsed laser deposition

Physical vapor deposition (PVD) is a dynamic bottom up synthesis technique
capable of producing thin film materials at a nano scale (1-100nm). In physical
vapor deposition, the material is heated above its melting point to generate
vapors, which are then deposited on the target surface.
Thermal evaporation involves heating a source above its melting point in order
to extract atoms from it. Using physical vapor deposition techniques, a single
element with a low melting point, often a metal, can be converted into nano
particles. However, it is challenging to deposit a consistent combination of two
distinct materials because of the variation in melting. Both solids and liquids
can evaporate and produce vapors. The solid particles are produced by the
nucleation and condensation of the saturated vapor during the cooling process.
Pulsed laser deposition is a physical vapor deposition technique. In this process,
a high-power pulsed laser beam is employed to ablate the target material to be
deposited in a vacuum chamber.
Pulsed laser deposition (PLD) is a physical vapor deposition (PVD) technique
that uses high-energy laser pulses to ablate a target material, creating a plasma
plume that then deposits onto a substrate to form a thin film.
The process of laser ablation commences from the interaction of light and
solids. When a laser irradiates the surface of a solid target, the electromagnetic
energy of the laser beam first turns into the excitation energy of electrons. The
energy conversion in the solid from the electronic excitation to the lattice
vibration completes within some picoseconds.

o A high-power pulsed laser beam is focused onto the surface of a

solid target material (the material to be deposited) inside a vacuum
chamber.
o The laser energy vaporizes the target material, creating a plasma
plume containing ions, atoms, and clusters.
o This plasma plume expands away from the target and is deposited
onto a substrate placed in front of the target.
o The deposited material forms a thin film on the substrate.
• Key Parameters:
o Laser Parameters: Pulse duration, energy, and frequency
significantly influence the ablation process and film properties.
o Target Material: The type and composition of the target material
directly impact the composition and properties of the deposited
film.
o Substrate: The type of substrate and its temperature during
deposition affect the film's structure and crystallinity.
o Deposition Environment: The presence and pressure of
background gases (e.g., oxygen) can influence the film's
stoichiometry and properties.
• Advantages of PLD:
o Versatility: PLD can be used to deposit a wide variety of
materials, including oxides, metals, semiconductors, and complex
multi-component materials.
 o PLD allows for precise control of the composition of the deposited
film, making it suitable for synthesizing materials with specific
properties.
o PLD can produce high-quality crystalline films with good
structural and functional properties.
o PLD is a relatively scalable technique, allowing for the deposition
of thin films on large substrates.

Sol-Gel Process
The sol-gel method is a versatile, cost-effective wet chemical process for
synthesizing nanomaterials, particularly metal oxide nanoparticles, by
converting a liquid precursor (sol) into a solid gel network through hydrolysis
and condensation reactions, followed by drying and calcination.
Process :
Sol Formation:

o Precursor Solution: The process begins with a solution containing

a metal alkoxide or other hydrolyzable precursor dissolved in a
suitable solvent (like water or alcohol).
o Hydrolysis: The precursor undergoes hydrolysis, where water
molecules attack the metal-oxygen bonds, forming metal-
hydroxide species.
o Condensation: These metal-hydroxide species then undergo
condensation reactions, where metal-oxygen-metal (M-O-M) or
metal-hydroxide (M-OH-M) bridges form, leading to the formation
of a colloidal sol (a solution containing nanoparticles).
2. Gelation:
o Sol to Gel: The sol, containing dispersed nanoparticles, gradually
transforms into a gel-like network through further condensation
and polymerization.
o Three-Dimensional Network: This gel network is a continuous
structure composed of both liquid and solid phases, with the
nanoparticles forming the solid phase.
3. Drying and Calcination:
o Solvent Removal: The solvent in the gel is then removed through
drying (e.g., air drying, freeze drying).
 o Calcination: The dried gel is then subjected to calcination
(heating) to remove any remaining organic components and to
promote further densification and crystallization of the
nanoparticles.
4. Final Product: The resulting product is a nanomaterial, typically in the
form of a powder or a thin film, with the desired properties depending on
the precursor, reaction conditions, and processing parameters.

Advantages

• It can be used to synthesize a wide variety of nanomaterials, including

metal oxides, ceramics, and composites.
• The method is relatively inexpensive and does not require complex
equipment.
• The sol-gel process allows for precise control over the size, shape,
composition, and surface properties of the synthesized nanoparticles by
adjusting reaction conditions.
• The resulting nanomaterials often exhibit a high surface area, making
them suitable for applications like catalysis, adsorption, and sensing.

Disadvantages

High precursor costs, potential for shrinkage and cracking during drying,
and difficult, moisture sensitivity of metal oxide nanoparticles, limited
control over porosity

Combustion method
Combustion synthesis is a simple and economically viable technique for the
preparation of nanomaterials. Nanostructures of ceramics, composites, alloys,
can be prepared using this technique. It is based on the principle that an
exothermic reaction is initiated by heating, which undergoes self-sustained
propagation. Based on the nature of the reactants, combustion synthesis can be
classified into:
(1) solid state combustion (SSC),
(2) solution combustion (SC), and
(3) gas phase combustion (GC).
Solution Combustion Synthesis:
1. Solution Preparation: A solution of metal nitrates and a fuel is prepared.
2. Heating: The solution is heated, causing the reactants to react exothermically.
3. Combustion: The reaction generates heat, leading to a rapid combustion
process.
[Link] Formation: The heat and reaction conditions promote the
formation of nanoparticles.
[Link] and Processing: The product is cooled and processed to obtain the
desired nanoparticles.

The morphological parameters of nanoparticles (e.g., size and shape) can be

modulated by varying the concentrations of chemicals and reaction conditions
(e.g., temperature and pH). The nano materials synthesized by this method have
they can suffer from the following limitations:
(i) stability in a hostile environment,
(ii) lack of understanding of fundamental mechanism and
modelling factors,
(iii) bioaccumulation/toxicity features,
(iv) expansive analysis requirements,
(iv) need for skilled operators,
(v) problems in device assembly and structures, and
(vi) recycle/reuse/regeneration.
Innumerable physical and chemical synthesis approaches require high radiation,
highly toxic reductants, and stabilizing agents, which can cause pernicious
effects to both humans and marine life. To counter those limitations, a new era
of ‘green synthesis’ approaches/methods is gaining great attention in current
research and development on materials science and technology.
Green synthesis method
Green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles is a single-step, eco-friendly bio-
reduction method that requires relatively low energy to initiate the reaction. This
reduction method is also cost-efficient.
Green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles has been adopted to accommodate
various biological materials (e.g., bacteria, fungi, algae, and plant extracts).
Among the available green methods for the synthesis of metal/metal oxide
nanoparticles, the utilization of plant extracts is a rather simple and easy process
to produce nanoparticles at a large scale relative to bacteria and/or fungi-
mediated synthesis. These products are known collectively as biogenic
nanoparticles.
Green synthesis using bacterial extracts
Bacteria possess the ability to reduce metal ions and are potential candidates for
nanoparticle preparation. For the preparation of metallic and other novel
nanoparticles, a variety of bacterial species are utilized. The bacterial synthesis
of nanoparticles has been adopted due to the relative ease of manipulating the
bacteria. Some examples of bacterial strains that have been extensively
exploited for the synthesis of bioreduced silver nanoparticles with distinct
size/shape morphologies include: Escherichia coli, Lactobacillus casei, Bacillus
cereus, Aeromonas sp. SH10 Phaeocystis antarctica, Pseudomonas proteolytica,
Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, Bacillus indicus, Bacillus cecembensis,
Enterobacter cloacae, Geobacter spp., Arthrobacter gangotriensis,
Corynebacterium sp. SH09, and Shewanella oneidensis.
There are different mechanisms for the formation of nanoparticles using
different microorganisms. First, metallic ions are captured on the surface or
inside the microbial cells, and then these arrested metal ions are reduced into
metal nanoparticles by the action of enzymes. The two key aspects in the
biosynthesis of nanoparticles are NADH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)
and NADH-dependent nitrate reductase.
Fungi
Fungi-mediated biosynthesis of metal/metal oxide nanoparticles is also a very
efficient process for the generation of monodispersed nanoparticles with well-
defined morphologies. They act as better biological agents for the preparation of
metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, due to the presence of a variety of
intracellular enzyme. Competent fungi can synthesize larger amounts of
nanoparticles compared to bacteria. Moreover, fungi have many merits over
other organisms due to the presence of enzymes/proteins/reducing components
on their cell surfaces.
The probable mechanism for the formation of the metallic nanoparticles is
enzymatic reduction (reductase) in the cell wall or inside the fungal cell. Many
fungal species are used to synthesize metal/metal oxide nanoparticles like silver,
gold, titanium dioxide, and zinc oxide.
Using plant extract
For nanoparticle synthesis mediated by plant leaf extract, the extract is mixed
with metal precursor solutions under different reaction conditions. The
parameters determining the conditions of the plant leaf extract (such as types of
phytochemicals, phytochemical concentration, metal salt concentration, pH, and
temperature) control the rate of nanoparticle formation as well as their yield and
stability. The phytochemicals present in plant leaf extracts have potential to
reduce metal ions in a much shorter time as compared to fungi and bacteria.
Therefore, plant leaf extracts are an excellent and benign source for metal as
well as metal oxide nanoparticle synthesis. Additionally, plant leaf extract plays
a dual role by acting as both a reducing and stabilizing agent in the
nanoparticles synthesis process to facilitate nanoparticles synthesis. The
composition of the plant leaf extract is also an important factor in nanoparticle
synthesis.
The main phytochemicals present in plants are flavones, terpenoids, sugars,
ketones, aldehydes, carboxylic acids, and amides, which are responsible for the
bioreduction of nanoparticles. Flavonoids contain various functional groups,
which have an enhanced ability to reduce metal ions. The reactive hydrogen
atom is released due to tautomeric transformations in flavonoids, by which the
enol-form is converted into the keto-form. This process is realized by the
reduction of metal ions into metal nanoparticles.
Sugars such as glucose and fructose exist in plant extracts can also be
responsible for the formation of metallic nanoparticles. Glucose is capable of
participating in the formation of metallic nanoparticles with different sizes and
shapes, whereas fructose-mediated gold and silver nanoparticles are
monodisperse.
Plant extracts are made up of carbohydrates and proteins biomolecules, which
act as reducing agent to promote the formation of metallic nanoparticles. Also,
the proteins with functionalized amino groups (–NH2) available in plant extracts
can actively participate in the reduction of metal ions. The functional groups
(such as –C–O–C–, –C–O–, –C=C–, and –C=O–) present in phytochemicals
such as flavones, alkaloids, phenols, and anthracenes can help to generate
metallic nanoparticles; they also act as capping agents. The main role of the
capping ligands is to stabilize the nanoparticles to prevent further growth and
agglomeration.
These nanoparticles attain superior solidity in an aqueous environment because
of co-precipitation or by adding proteinaceous and bioactive elements onto the
outer face of the nanoparticles.
Applications
Bioremediation
Pollutant removal from industrial effluents is a big challenge for industries.
These pollutants pose a great risk to the environment. The pollutants from these
manufacturing units are the most important sources of ecological pollution.
Nanotechnology can reduce the expenditure made by industries to mitigate
these pollutants through the production of eco-friendly nanomaterials.

Cationic and anionic dyes are a main class of organic pollutants used in various
applications. Organic dyes play a very imperative role due to their high demand
in paper mills, textiles, plastic, leather, food, printing, and pharmaceutical
industries. In textile industries, about 60% of dyes are consumed in the
manufacturing process of pigmentation for many fabrics. After the fabric
process, nearly 15% of dyes are wasted and are discharged into the hydrosphere,
and they represent a significant source of pollution due to their recalcitrant
nature.
They produce undesirable turbidity in the water, which will reduce sunlight
penetration, and this leads to the resistance of photochemical synthesis and
biological attacks to aquatic and marine life. Therefore, the management of
effluents containing dyes is one of the daunting challenges in the field of
environmental chemistry.
The need for hygienic and safe drinking water is increasing day by day.
Considering this fact, the use of metal and metal oxide semiconductor
nanomaterials for oxidizing toxic pollutants has become of great interest in
recent material research fields. In the nano regime, semiconductor
nanomaterials have superior photocatalytic activity relative to the bulk
materials. Metal oxide semiconductor nanoparticles (like ZnO, TiO2, SnO2,
WO3, and CuO) have been applied preferentially for the photocatalytic activity
of synthetic dyes.
The merits of these nanophotocatalysts (e.g., ZnO and TiO2 nanoparticles) are
credited to their high surface area to mass ratio, to enhances the adsorption of
organic pollutants. The surface energy of the nanoparticles increases due to the
large number of surface reactive sites available on the nanoparticle surfaces.
This leads to an increase in the rate of contaminant removal at low
concentrations. Consequently, a lower quantity of nano catalyst will be required
to treat polluted water relative to the bulk material. Like metal oxide
nanoparticles, metal nanoparticles also show enhanced photocatalytic
degradation of various pollutant dyes.
Biosensors

Metal oxide-based biosensors

To meet the heavy demand of biosensors in nearly all fields of science and
technology, the scientific community has been forced to explore new materials
at a nanoscale level which could be employed in sensor technology to achieve
good results.
Opioids, widely employed as potent analgesics for pain management, bear the
dual nature of therapeutic benefits and potential risks. Instances of overdose and
the risk of developing addictive behaviors underscore the need for vigilant
monitoring. The surge in illicit drug consumption and misuse on a global scale
necessitates precise and efficient detection methodologies across confiscated
samples, biological matrices, and environmental effluents. In this context, the
integration of advanced nanostructures into biosensing platforms offers a
promising avenue for opioid detection, enabling rapid and accurate
identification.
Metal oxide-based nanomaterials, known for their unique physicochemical
properties at the nanoscale, hold the promise of elevating the sensitivity and
responsiveness of biosensors.
As nanotechnology and biosensor development converge, the potential for
groundbreaking advancements in detection capabilities becomes evident. The
careful manipulation and incorporation of nanomaterials into biosensor designs
paves the way for unparalleled sensitivity, specificity, and efficiency in
detecting target analytes. By harnessing the inherent advantages of nanoscale
structures, researchers can push the boundaries of biosensor technology and
redefine its role in various fields, ranging from healthcare diagnostics to
environmental monitoring and beyond.
In the past two decades, oxides of copper (CuO), nickel (NiO), iron (Fe2O3),
cobalt (Co3O4), manganese (MnO2), zinc (ZnO), tin (SnO2), titanium (TiO2) and
cadmium (CdO) etc. have been extensively engaged in a variety of fields virtue
of their extensive range of electrical, chemical and physical properties
ZnO has been identified an excellent candidate for designing a biosensor virtue
of its high isoelectric point (IEP), cost effectiveness, eco-friendly nature, and
chemical stability. A high value of IEP allows enhanced absorption process of
the analytes such as enzymes, DNA, and proteins by electrostatic interactions.
The development of an affordable, sensitive, and portable biosensor for
detecting pesticides holds significance in various applications, including food
packaging, agriculture, and environmental monitoring.
The nanostructured metal NPs (gold, silver, nickel (Ni), etc.), semiconductors
(TiO2, ZiO, SnO2, CeO2, etc.), and carbon materials are finding increased
applications in the development of biosensor devices. This is because
nanomaterials provide improved characteristics for biosensors. Besides this,
they can be used to obtain enhanced immobilization of the biomolecules due to
their intrinsic and large surface areas. For example, a label-free, electrical
detection of the severe acute respiratory syndrome virus N-protein with indium
(III) oxide (In2O3) nanowire biosensors utilizing antibody mimics as capture
probes has been developed.
Nano-materials in bone substitution and dentistry,
Hydroxyapatite is an inorganic mineral that contain 39.68% calcium and 18%
phosphorus by weight. Hydroxyapatite crystals are naturally present in the
human bones and teeth. Hydroxyapatite crystals, as a bioactive ceramic, account
for 65% to 70% of its weight in human bone. Hydroxyapatite nanoparticles
(HANPs) are becoming increasingly crucial in dental implant applications. This
is due to their high compatibility with biological systems, actively supporting
biological processes, and closely resembling bone minerals.
The dental role of hydroxyapatite is significant, as it constitutes 70% to 80% of
the weight of dentin and enamel. The usage of HAp in dentin and enamel shows
high potential for mechanical stability and biological balance compared to
natural teeth. These nanoparticles are a stable inorganic component found in
teeth and bones. Hydroxyapatite stands out as a compound with superior
stability compared to other calcium phosphates when exposed to physiological
conditions, encompassing factors like temperature, pH, and body fluid
composition.
Recently, Hydroxyapatite nanoparticles started to be used as an oral care
ingredient in commercially available toothpaste, mouthwashes, and other dental
products. Research shows that infected teeth experience more pressure than
healthy teeth. To overcome the complications, one of the most often used
techniques is coating dental implants with a hydroxyapatite layer due to its
exceptional biocompatibility and osteoconductive activity. The increased
osseous tissue(hard tissue that makes up bone) integration to coated implant
surfaces is critical to the positive results of hydroxyapatite coatings. Due to its
parallel structure to bone minerals, this substance was intended to be a bone
replacement product.
Hydroxyapatite applications in orthopaedics range from bone defect repair and
bone augmentation to coatings for metallic implants in the human body.
Hydroxyapatite-based implants can feature an interlocked porous structure,
which serves as an extracellular matrix, promoting natural cellular development
and tissue regeneration. Furthermore, hydroxyapatite can enhance the
osseointegration process by facilitating a strong connection between the implant
and surrounding tissue while preventing fibrous tissue growth. Successful
osseointegration ensures long-term bone anchorage, fully restoring functional
ability. The osteoconductive property of hydroxyapatite provides a template to
guide the new bone formation on its surface down to the pores of the implant
body. the osteoinductive property of hydroxyapatite promotes tissue ingrowth,
enabling neoformation of bone even in areas that typically do not form bone.
Role of nanomaterials in the food industry
Due to rapid population growth, there is a need to produce food in a more
efficient, safe, and sustainable way, and it should be safe from the adverse
effects of pathogenic organisms.
Applications of nano include smart packaging, on-demand preservatives, and
interactive foods. Building on the concept of on-demand food, the idea of
interactive food was to allow consumers to modify food depending on their own
nutritional needs or tastes. There are many positive impacts of nanotechnology
in the food industry, and these are expected to grow shortly.
It is an emerging area of science with potential to generate radical new products
and processes in the food sector. It is commonly distinguished between two
forms of nanofood applications:
Food additives (nano inside)
Food packaging (nano outside)
Food processing deals with transformation of agricultural/animal products into
food. It also includes many forms of processing foods ranging from grinding
grain to make raw flour for home cooking to complex industrial methods used
to make convenience foods. Food processing can be improved much in the
aspects of smart delivery of nutrients, nanoencapsulation of nutraceuticals,
bioseparation of proteins, rapid sampling of biological and chemical
contaminants, solubilization, delivery, and color in food systems. These are
some of the emerging uses of nanotechnology in food science.
Nanotechnology can assist in the development of functional or interactive
foods, which respond to requirements of the human body and can deliver these
nutrients more efficiently.
On-demand foods, are the ones that will remain dormant in the body and deliver
nutrients to cells as and when needed. The concept is that thousands of
nanocapsules containing flavor or color enhancers, or added nutritional
elements (such as vitamins), would remain dormant in the food and these will
be released only, when triggered by the consumer. A key element in this sector
is the development of nanocapsules that can be incorporated into food to deliver
nutrients timely.
Other developments in food processing include the addition of nanoparticles to
existing foods to enable increased absorption of nutrients.
Nanosensors are used for the detection of very minute amounts of any chemical
pollutant, virus, or bacteria in food systems. Nanosensors may play a significant
role in detection of any traces of pesticide available in various food products,
providing a potent solution to food safety.
Nanoencapsulation is a technology to pack substances in miniature using
techniques like nanocomposite, nanoemulsification, and nanostructuration
providing final product functionality that includes controlled release of the core.
Nanocapsules can be incorporated into food to deliver any nutrient. Addition of
nanoparticles to existing food can also enable increased absorption of these
nutrients. Nanoparticle additives could easily be absorbed by the body, and
these could increase shelf life of the product.
Nanosized dispersions, emulsions, and filled micelles have an advantage that
they are not subjected to sedimentation resulting in better life span and storage
of the product. As size of these nanoadditives is much smaller as compared to
wavelength of light, they can be easily incorporated even in clear and
transparent foods without causing problems of colors.
Substances, which are difficult to dissolve by the body, can more easily be
absorbed in nanoscale size, because of their larger surface area. If any active
substance is to be protected during storage or its passage through the intestines,
the nanotechnology can provide perfect protective layers. It is also possible to
tailor these protective layers so as to release active substances in an intelligent
way (caused by a change of pH value).
A nutrition delivery system is a system or nanocarrier that delivers nutrition to
specific places. Chitosan is such a nanocarrier. Although a delivery system has
numerous functions, one of them is to transport a functional ingredient to its
desired site. Just like taste, texture, and shelf life, major functions of a delivery
system for a food product are that it should protect an ingredient from chemical
or biological degradation, such as oxidation, and controlling the rate of release
of functional ingredient under specific environmental conditions.
Nanodispersions and nanocapsules are ideal mechanisms for delivery of
functional ingredients because they can effectively perform all these tasks.
Microbial contamination is there due to pathogenic infections and poor nutrition
associated with major types of food, but weaning foods. Bacterial deterioration
is one of major food concern. Newer nano-antimicrobials have shown potential
in safeguarding deterioration of food, and as a result, the shelf life of food is
extended. Several metal and metal oxide nanomaterials have been reported to be
effective as antimicrobials.
Cosmetic applications
One of the most widely used inorganic nanoparticles for sunscreens is TiO 2, and
in nanoscale, it has a higher sun protection factor (SPF), which makes it more
efficient and has a better cosmetic result due to its transparency, compared to
TiO2 pigment. Oftentimes, in the market, companies use words such as “sheer”
or “invisible” when nanoscale TiO2 or ZnO are [Link] show better
dispersion and leave a better cosmetic result.
Nano Silica is used to enhance the effectiveness, texture, and shelf-life of
cosmetic products. It adds absorbency and acts as an anti-caking agent. It has
been indicated that silica nanoparticles may help improve the appearance and
distribution of pigments in lipsticks and prevent pigments from migrating into
the fine line of lips.
Carbon Black, CI 77266, is a known cosmetic ingredient that is often used as a
colorant for eye decorative cosmetic products, skin products, and mascaras.
Currently, in its nano form, it is being used as colorant at a maximum
concentration of 10%.
Gold and silver nanoparticles are used in cosmetic products such as deodorants
and anti-aging creams.
Liposomes at nanoscale are called nanoliposomes. They are concentric bilayer
vesicles in which the aqueous volume is enclosed by a lipid bilayer of
phospholipids. Nanoliposomes are biodegradable and biocompatible,
representing a highly adaptable ingredient category for the cosmetic field. They
are used as protective carriers of active ingredients (e.g., vitamins), for
increasing skin permeability and for moisturizing purposes. They can be used
for fragrance delivery in antiperspirants, body-spray deodorants and lipsticks.
Textile applications
In recent years, nanotechnology has been playing an important role in designing
smart fabrics. Nanomaterials have been employed to introduce in a sustainable
manner, antimicrobial, ultraviolet resistant, electrically conductive, optical,
hydrophobic, and flame-retardant properties into textiles and garments.
Nanomaterial-based smart devices are now also being integrated with textiles to
perform various functions such as energy harvesting and storage, sensing, drug
release, and optics. These advancements have found wide applications in the
fashion industry and are being developed for wider use in defence, healthcare
and on-body energy-harnessing applications.
The antibacterial guard to the textile is very interesting and beneficial for human
health. Various antimicrobial agents such as TiO2 , chitosan , N-Halamine ,
Ag Cu2O and metal/hemp fibers etc. have been incorporated into fabrics for
antimicrobial activities. To develop an antimicrobial textile, the active nano-
materials can be incorporated chemically or physically into the fabrics .
Among the most primitive antimicrobial nanoparticles used over textile surfaces
is silver (Ag). It acts as a doping antimicrobial agent, and is revealed to have
outstanding antimicrobial activity without changing its mechanical properties
Nanomaterial processed face masks have been in wide focus since the outbreak
of COVID-19. Various researchers developed antiviral face masks and Personal
Protective Equipment (PPE) kits which could filter various pathogens including
SARS-CoV-2.
The UV protection materials are obtained by treatment of fabrics with UV-
blocking (UVB and UVA radiations) nano-materials so as to improve the UV
shielding. The UV protection efficiency is measured by ultraviolet protection
factor (UPF) and depends on the nature of the fabric.
The nanomaterials responsive to UV light such as TiO2 and ZnO are capable to
scatter or absorb UV radiations . These materials are stable and non-toxic and
can be stable even at higher temperatures. The scattering of UV light by the
nanoparticles is a function of nanoparticle size and wavelength of the radiation.
TiO2 nanoparticles have been used on cotton as the UV blockers. The durability
of the TiO2 finishing was found to be good even after 50 washings.
Nylon and polyester, being hydrophobic exhibit larger static charge. Contrary to
this, the cellulosic fibers have higher moisture, which decreases their static
charges. Various nanomaterials have been employed to achieve antistatic
properties in synthetic fibers viz; ZnO whiskers, TiO2 nanoparticles, Sb-doped
SnO2 nanoparticles etc. These nanomaterials dissipate the static charge on the
textile due to their conductive nature. Some nanosols based on silanes have also
been used as antistatic agents as they absorb moisture from air by interacting
through its surface hydroxyl groups. Commercially, poly(tetrafluoroethylene)
(PTFE) antistatic membrane was developed, which has conductive
nanoparticles attached to the membrane
Supercapacitors for energy storage applications have been applied in textile
technology. Researchers are looking to introduce supercapacitor electrodes into
the fabric without disturbing the flexibility and wearable characteristics of the
fabric. The use of photonic technologies in the fashion industry attracted a vast
attention. The various optical materials viz; optical fibers, optical films and
nanoparticles have been employed to design various attractive and smart textile
fabrics. The objective behind the use of photonic material in textiles is to tune
the appearance of the dress by modifying the pattern of light and colour
intensity
Various kinds of sensors can be integrated on the textile for a variety of
applications; such as heat sensors, touch sensors, pressure sensors, optical
sensors, chemical sensors, and olfactory sensors. Carbon-based nano-materials
such as carbon nanofibers, graphene, and carbon nanotubes (CNT) have been
broadly examined for use as lightweight, flexible, and high-strain sensors,
which may be used in the fields of smart garments, health monitoring, and
human motion detection
Paints industry
Nanomaterials offer exciting possibilities for enhancing paint properties, leading
to applications like antimicrobial, anticorrosive, self-cleaning, and scratch-
resistant paints, as well as improved UV and weather resistance.
Enhanced Paint Properties:
• Antimicrobial and Antibacterial: Nanomaterials like silver nanoparticles
(AgNPs) and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles can impart antimicrobial and
antibacterial properties to paints, preventing the growth of bacteria and fungi.
• Anticorrosive: Nanoparticles can improve the resistance of paints to corrosion,
extending the lifespan of coated surfaces, especially in harsh environments.
• Self-Cleaning: Nanomaterials can create hydrophobic or hydrophilic surfaces,
allowing paints to resist dirt and grime, making them easier to clean and
maintain.
• Scratch Resistance: Hard nanoparticles, like silicon dioxide (SiO2), can be
incorporated into paints to increase their scratch resistance and durability.
• UV Resistance: Nanomaterials can enhance the UV resistance of paints,
preventing color fading and degradation caused by sunlight exposure.
• Weather Resistance: Nanoparticles can improve the overall weather resistance
of paints, making them suitable for outdoor applications.
• Improved Adhesion: Nanomaterials can enhance paints' adhesion to various
surfaces, ensuring a more durable and long-lasting coating.
• Higher Opacity and Durability: Nanomaterials can contribute to higher opacity
and improved durability of paint coatings.
• Antifouling: Nanoparticles can be used to create antifouling paints, preventing
the adhesion of marine organisms to surfaces.
• Fire Resistance: Certain nanomaterials can impart fire resistance to paints,
making them suitable for applications where safety is a priority.
• Electrochromic and Photochromic Properties: Tungsten oxide nanoparticles
can be used in automotive paints to provide electrochromic and photochromic
properties, enabling dynamic shading and coloring.
• Antifogging: Nanomaterials can be used to create antifogging paints,
preventing the condensation of moisture on surfaces.

Applications in catalysis: Nanozymes

Nanozyme is a series of nanomaterials with enzyme-mimetic activities that can
proceed with the catalytic reactions of natural enzymes. In 2007,first evidence
that Fe3O4 nanoparticles (NPs) have intrinsic peroxidase-mimicking activity,
and since that time, hundreds of nanomaterials have been found to mimic the
catalytic activity of peroxidase, oxidase, catalase, haloperoxidase, glutathione
peroxidase, uricase, methane monooxygenase, hydrolase, and superoxide
dismutase.
In the field of biomedicine, nanozymes are capturing tremendous attention due
to their high stability and low cost. Enzyme-mimetic activities of nanozymes
can be regulated by multiple factors, such as the chemical state of metal ion,
pH, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and glutathione (GSH) level, presenting great
promise for biomedical applications. Over the past decade, multi-functional
nanozymes have been developed for various biomedical applications.
Enzymatic properties of gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) have widespread uses in
biomedical applications. Many studies have reported that Au NPs exhibited
multiple enzymes mimicking abilities such as peroxidase-mimetic activity and
glucose oxidase (GOD) activity. The GOD-like activity of Au nanoparticles can
deplete the glucose and generate H2O2, which could effectively consume
glucose nutrients and induce cell starvation in tumour tissues.
Tumor hypoxia and overproduced H2O2 are the unique features of solid tumors,
which are critical to tumour proliferation and metastasis. Importantly, the
therapeutic efficiency of current methods was limited by tumor hypoxia
microenvironments, such as photodynamic therapy (PDT) and radiotherapy.
Unfortunately, oxygen-dependent PDT was severely discouraged due to the low
intratumoral oxygen level. Fortunately, nanozymes with catalase-like activities
could provide a feasible method to improve tumor oxygen-involved therapeutic
methods. Based on the catalase-like activity, platinum (Pt) based nanomaterials
have been widely applied to decompose the endogenous H 2O2 to O2, thus
relieving tumor hypoxia for tumor therapy, including PDT and radiotherapy
Ferrum (Fe)-based nanoparticles have gained extensive attention for various
biomedical applications due to their magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
performance, POD-mimetic activity, and CAT mimetic properties.
Drug delivery and its applications,
Biosynthesized metallic NPs possess various biological activities such as anti-
cancer, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activities. When combined with
drugs, these biological activities are used for addressing drug resistance. Au and
Ag NPs have been widely used, as they can be conjugated with various
biologically relevant molecules including oligosaccharides and proteins. These
molecules are useful for receptor-sensitive targeting of the pathobiological site
to be treated.
Nanomaterials are revolutionizing drug delivery, offering targeted, controlled,
and enhanced drug delivery systems that improve efficacy and reduce side
effects. They enable precise drug targeting, increased bioavailability, and
sustained release, making them valuable in treating various diseases, including
cancer and neurological disorders.
1. Enhanced Drug Delivery and Bioavailability:
• Increased Solubility and Stability: Nanomaterials can encapsulate drugs,
improving their solubility in water and protecting them from degradation,
leading to better bioavailability.
• Prolonged Circulation: Nanoparticles can remain in the bloodstream for longer
periods, allowing for sustained drug release and reduced dosing frequency.
• Enhanced Uptake by Target Cells: The small size and surface properties of
nanomaterials facilitate their uptake by specific cells or tissues, leading to more
efficient drug delivery to the target site.
2. Targeted Drug Delivery:
• Specific Targeting: Nanomaterials can be designed with specific ligands or
antibodies on their surface to target particular cells or tissues, minimizing drug
exposure to healthy tissues and reducing side effects.
• Overcoming Barriers: Nanoparticles can cross biological barriers, such as the
blood-brain barrier, to deliver drugs to specific locations, such as brain tumors.
3. Controlled Drug Release:
• Sustained Release: Nanomaterials can be designed to release drugs gradually
over time, allowing for more effective and prolonged therapeutic effects.
• On-Demand Release: Some nanomaterials can be designed to release drugs in
response to specific stimuli, such as changes in pH, temperature, or the presence
of enzymes, enabling precise control over drug release.
• Liposomes: Spherical vesicles composed of lipid bilayers that can encapsulate
drugs and target specific cells or tissues.
• Polymeric Nanoparticles: Small particles made of polymers that can be
designed to release drugs in a controlled manner.
• Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLCs): Advanced drug delivery systems that
enhance the bioavailability and efficacy of poorly soluble drugs.
• Gold Nanoparticles: Can be used for drug delivery and as contrast agents in
medical imaging.
• Carbon Nanotubes: Hollow tubes formed by rolling carbon polymer sheets
that can cross cellular membrane without generally inflecting cellular injury.
• Magnetic Nanoparticles: Can be used for targeted drug delivery and magnetic
resonance imaging.
• Cancer: Nanomaterials are being used to deliver chemotherapeutic drugs
directly to cancer cells, reducing side effects and improving treatment efficacy.
• Neurological Disorders: Nanoparticles can cross the blood-brain barrier to
deliver drugs to the brain, offering potential treatments for conditions like
Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.
• Infectious Diseases: Nanomaterials can be used to deliver antiviral or
antibacterial drugs to infected tissues, improving treatment outcomes.
• Wound Healing: Nanomaterials can be used to deliver drugs that promote
wound healing and regeneration.
• Ocular Diseases: Polymeric nanocarriers are used for ocular drug delivery due
to their enhanced adherence to the ocular surface and their controlled release of
drugs.
Biochips- analytical devices
Nanomaterials are increasingly used in biochips to enhance their performance,
enabling applications like DNA and protein analysis, and biosensing, by
improving sensitivity, signal amplification, and biocompatibility.
Nanomaterials can act as platforms for immobilizing biomolecules, increasing
the surface area for binding and enhancing the detection of target molecules.
• Signal Enhancement: Nanomaterials can also be used to amplify the signal
generated by the biochip, making it easier to detect even small amounts of
biomolecules. .
• DNA Chips: Nanomaterials are used in DNA chips for DNA detection and
analysis, enabling rapid and sensitive identification of genetic variations and
diseases.
• Protein Chips: Nanomaterials can be used in protein chips for protein detection
and analysis, facilitating the study of protein interactions and disease
biomarkers.
• Biosensors: Nanomaterials are used in biosensors to detect a wide range of
biomolecules, including proteins, DNA, and metabolites.
• Microfluidic Chips: Nanomaterials can be used to create microfluidic channels
and devices for sample manipulation and analysis, enabling miniaturized and
automated assays.