1.A) What is solar constant? Explain briefly.

B) Define the following angles: (i) Latitude angle; (ii) Hour angle; (iii) Zenith
angle; (iv) Surface azimuth angle.

2 Explain briefly the following devices used for the measurement of solar
radiation: (i) Pyranometer; (ii) Pyrheliometer iii) Sunshine recorder

3 A ) What is Photovoltaic effect’? Explain briefly

b) Draw V-I characleristics of a solar cell and explain briefly

4 A) What is a Photovoltaic cell’? Explain briefly with a neat diagram a ‘silicon

pholovoltaic cell

B) How are solar cells classified?

5 A) List the applications of photovoltaic (PV) systems.

B) Discuss the priamry and secondary energy sources. Also describe the future of
nonconventional energy sources in India i want big answers for each question and
diagrams if needed,and generate examples

1a)Introduction

The Sun is the ultimate source of energy for Earth. All renewable energy sources
such as solar, wind, biomass, and hydro are derived either directly or indirectly
from solar radiation. To understand the potential of solar power, scientists
introduced a standard parameter called the Solar Constant.

Definition

The solar constant is defined as:

“The amount of solar radiation received per unit area per unit time on a surface
kept perpendicular to the Sun’s rays at the mean distance between the Earth and
the Sun, outside the Earth’s atmosphere.”

Mathematically:

Isc≈1367 W/m2I_{sc} \approx 1367 \, W/m^2Isc≈1367W/m2

Explanation

• Solar radiation is emitted in the form of electromagnetic waves (UV, visible,

IR).

• At the top of the Earth’s atmosphere, before absorption and scattering, the
value of radiation remains nearly constant.

• This value is independent of local conditions and acts as a reference

standard for solar energy studies.

Factors affecting actual radiation at Earth’s surface

1. Atmospheric absorption (by gases like CO₂, H₂O vapor).

2. Scattering by dust and particles.

3. Reflection from clouds.

4. Geographic latitude and time of day.

Example

If a solar panel of 2 m² is kept in space perpendicular to sunlight, the energy

received =

2×1367=2734 W2 \times 1367 = 2734 \, W2×1367=2734W

Diagram

Draw Sun → radiation → Earth’s atmosphere → surface. Label solar constant

outside atmosphere and reduced value at ground.

1. B) Solar Angles

These angles define the relative position of the Sun with respect to the Earth and
the receiving surface.

(i) Latitude Angle (ϕ)

• It is the angular distance of a location north or south of the equator.

 • Measured from the Earth’s center between the equatorial plane and the line
joining the location.

• Range: 0° at equator, +90° at north pole, –90° at south pole.

• Importance: Decides Sun path and seasonal variation of radiation.

• Example: Chennai → 13° N; New Delhi → 28.6° N.

(ii) Hour Angle (H)

• Represents the apparent motion of the Sun due to Earth’s rotation.

• Defined as the angle between the meridian plane of the observer and the
meridian containing the Sun.

• Increases by 15° per hour (360° in 24 hrs).

• Formula:

H=(tsolar−12)×15∘H = (t_{solar} - 12) \times 15^\circH=(tsolar−12)×15∘

• Example: At 3 PM solar time → H = (15 – 12) × 15 = 45° west.

(iii) Zenith Angle (θz)

• Angle between vertical line at the location and line to the Sun.

• At solar noon, when the Sun is directly overhead, θz = 0°.

• Used to calculate intensity of radiation on horizontal surfaces.

• Relation:

cos⁡θz=sin⁡δsin⁡ϕ+cos⁡δcos⁡ϕcos⁡H\cos \theta_z = \sin \delta \sin \phi +

\cos \delta \cos \phi \cos Hcosθz=sinδsinϕ+cosδcosϕcosH

(where δ = declination angle).

(iv) Surface Azimuth Angle (γs)

• The horizontal angle between the projection of the Sun’s rays on the
horizontal plane and the south direction.

• In northern hemisphere: measured from south towards west.

• Used in solar collector alignment.

• Example: If the Sun is exactly east → azimuth = 90°.

Diagram: Draw a tilted surface, Sun’s rays, zenith line, latitude line, azimuth
direction.

2. Solar Radiation Measuring Instruments

(i) Pyranometer

• Purpose: Measures global radiation (direct + diffuse) on a horizontal/tilted

surface.

• Working Principle: Uses a thermopile sensor covered by a transparent

glass dome.

• When sunlight falls, blackened surface absorbs it → temperature rise →

thermoelectric voltage proportional to radiation.

• Applications: PV testing, climate studies.

• Advantages: Simple, measures all types of radiation.

(ii) Pyrheliometer

• Purpose: Measures direct beam radiation only.

• Construction: Long collimated tube with sensor at one end.

 • Working: The tube aligns with Sun → sunlight enters → absorbed by
thermopile → signal generated.

• Applications: Calibration of pyranometers, solar thermal plants.

• Advantage: Highly accurate.

(iii) Sunshine Recorder

• Purpose: Measures sunshine duration.

• Construction: Hollow glass sphere focuses sunlight on a specially treated

card.

• Working: Focused rays burn a trace → length of burn = hours of sunshine.

• Types: Campbell–Stokes sunshine recorder is widely used.

• Application: Meteorology, agriculture.

Diagram: Show all 3 devices with labels.

3. A) Photovoltaic Effect

Introduction

• The discovery of PV effect was made by Edmond Becquerel (1839).

• It is the fundamental principle of solar cells.

Explanation

• When photons of sufficient energy fall on a semiconductor (Si, GaAs):

1. Electrons absorb energy → move to conduction band.

2. Holes left in valence band.

3. The internal electric field of p-n junction separates charges.

 4. Electrons move to n-side, holes to p-side.

5. A potential difference is created, and current flows when external

circuit is connected.

Applications

• PV cells, solar panels, spacecraft power, calculators.

Diagram: Sunlight → PV cell → electron-hole separation → current flow.

3. B) V-I Characteristics of Solar Cell

• Short Circuit Current (Isc): Current when terminals shorted (V=0).

• Open Circuit Voltage (Voc): Voltage when circuit open (I=0).

• Maximum Power Point (Vm, Im): Point where V×I = max.

• Fill Factor (FF):

FF=VmImVocIscFF = \frac{V_m I_m}{V_{oc} I_{sc}}FF=VocIscVmIm

• Efficiency (η):

η=PoutPin\eta = \frac{P_{out}}{P_{in}}η=PinPout

Diagram: Plot I vs V curve with Voc, Isc, MPP.

4. A) Photovoltaic Cell (Silicon)

Introduction

• A PV cell is the basic unit of solar energy conversion.

• Typically made from silicon due to abundance, stability, and good

efficiency.

Construction
 • Transparent cover (protective glass).

• Anti-reflective coating (reduces losses).

• Metal grid (front contact).

• n-type semiconductor (phosphorus doped).

• p-type semiconductor (boron doped).

• Back metal contact.

Working

• Sunlight passes through cover → photon absorbed in depletion region.

• Electron-hole pairs created.

• Junction field drives electrons → n-side; holes → p-side.

• Current flows in external circuit.

Diagram: Draw layered structure, show electron/hole movement.

4. B) Classification of Solar Cells

1. Crystalline Silicon Cells

o Monocrystalline (high efficiency ~20%, expensive).

o Polycrystalline (lower efficiency ~15%, cheaper).

2. Thin Film Cells

o Amorphous Silicon (a-Si).

o CdTe (Cadmium Telluride).

o CIGS (Copper Indium Gallium Selenide).

3. Advanced/Next Generation Cells

o Organic solar cells.

 o Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSC).

o Perovskite solar cells.

o Multi-junction cells (efficiency >40%).

5. A) Applications of PV Systems

1. Domestic – Rooftop systems, water heating, lighting.

2. Rural – Solar water pumps, village electrification.

3. Urban – Solar-powered traffic lights, metro stations.

4. Industrial – Power supply for remote telecom towers.

5. Space Applications – Satellites, space stations.

6. Portable Devices – Calculators, watches, power banks.

7. Large Scale – Solar parks (e.g., Pavagada Solar Park, Karnataka – 2050
MW).

5. B) Energy Sources

Primary Energy Sources

• Found in nature: Coal, oil, natural gas, solar, wind, hydro, nuclear fuel.

Secondary Energy Sources

• Derived: Electricity, gasoline, diesel, hydrogen.

Future of Non-Conventional Energy in India

• India has huge solar (~300 clear sunny days) and wind potential.

• Government initiatives:
 o National Solar Mission.

o Renewable capacity target: 500 GW by 2030.

o International Solar Alliance (ISA).

• Prospects:

o Reduce dependence on fossil fuels.

o Decrease pollution and carbon emissions.

o Employment in green energy sector.

Example: India’s Bhadla Solar Park (Rajasthan) is world’s largest (2245

MW).