NUCLEAR PHYSICS

COMPILED BY:

J. CHIPAPAPHIRI

Compiled by: J. Chipapa-Phiri 1

 NUCLEAR PHYSICS

NUCLEAR STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM.

Atoms are made up of three main particles. These particles are protons,
electrons and neutrons.

A proton is a hydrogen atom that has lost an electron. It is a positive

hydrogen ion as shown below;

H → H+ + e-

An electron has no mass and is negatively charged.

A neutron has no charge and is almost the same mass as a proton.

The facts above are summarized in the table below;

Particle Charge Mass

Proton +1 1
Neutron Zero (0) 1
Electron -1 0 ≈ 1
2000

NUCLEAR NOTATIONS.

The atomic number of an atom is the number of protons in the atom. The
symbol for atomic number is Z.

The mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons. The symbol is A.

N is the symbol for neutrons.

In general: A= Z - N

If the symbol of an element is X, then it follows that it will be written in

symbols as

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ISOTOPES
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element, which have the same atomic
number but different mass number.
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element, which have same number of
protons but different number of neutrons.
 Isotopes have identical chemical properties since they have the same
number of electrons and occupy the same place in the periodic table
In Greek, isos means same and topos means place)

- For instance; chlorine has two isotopes as follows;

Atomic Mass number Neutrons

number (Z) (A) (A – Z)
35
Chlorine 17 Cl 35 – 17 = 18
17
37
Chlorine 17 Cl 37 – 17 = 20
17

Chlorine isotopes exist in the ratio of 3: 1; that is 3 atoms of mass number 35

to 1 atom of mass number 37 giving average atomic mass of 35.5 as follows;

3 x 35 = 105
1 x 37 = 37
142

142 = 35.5
4

RADIOACTIVITY

 Radioactivity is the emission of radiation by an unstable nucleus.

 Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration of atomic nuclei by the

emission of alpha particle, beta particle and gamma rays.

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A nucleus will be unstable if it has:

1. Too many neutrons

2. Too few neutrons
3. Too many nucleons altogether i.e. it’s too heavy
4. Too much energy.

The radioactive substances emit one or more of the three radiation namely
alpha, beta and gamma rays.

NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES OF

RADIOACTIVITY

Nature: - It is a helium (42He) nucleus containing two protons and two

neutrons.

Properties of Alpha (α) Particle

 It has high ionizing power.

 Has very low penetration power. It cannot even penetrate few centimeters
of sheet of paper or air.
 They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields because they have a
charge (+2)
 They are big and heavy with slow movement.

Properties of Beta (β-) Particle

Nature: - It is a fast moving electron.

- They are streams of high-energy electrons
 In beta emission, a neutron decays (changes) to a proton and an
electron. The proton remains in the nucleus but the electron is emitted.
 The atomic number of the new atom increases by 1 (one) but the mass
number does not change.

Properties.
1. Have less ionizing power than that of alpha but more ionizing power
than alpha. gamma
2. Is more penetrative than alpha but less penetrative than gamma. It can
be absorbed (stopped) by few centimeters of aluminum.
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 3. It is easily deflected by magnetic field and electric field because it has
a charge (e- ).

Properties of Gamma () Radiation

Nature: Gamma are short wavelength electromagnetic waves.

 Gammas are electromagnetic radiation traveling at the speed of light.
 After emission of either alpha or beta from the atom, the excess energy is
emitted. This excess energy is what is referred to as gamma.

Properties
1. Has the least ionizing power of the three radiations
2. Has the highest penetration power. Penetration can be reduced by
thick lead or concrete.
3. Either magnetic or electric fields do not deflect them because they
have no charge.

BEHAVIOUR OF ALPHA, BETA AND GAMMA IN MAGNETIC

AND ELECTRIC FIELDS.

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PENETRATION POWER OF ALPHA, BETA AND GAMMA IN
DIFFERENT MATERIALS

RADIATION DETECTORS

Some instruments can detect the presence of radiation;

1. Photographic plates: When the plates are exposed to radiation, they

blacken

2. Geiger Muller (GM) Tube

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 - The ionizing effect is mainly used to detect radiation.
- When radiation enters the GM tube, it ionizes argon gas and creates
argon ions and electrons.
- The argon ions are attracted to the anode of the tube and cause more
ionization by colliding with other argon atoms.
- On reaching the electrodes, the ions produce a current pulse, which
produce sound and is fed to scaler or ratemeter, which show the
current.

3. Cloud Chamber
Saturated alcohol vapour is made to condense on air ions created by
radiation. The result is a white line of tiny drops shows up as a track in the
chamber when illuminated.

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4. Electroscope (Ionization Detector)

 The alpha particle from source (e.g. radium) ionizes gas around metal
cap. The ionized gas split into ions and electrons.
 The metal cap of the electroscope has positive charge. The charge on the
metal rod and the gold leaf repel and makes the leaf to rise.
 The positive cap attracts the electrons around the cap.
 The attraction of negative charge neutralizes the gold leaf, which falls
back to its position.

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 4. Scintillation Counter

 This gives light when illuminated.

 The atoms of the radioactive elements produce bright flashes of light
when they strike certain compounds e.g. rays from radium cause zinc
sulphide to glow in the dark.

RADIOACTIVE DECAY.

 It is the emission of alpha and beta by unstable nuclei to form atoms of

different element.
 Radioactive atoms have unstable nuclei and decay into atoms of different
elements with more stable nuclei when they emit alpha or beta particles.
 Radioactive decay is spontaneous. This means that it is not affected by
physical conditions such as temperature or pressure.

ALPHA DECAY

 An alpha particle is a helium nucleus. It has 2 protons and 2 neutrons.

 When an atom emits alpha ( ) (decay by alpha, its mass number
decrease by 4 and its atomic number decrease by 2.

For example:
(1)

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(2)

The atomic number (Z) and the mass number (A) must balance on both sides
of the equation.

BETA DECAY

 When an atom decays by beta ( ), a neutron changes to a proton and an

electron.
 The proton remains in the nucleus but the electron is emitted as beta ( )
particle.
 The mass number of the new nucleus does not change ( is constant)
while the atomic number increases by 1 (one)

For example:

GAMMA EMISSION
 After emission of alpha and beta particles, , there is excess energy in
the nucleus, this energy is released as gamma ( ) radiation.
 The excess energy is due to rearrangement of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus.
 The atomic number and mass number of the new atom remains the
same as the original atom

NUCLEAR EQUATIONS.

 This is the equation, which shows the balanced nuclear reactants and
nuclear products.
 For instance: When a high-speed neutron hits the nucleus of uranium-
235, the uranium breaks (fission) into two radioactive nuclei namely;
barium and krypton and produces two or three neutrons as shown in the
equation below.

(1)
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(2)

HALF LIFE AND DECAY CURVE

 Half-life is the time taken for half of the atoms in a given sample to
decay.

For example;

Radium has a half-life of 1620 years.

If the original mass is 1 gram.

 After 1620 years (1st half life), ½ x 1g = 0.5 g (1/2g) remains
 After 3240 years (2nd half life), ½ x ½ = 0.25g (1/4g) remains
 After 4860 yrs (3rd half life), ½ x ¼ = 0.125g (1/8g) remains

Uranium has half-life of 4.5 x 109 years

 After 1st half life, ½ of the original undecayed nuclei (atoms) will
remain.
 After 2nd half life, ¼ of the original undecayed nuclei (atoms) will remain
 After 3rd half life, 1/8 of the original undecayed atoms will remain
 After 4th half life, 1/16 of original undecayed atoms will remain

Generally,
 After n half lives, 1/2n of the original undecayed nuclei remain. The
rest of the nuclei (atoms) decay (changes to different atoms)

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 As radioactive isotopes decays, the number of undecayed nuclei
decreases. This also decreases the rate of decay.

 The graph below shows the decrease in the rate of decay as time goes

DECAY CURVE GRAPH

 The decay activity decreases by the same fraction on successive equal

time intervals. It falls from 800 to 400 counts/ sec in 2 minutes and from
400 to 200 counts/sec in 2minutes, from 200 to 100 counts/sec in 2
minutes and so on.

DECAY-CURVE GRAPH

900

800

700
Activity (Counts/Sec)

600

500

400

300

200

100

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (minutes)

Example:
A radioactive source has a half life of 20 minutes. What fraction is left after
1 hour.

Working (Method 1)

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After 20 minutes, fraction left = ½
After 40 minutes, fraction left = ½ x ½ = ¼
After 60 minutes, fraction left = ½ x ¼ = 1/8

Working (Method 2)

Number for half lives in 1 hour (60 mins) = 60 = 3

20

Therefore; Fraction remaining = 1 = 1 = 1

2n 23 8

Example 2.

The initial activity of a radioisotope is 960 counts per minute. If the half life
of the isotope is 20 minutes. Calculate the activity of the source after
(a) 1 hour
(b) 1 hour 40minutes.

Working
(a)
After 20 minutes = 960  2 = 480
After 40 minutes = 480  2 = 240
After 60 minutes (1 hour) = 240  2 = 120 counts/ minute.

(b)
After 20 minutes = 960  2 = 480
After 40 minutes = 480  2 = 240
After 60 minutes (1 hour) = 240  2 = 120
After 80 minutes (1 hr 20 mins) = 120  2 = 60
After 100 minutes (1 hr 40 mins) = 60  2 = 30 counts/ minute

(a) The activity after 1 hour is 120 counts/minute

(b) The activity after after 1 hr 40 minutes is 30 counts/minute

Example 3
A radioisotope initially contains 1240 undecayed nuclei. After 6 days, it
contains 155 undecayed nuclei. Calculate the half life of the isotope.

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Working

1st half life = 1280  2 = 640

2nd half life = 640  2 = 320
3rd half life = 320  2 = 160

To reduce from 1240 to 160 counts / min has taken 3 half lives

3 half lives has taken 6 days

Therefore 1 half life will take = 6 days x 1 = 2 days
3
The half life is 2 days

NATURAL AND INDUCED RADIOACTIVITY

1. NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY

 The radioactivity of these elements occurs naturally without being

influenced by anything e.g. uranium, radium, polonium, thorium etc
 Natural radioactivity occurs in atoms with unstable nucleus.
 The products of natural radioactivity are mainly atoms of stable nuclei.

Examples of natural radiation;

(1)

(2)

(3)

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2. INDUCED (ARTIFICIAL) RADIOACTIVITY

 They are created by colliding (or bombarding) the stable nucleus with a
neutron or charged particle.
 The types of atoms, which can be induced, are those with stable
nucleus.
 The main products of induced radioactivity are radioisotopes.

 The following are some examples of induced radioactivity

CIRCUMSTANCES WHERE INDUCED RADIOACTIVITY CAN BE

USED.

1. Used in scientific research as tracers

Example

(1) As biochemical tracers in tracing brain tumors, goiters etc

(2) Radio-carbon 14 used in tracing photosynthesis or fertilizer uptake.

2. Industrial use

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(I) Radio sodium 24 for detecting leakages in water pipes.

(ii) detection of faults in welded steam pipes and boilers.

3. Radiotherapy
radio cobalt 60 used for treatment of goiter.

4. Carbon dating
- Radiocarbon 14 for estimating the age of archaeological specimens by
knowing the half life of carbon.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AND STORAGE OF RADIOACTIVE

SUBSTANCE.

 A radiation harms living cells.

 Alpha, beta and gamma will cheerfully enter living cells and collide with
molecules.
 These collisions cause ionization, which damages or destroys the
molecules.
 Lower doses tend to cause minor damages without killing the cell. This
can give rise to mutant cells, which divide uncontrollably. This is
cancer
 Higher doses tend to kill cells completely.

As a result of the above dangers, the following are some of the safety
precautions

1. Never allow skin contact with the source. Always handle with tongs
2. Keep the source at arms length to keep it as far from the body as
possible.
3. Avoid looking at the source directly.
4. Always keep the source in a lead box.
5. Wearing full protective suits in industry.

NUCLEAR FISSION AND FUSION

Nuclear fission is the splitting of heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei. For
instance the fission of uranium as shown below.

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 + enegy

Nuclear Fussion is the combination (joining together) of lighter nuclei to

form heavy nucleus. For instance; the solar energy is produced by the
combination of tritium to form helium.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES

1. The atoms of radioactive substances are continually decaying (breaking

down into different type of atoms after emitting radiation)
2. The radiation from radioactive substances produce bright flashes of light
(fluoresces) when they strike certain compounds eg zinc sulphide
3. They cause ionization of air molecules and other molecules
4. Radiations from radioactive substances can blacken the photographic
film.
5. Radiation from radioactive substances can kill bacteria, burn or kill
animals and plants and can kill cancerous cells.

USES OF NUCLEAR RADIATION

Nuclear radiation is used in many ways. Some of the uses are;

1. Tracers in medicine

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 Radioactive isotopes can be injected into people (or swallowed). Their
progress around the body can be followed using a detector.

Example: Iodine-131 which is absorbed by thyroid gland and gives out

radiation which is detected by GM tube to indicate whether or not the gland
is functioning normally or abnormally. A high concentration in the gland
may indicate presence of cancer.

2. Tracers in industry
- Radioisotopes can be used to detect leakages in pipes. The
radioisotope is placed inside the pipe and inspection is done outside
the pipe with the detector to find areas of high concentration, which
indicates that the pipe is leaking out. The isotope must be a gamma
source so that the radiation can be detected even through metal.

3. Sterilisation

1. Food can be exposed to a high dose of gamma rays which will kill all
bacteria. This keeps the food fresh for longer time.

2. Medical instruments are also exposed to high dose of gamma rays,

which kills bacteria.

4. Radiotherapy (the treatment of cancer using gamma rays)

- The gamma rays are directed carefully at cancerous cells, which are killed
by radiation.

5. Carbon dating
A minute amount of carbon-14 is present in the atmosphere of the Earth and
all living organisms takes in traces of this isotope during their lifetime. After
death this taking in of carbon 14 ceases and the radioactive carbon,
constantly decaying, is no longer maintained at a steady concentration.

By looking at the ratio of carbon -14 remaining in dead material, the age can
be estimated.

6. Quality Control
- Sheet materials such as paper or metal needs to be produced with constant
thickness

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For example: In paper production,

 A beta-emitting source is placed above the paper.

 A beta detector is placed directly below it.
 If the paper becomes thinner, more radiation reaches the detector.
This makes the control unit to open the rollers out to make thick paper.
►If the paper becomes thicker, less radiation is detected. This makes the
control unit to increase pressure on rollers to make thin paper.

6. Power Generation from Nuclear Fuel (refer Additional material

book page 74)

 In order for electricity to be generated by nuclear reactor, there is need to

produce heat by fission of uranium. This heat is used to heat the water,
which produces steam. The steam turns the turbine. This is done as
follows;

1. Uranium 235 is put in the reactor.

2. Neutrons are injected into the reactor to kick start the fission
process.
3. Uranium splits into two fragments which collide with the
surrounding atoms, causing the temperature in the reactor to rise.
4. Control rods; limit the rate of fission by absorbing excess neutrons.
5. A gas, typically carbon dioxide, is pumped through the reactor in
order to carry away the heat generated.
6. The gas is then passed through the heat exchanger, where it gives its
energy to water.

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 7. This water is heated and turned into steam, which is then used to turn
the turbines, generating electricity

IMPORTANT

1. All isotopes that are taken into the body must always be gamma
sources so that they pass out of the body.
2. All isotopes, which are taken into the body, must have a short half
life so that the radioactivity inside the patient quickly disappears.

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