Lecture 4
• Aircraft nonlinear EOM
• Linearization – dynamics
• Linearization – forces & moments
• Stability derivatives and coefficients
4–1
Aircraft Dynamics
• Note can develop good approximation of key aircraft motion (Phugoid)
using simple balance between kinetic and potential energies.
• Consider an aircraft in steady, level flight with speed U0 and height
h0. The motion is perturbed slightly so that
U0 → U = U 0 + u (1)
h0 → h = h0 + Δh (2)
• Assume that E = 21 mU 2 + mgh is constant before and after the
perturbation. It then follows that u ≈ − gΔh
U0
• From Newton’s laws we know that, in the vertical direction
mh¨ =L−W
where weight W = mg and lift L = 21 ρSCLU 2 (S is the wing area).
We can then derive the equations of motion of the aircraft:
mh¨ = L − W = 1 ρSCL(U 2 − U 2) (3)
0
2
1 1
= ρSCL((U0 + u)2 − U02) ≈ ρSCL(2uU0)(4)
2 � � 2
gΔh
≈ −ρSCL U0 = −(ρSCLg)Δh (5)
U0
¨ = Δh
Since h ¨ and for the original equilibrium flight condition L =
W = 21 (ρSCL)U02 = mg, we get that
� �2
ρSCLg g
=2
m U0
Combine these result to obtain:
¨ 2 g√
Δh + Ω Δh = 0 , Ω ≈ 2
U0
• These equations describe an oscillation (called the phugoid oscilla
tion) of the altitude of the aircraft about it nominal value.
– Only approximate natural frequency (Lanchester), but value close.
4–2
• The basic dynamics are:
� ˙ I
� ˙I
�
F = mv
�c and T = H
1 � B
⇒ F = �v˙c + BI ω
� × �vc Transport Thm.
m
� ˙B
� �
⇒ T = H + BI ω � ×H
• Basic assumptions are:
1. Earth is an inertial reference frame
2. A/C is a rigid body
3. Body frame B fixed to the aircraft (�i, �j, �k)
BI
• Instantaneous mapping of �vc and ω
� into the body frame:
BI
� = P�i + Q�j + R�k
ω �vc = U�i + V �j + W �k
⎡⎤ ⎡ ⎤
P U
⇒ BI ωB = ⎣ Q ⎦ ⇒ (vc)B = ⎣ V ⎦
R W
• By symmetry, we can show that Ixy = Iyz = 0, but value of Ixz
depends on specific frame selected. Instantaneous mapping of the
angular momentum
� = Hx�i + Hy�j + Hz�k
H
into the Body Frame given by
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
Hx Ixx 0 Ixz P
HB = ⎣ Hy ⎦ = ⎣ 0 Iyy 0 ⎦ ⎣ Q ⎦
Hz Ixz 0 Izz R
4–3
• The overall equations of motion are then:
1 � B
F = �v˙c + BI ω � × �vc
m
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
X U̇ 0 −R Q U
1 ⎣ ⎦
⇒ Y = ⎣ V̇ ⎦ + ⎣ R 0 −P ⎦ ⎣ V ⎦
m ˙
Z W −Q P 0 W
⎡ ˙ ⎤
U + QW − RV
= ⎣ V˙ + RU − P W ⎦
W ˙ + P V − QU
� ˙B
� BI �
T = H + � ×H
ω
L
⎡ ⎤ ⎡
IxxṖ + Ixz R ˙ ⎤ ⎡
0 −R Q
⎤⎡
Ixx 0 Ixz
⎤⎡ ⎤
P
⇒⎣M ⎦ = ⎣ Iyy Q̇ ⎦+⎣ R 0 −P ⎦ ⎣ 0 Iyy 0 ⎦ ⎣ Q ⎦
N Izz R˙ + Ixz Ṗ −Q P 0 Ixz 0 Izz R
IxxṖ + Ixz R˙ +QR(Izz − Iyy ) + P QIxz
⎡ ⎤
= ⎣ Iyy Q̇ +P R(Ixx − Izz ) + (R2 − P 2)Ixz ⎦
Izz R˙ + Ixz Ṗ +P Q(Iyy − Ixx) − QRIxz
• Clearly these equations are very nonlinear and complicated, and we
have not even said where F� and T� come from. =⇒ Need to linearize!!
– Assume that the aircraft is flying in an equilibrium condition and
we will linearize the equations about this nominal flight condition.
4–4
Axes
• But first we need to be a little more specific about which Body Frame
we are going use. Several standards:
1. Body Axes X aligned with fuselage nose. Z perpendicular to
X in plane of symmetry (down). Y perpendicular to XZ plane, to
the right.
2. Wind Axes X aligned with �vc. Z perpendicular to X (pointed
down). Y perpendicular to XZ plane, off to the right.
3. Stability Axes X aligned with projection of �vc into the fuselage
plane of symmetry. Z perpendicular to X (pointed down). Y same.
�
X-AXIS
( B ODY )
�
RE
B ODY LA X-AXIS
T IV
Y -AXIS EW ( S T AB ILIT Y )
IN
B ODY D X-AXIS
Z-AXIS ( WIND )
• Advantages to each, but typically use the stability axes.
– In different flight equilibrium conditions, the axes will be oriented
differently with respect to the A/C principal axes ⇒ need to trans
form (rotate) the principal inertia components between the frames.
– When vehicle undergoes motion with respect to the equilibrium,
Stability Axes remain fixed to airplane as if painted on.
4–5
• Can linearize about various steady state conditions of flight.
– For steady state flight conditions must have
F� = F�aero + F�gravity + F�thrust = 0 and T� = 0
3 So for equilibrium condition, forces balance on the aircraft
L = W and T = D
– Also assume that Ṗ = Q˙ = R˙ = U˙ = V˙ = W
˙ =0
– Impose additional constraints that depend on flight condition:
3 Steady wingslevel flight → Φ = Φ˙ = Θ˙ = Ψ˙ = 0
• Key Point: While nominal forces and moments balance to zero,
motion about the equilibrium condition results in perturbations to
the forces/moments.
– Recall from basic flight dynamics that lift Lf0 = CLα α0 where:
3 CLα = lift curve slope – function of the equilibrium condition
3 α0 = nominal angle of attack (angle that wing meets air flow)
– But, as the vehicle moves about the equilibrium condition, would
expect that the angle of attack will change
α = α0 + Δα
– Thus the lift forces will also be perturbed
Lf = CLα (α0 + Δα) = Lf0 + ΔLf
• Can extend this idea to all dynamic variables and how they influence
all aerodynamic forces and moments
4–6
Gravity Forces
• Gravity acts through the CoM in vertical direction (inertial frame +Z)
– Assume that we have a nonzero pitch angle Θ0
– Need to map this force into the body frame
– Use the Euler angle transformation (2–15)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 − sin Θ
FBg = T1(Φ)T2(Θ)T3(Ψ) ⎣ 0 ⎦ = mg ⎣ sin Φ cos Θ ⎦
mg cos Φ cos Θ
• For symmetric steady state flight equilibrium, we will typically assume
that Θ ≡ Θ0, Φ ≡ Φ0 = 0, so
⎡ ⎤
− sin Θ0
FBg = mg ⎣ 0 ⎦
cos Θ0
• Use Euler angles to specify vehicle rotations with respect to the Earth
frame
Θ̇ = Q cos Φ − R sin Φ
Φ̇ = P + Q sin Φ tan Θ + R cos Φ tan Θ
Ψ̇ = (Q sin Φ + R cos Φ) sec Θ
– Note that if Φ ≈ 0, then Θ̇ ≈ Q
• Recall: Φ ≈ Roll, Θ ≈ Pitch, and Ψ ≈ Heading.
4–7
Linearization
• Define the trim angular rates and velocities
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
P Uo
BI o o
ωB = ⎣ Q ⎦ (vc)B =⎣ 0 ⎦
R 0
which are associated with the flight condition. In fact, these define
the type of equilibrium motion that we linearize about. Note:
– W0 = 0 since we are using the stability axes, and
– V0 = 0 because we are assuming symmetric flight
• Proceed with linearization of the dynamics for various flight conditions
Nominal Perturbed ⇒ Perturbed
Velocity Velocity ⇒ Acceleration
Velocities U0, U = U0 + u ⇒ U̇ = u̇
W0 = 0, W =w ⇒ W˙ = ẇ
V0 = 0, V =v ⇒ V̇ = v̇
Angular P0 = 0, P =p ⇒ Ṗ = ṗ
Rates Q0 = 0, Q=q ⇒ Q̇ = q̇
R0 = 0, R=r ⇒ Ṙ = ṙ
Angles Θ0, Θ = Θ0 + θ ⇒ Θ˙ = θ̇
Φ0 = 0, Φ=φ ⇒ Φ˙ = φ̇
Ψ0 = 0, Ψ=ψ ⇒ Ψ˙ = ψ̇
4–8
Θ
X0
U = U0 + u
� VT
�0 or �0 �
VT0 = U0 q
� Horizontal
XE
W C.G.
�0
Z
Z0
ZE
Down
Figure 1: Perturbed Axes. The equilibrium condition was that the aircraft was angled up by Θ0 with
velocity VT 0 = U0 . The vehicle’s motion has been perturbed (X0 → X) so that now Θ = Θ0 + θ and
� VT 0 . Note that VT is no longer aligned with the Xaxis, resulting in a nonzero
the velocity is VT =
u and w. The angle γ is called the flight path angle, and it provides a measure of the angle of the
velocity vector to the inertial horizontal axis.
4–9
• Linearization for symmetric flight
U = U0 + u, V0 = W0 = 0, P0 = Q0 = R0 = 0.
Note that the forces and moments are also perturbed.
1
[X0 + ΔX] = U̇ + QW − RV ≈ u̇ + qw − rv ≈ u̇
m
1
[Y0 + ΔY ] = V̇ + RU − P W
m
≈ v̇ + r(U0 + u) − pw ≈ v̇ + rU0
1 ˙ + P V − QU ≈ ẇ + pv − q(U0 + u)
[Z0 + ΔZ] = W
m
≈ ẇ − qU0
⎡⎤ ⎡ ⎤
ΔX u̇ 1
1
⇒ ⎣ ΔY ⎦ = ⎣ v̇ + rU0 ⎦ 2
m
ΔZ ẇ − qU0 3
• Attitude motion:
IxxṖ + Ixz R˙ +QR(Izz − Iyy ) + P QIxz
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
L
⎣M ⎦ = ⎣ Iyy Q̇ +P R(Ixx − Izz ) + (R2 − P 2)Ixz ⎦
N Izz R˙ + Ixz Ṗ +P Q(Iyy − Ixx) − QRIxz
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
ΔL Ixxṗ + Ixz ṙ 4
⇒ ⎣ ΔM ⎦ = ⎣ Iyy q̇ ⎦ 5
ΔN Izz ṙ + Ixz ṗ 6
4–10
• Key aerodynamic parameters are also perturbed:
Total Velocity
VT = ((U0 + u)2 + v 2 + w2)1/2 ≈ U0 + u
Perturbed Sideslip angle
β = sin−1(v/VT ) ≈ v/U0
Perturbed Angle of Attack
αx = tan−1(w/U ) ≈ w/U0
• To understand these equations in detail, and the resulting impact on
the vehicle dynamics, we must investigate the terms ΔX . . . ΔN .
– We must also address the lefthand side (F� , T� )
– Net forces and moments must be zero in equilibrium condition.
– Aerodynamic and Gravity forces are a function of equilibrium con
dition AND the perturbations about this equilibrium.
• Predict the changes to the aerodynamic forces and moments using a
first order expansion in the key flight parameters
∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X g
ΔX = ΔU + ΔW + ΔẆ + ΔΘ + . . . + ΔΘ + ΔX c
∂U ∂W ∂ Ẇ ∂Θ ∂Θ
g
∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X ∂X
= u+ w+ w
˙ + θ + ... + θ + ΔX c
∂U ∂W ∂ Ẇ ∂Θ ∂Θ
∂X
• ∂U called stability derivative – evaluated at eq. condition.
• Gives dimensional form; nondimensional form available in tables.
• Clearly approximation since ignores lags in the aerodynamics forces
(assumes that forces only function of instantaneous values)
4–11
Stability Derivatives
• First proposed by Bryan (1911) – has proven to be a very effec
tive way to analyze the aircraft flight mechanics – well supported by
numerous flight test comparisons.
• The forces and torques acting on the aircraft are very complex nonlin
ear functions of the flight equilibrium condition and the perturbations
from equilibrium.
– Linearized expansion can involve many terms u, u,
˙ u,
¨ . . . , w, w,
˙ w,
¨ ...
– Typically only retain a few terms to capture the dominant effects.
• Dominant behavior most easily discussed in terms of the:
– Symmetric variables: U , W , Q & forces/torques: X, Z, and M
– Asymmetric variables: V , P , R & forces/torques: Y , L, and N
• Observation – for truly symmetric flight Y , L, and N will be exactly
zero for any value of U , W , Q
⇒ Derivatives of asymmetric forces/torques with respect to the sym
metric motion variables are zero.
• Further (convenient) assumptions:
1. Derivatives of symmetric forces/torques with respect to the asym
metric motion variables are small and can be neglected.
2. We can neglect derivatives with respect to the derivatives of the
motion variables, but keep ∂Z/∂ẇ and Mẇ ≡ ∂M/∂ẇ (aero
dynamic lag involved in forming new pressure distribution on the
wing in response to the perturbed angle of attack)
3. ∂X/∂q is negligibly small.
4–12
∂()/∂() X Y Z L M N
u • 0 • 0 • 0
v 0 • 0 • 0 •
w • 0 • 0 • 0
p 0 • 0 • 0 •
q ≈0 0 • 0 • 0
r 0 • 0 • 0 •
• Note that we must also find the perturbation gravity and thrust forces
and moments
∂X g �� ∂Z g ��
� �
= −mg cos Θ0 = −mg sin Θ0
∂Θ � 0 ∂Θ � 0
• Aerodynamic summary:
� ∂X � � ∂X �
1A ΔX = ∂U 0 u + ∂W 0 w ⇒ ΔX ∼ u, αx ≈ w/U0
2A ΔY ∼ β ≈ v/U0, p, r
3A ΔZ ∼ u, αx ≈ w/U0, α̇x ≈ ẇ/U0, q
4A ΔL ∼ β ≈ v/U0, p, r
5A ΔM ∼ u, αx ≈ w/U0, α̇x ≈ ẇ/U0, q
6A ΔN ∼ β ≈ v/U0, p, r
4–13
• Result is that, with these force, torque approximations,
equations 1, 3, 5 decouple from 2, 4, 6
– 1, 3, 5 are the longitudinal dynamics in u, w, and q
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
ΔX mu̇
⎣ ΔZ ⎦ = ⎣ m(ẇ − qU0) ⎦
ΔM Iyy q̇
⎡ � ∂X � � ∂X � c
� ∂X g � ⎤
∂U ∂W
0
u+ 0
w+
∂Θ 0 θ + ΔX
⎢ � � � � ⎥
⎢ ∂Z u + � ∂Z � w + ∂Z w˙ + ∂Z q + � ∂Z g � θ + ΔZ c
⎢� � ⎥
≈ ⎢ ∂U 0
⎥
∂W 0 ∂ Ẇ 0 ∂Q 0 ∂Θ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣� � � � � � ⎦
∂M
� ∂M � ∂M
∂U 0 u + ∂W 0 w + ∂ Ẇ ẇ + ∂M
∂Q q + ΔM c
0 0
– 2, 4, 6 are the lateral dynamics in v, p, and r
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
ΔY m(v̇ + rU0)
⎣ ΔL ⎦ = ⎣ Ixxṗ + Ixz ṙ ⎦
ΔN Izz ṙ + Ixz ṗ
⎡� ⎤
∂Y
� � ∂Y � � ∂Y � c
∂V 0 v + ∂P 0 p + ∂R 0 r + +ΔY
⎢ ⎥
⎢ � ∂L � � ∂L � � ∂L � ⎥
≈ ⎢ ∂V 0 v + ∂P 0 p + ∂R 0 r + ΔLc
⎢ ⎥
⎥
⎣� � ⎦
∂N
� ∂N � � ∂N � c
∂V 0 v + ∂P 0 p + ∂R 0 r + ΔN
4–14
Basic Stability Derivative Derivation
• Consider changes in the drag force with forward speed U
D = 1/2ρVT2SCD
VT2 = (u0 + u)2 + v 2 + w2
∂VT2
� 2�
∂VT
= 2(u0 + u) ⇒ = 2u0
∂u ∂u 0
∂VT2 ∂VT2
� � � �
Note: = 0 and =0
∂v 0 ∂w 0
At reference condition:
� � � � 2 ��
∂D ∂ ρVT SCD
⇒ Du ≡ =
∂u 0 ∂u 2
� � � 0 � 2� �
ρS ∂CD ∂VT
= u20 + CD0
2 ∂u 0 ∂u 0
� � � �
ρS ∂C D
= u20 + 2u0CD0
2 ∂u 0
∂D
– Note ∂u is the stability derivative, which is dimensional.
• Define nondimensional stability coefficient CDu as derivative of
CD with respect to a nondimensional velocity u/u0
� �
D ∂CD
CD = 1 2 ⇒ CDu ≡ and CD0 ≡ (CD)0
2 ρVT S ∂u/u 0 0
– So (•)0 corresponds to the variable at its equilibrium condition.
4–15
• Nondimensionalize:
� � � � � �
∂D ρSu0 ∂CD
= u0 + 2CD0
∂u 0 2 ∂u 0
�� � �
QS ∂CD
= + 2CD0
u0 ∂u/u0 0
� �� �
u0 ∂D
= (CDu + 2CD0 )
QS ∂u 0
So given stability coefficient, can compute the drag force increment.
• Note that Mach number has a significant effect on the drag:
� � � �
∂CD u0 ∂CD ∂CD
CDu = = �u� =M
∂u/u0 0 a∂ a ∂M
0
∂CD
where can be estimated from empirical results/tables.
∂M
CD
CD � = Constant
= 0.1
M
0
0 Mcr 1 2
Mach number, M
Aerodynamic Principles
• Thrust forces
� � � �
∂CT ∂T 1
CTu = ⇒ = CTu QS
∂u/u0 0 ∂u 0 u0
– For a glider, CTu = 0
– For a jet, CTu ≈ 0
– For a prop plane, CTu = −CD0
4–16
• Lift forces similar to drag
L = 1/2ρVT2SCL
� � � � � �
∂L ρSu0 ∂CL
⇒ = u0 + 2CL0
∂u 0 2 ∂u 0
�� � �
QS ∂CL
= + 2CL0
u0 ∂u/u0 0
� �� �
u0 ∂L
= (CLu + 2CL0 )
QS ∂u 0
where CL0 is the lift coefficient for the eq. condition and CLu =
M ∂CL as before. From aerodynamic theory, we have that
∂M
CL| ∂CL M
CL = √ M=0 ⇒ = C
2 L
1−M 2 ∂M 1 − M
M2
⇒ CLu = CL
1 − M2 0
• α Derivatives: Now consider what happens with changes in the angle
of attack. Take derivatives and evaluate at the reference condition:
– Lift: ⇒ CLα
CL2 2CL0
– Drag: CD = CDmin + ⇒ CDα = CL
πeAR πeAR α
4–17
• Combine into X, Z Forces
– At equilibrium, forces balance.
– Use stability axes, so α0 = 0
– Include the effect in the force balance of a change in α on the
force rotations so that we can see the perturbations.
– Assume perturbation α is small, so rotations are by cos α ≈ 1,
sin α ≈ α
X = T − D + Lα
Z = −(L + Dα)
CL
��(t)
x
Cx
V CD
Cz
Note: � = �T at t = 0
z (i.e., Static Trim)
• So, now consider the α derivatives of these forces:
∂X ∂T ∂D ∂L
= − +L+α
∂α ∂α ∂α ∂α
� �
∂T
– Thrust variation with α very small ≈0
∂α 0
� �
∂CX
– Apply at the reference condition (α = 0), i.e. CXα =
∂α 0
• Nondimensionalize and apply reference condition:
CXα = −CDα + CL0
2CL0
= CL0 − CL
πeAR α
4–18
• And for the Z direction
∂Z ∂D ∂L
= −D − α −
∂α ∂α ∂α
Giving
CZα = −CD0 − CLα
• Recall that CMα was already found during the static analysis
• Can repeat this process for the other derivatives with respect to the
forward speed.
• Forward speed:
∂X ∂T ∂D ∂L
= − +α
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
So that
� �� � � �� � � �� �
u0 ∂X u0 ∂T u0 ∂D
= −
QS ∂u 0 QS ∂u 0 QS ∂u 0
⇒ CXu ≡ CTu − (CDu + 2CD0 )
• Similarly for the Z direction:
∂Z ∂L ∂D
=− −α
∂u ∂u ∂u
So that
� �� � � �� �
u0 ∂Z u0 ∂L
= −
QS ∂u 0 QS ∂u 0
CZu ≡ −(CLu + 2CL0 )
M2
= − CL − 2CL0
1 − M2 0
• Many more derivatives to consider !
4–19
Summary
• Picked a specific Body Frame (stability axes) from the list of alter
natives
⇒ Choice simplifies some of the linearization, but the inertias now
change depending on the equilibrium flight condition.
• Since the nonlinear behavior is too difficult to analyze, we needed
to consider the linearized dynamic behavior around a specific flight
condition
⇒ Enables us to linearize RHS of equations of motion.
• Forces and moments also complicated nonlinear functions, so we lin
earized the LHS as well
⇒ Enables us to write the perturbations of the forces and moments
in terms of the motion variables.
– Engineering insight allows us to argue that many of the stability
derivatives that couple the longitudinal (symmetric) and lateral
(asymmetric) motions are small and can be ignored.
• Approach requires that you have the stability derivatives.
– These can be measured or calculated from the aircraft plan form
and basic aerodynamic data.