1.

4 Rational Functions
Type Lecture

Reviewed

Introduction of Polynomials

A rational function is the ratio of two polynomials. This fundamental mathematical

concept has widespread applications across various fields. Rational functions
effectively model real-world phenomena involving rates, averages, or inverse
proportionality in physics, engineering, and economics.

In advanced mathematics, these functions are essential for understanding calculus

concepts like limits, asymptotes, and integrals. Analyzing their behavior—particularly
discontinuities and asymptotic trends—provides key insights for complex systems
analysis and equation solving.

Outline of this section 1.4

Fundamental Knowledge of Rational Functions

Definition

1.4 Rational Functions 1

 Definition of Rational Function ( )

f (x)
= g(x) is a rational function, where f (x) and
A function in the form of y
g(x) are polynomials and g(x) =
 0.

Now, weʼre going to see some rational function examples.

1 x2 (x + 1)(x + 2)(x + 3) (x + 2)(x − 1)

y= y= y= y=
x x x+1 (x + 1)(x − 3)

Please use technology to plot the images.

Answer

y= 1 x2
x y= x

1.4 Rational Functions 2

 (x+1)(x+2)(x+3) (x+2)(x−1)
y= x+1
y= (x+1)(x−3)

As you see above, rational functions have different shapes with different
domains. To find the domain, we need to find the non-permissible values here.

Non-Permissible Values Values of x that make the denominator equal to 0.

1.4 Rational Functions 3

 Note that non-permissible values of f (x) create Vertical Asymptotes or
Holes Discontinuity) on the graph. Holes and Asymptotes are NOT the
same thing.

Holes and Vertical Asymptotes

Holes and Asymptotes ( )

Holes

A hole is a point on the graph of a function where the function is

undefined, yet the limit of the function as it approaches that point exists
and is finite.
In short, a hole is a single, missing point in an otherwise continuous curve.

Asymptote

An asymptote is an invisible (dashed line in the image) line that the image
of a function approaches but never actually touches or crosses as x-
values approach ∞, −∞, or a point of discontinuity.
Asymptotes reveal the end behavior or unbounded behavior of a graph,
showing how functions behave at their extremes.

Remember Non-Permissive Values create Holes and Vertical Asymptotes.

1.4 Rational Functions 4

 Determine whether a hole or a vertical asymptote

Occurs at point x = a, if ( x − a ) is a common factor of

Holes
__________ and __________.

Occurs at x = a, if ( x − a ) is a factor of __________ and NOT

Vertical Asymptotes
a factor of __________.

Answer

Occurs at point x = a, if ( x − a ) is a common factor of

Holes
f (x) and g(x).
Occurs at x = a, if ( x − a ) is a factor of g(x) and NOT
Vertical Asymptotes
a factor of f (x).

Example 1
Determine where the graphs of the following functions will have vertical
asymptote and holes.

−3 5x (x − 3)(x + 2)
f (x) = , g(x) = , h(x) =
x x−1 (2x + 3)(−2 − x)

Answer

f (x) has no holes, and one vertical asymptote at x = 0.

g(x) has no holes, and one vertical asymptote at x = 1.
h(x) has a hole at x = −2, and one vertical asymptote at x = − 32 .

Practice 1

1.4 Rational Functions 5

 Determine where the graphs of the following functions will have vertical
asymptote and holes.

t2 + 2t + 1
m(t) = 2t + 1 n(t) =
(t − 1)(t + 2)

Answer

m(t) has no holes and no vertical asymptotes.

n(t) has no holes, and two vertical asymptotes at x = 1 and x = −2.

Horizontal Asymptote

Definition and Properties

= b) that the graph of a

A horizontal asymptote is a horizontal line (e.g., y
function approaches as the input (x) moves infinitely far to the left (x →
−∞) or infinitely far to the right (x → +∞).

Vertical asymptotes are untouchable, but horizontal asymptotes only affects

the far behavior, when x → ±∞.
In other words, functions can cross the horizontal asymptotes when x is
small.

1.4 Rational Functions 6

 Determine the Horizontal Asymptote
f (x)
Given y = g(x) , where f , g are polynomials have no common factors. The
equation of H.A. depends on the degree of two polynomials

Degree Equation

Deg of f (x) < Deg of g(x) H.A. at y =0

H.A. at y = ab , where a, b are leading
Deg of f (x) = Deg of g(x)
coefficient of f , g .

Deg of f (x) > Deg of g(x) Next section: Oblique Asymptote

Example 2
x+2
Given y = f (x) = x2 −1
. Find Non-permissible value, equations of holes,
vertical, and horizontal asymptotes.

x+2 (x + 2)
y = f (x) = =
x2 − 1 (x + 1)(x − 1)

Values

Non-permissible value: x = ±1
Holes: N/A

Vertical Asymptote: x = ±1
Horizontal Asymptote: y =0
Graph
Image from Calculator Suite  GeoGebra

1.4 Rational Functions 7

 Slant/Oblique Asymptote

Slant/Oblique Asymptote

A slant asymptote if the Degree of f (x) = Degree of g(x) + 1.

Note that the linear equation of S.A. is the quotient of the division statement
f (x)
g(x) .

Example 3

1.4 Rational Functions 8

 3x3 +2x+1
Given y = f (x) = 4x2 +2x+1 ,

Green is the function y = f (x)

Red is the slant asymptote

3x 3
y = g(x) = −
4 8

Summary

f (x)
If y = g(x) where
f (x) and g(x) has no common factors:

Let n= the degree of the numerator, m =

the degree of the denominator
 If m > n, then y has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.
 If m = n, then y has a horizontal asymptote at y = ab .
 If m > n, then y has a horizontal asymptote at y = Linear equation.

Graph of Rational Functions

Behavior near the vertical asymptotes

Definition of Behavior

1.4 Rational Functions 9

 For a function, y= f (x), the behavior describes how the y behaves as the
input x approaches the asymptote from either the left side x → a− or the
right side as x → a+ .

We need to determine whether the y -values increase toward +∞ or

decrease toward −∞ on each side of the asymptote.

Determine the Behavior

Thereʼre three steps to determine the behavior,

 Identify the vertical asymptote

 Select test points very close to the asymptote

 Determine the sign

Example 1
Consider a rational function y = f (x) = x−1
x−2
.

Identify the vertical asymptote

x=2
Select test points

x → 2− , choose 1.999 as the test point.

x → 2+ , choose 2.001 as the test point.
Determine the sign

f (1.999) = −999, the sign is negative.

f (2.001) = 1001, the sign is positive.

1.4 Rational Functions 10

 Graph and Conclusion
Thus,

y → −∞ when x →
2−
y → +∞ when x →
2+

Graph Rational Functions

Steps for Graphing Rational Functions

 Location of holes

 Location of vertical asymptotes, and the behavior of the graph near the
asymptote

 The horizontal or slant asymptotes

 The intercepts

 Label and connect with a continuous curve

1 : 1 Rational Functions

Practice 1

1.4 Rational Functions 11

 2x−1
Graph y = f (x) = x+1

Answer

Non-permissive values:

x=
 −1
Holes:
N/A

Asymptotes:
x = −1, y = 2
x-int and y -int:
1
x − int = 2

y − int = −1
Domain and Range:
x ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪
(−1, ∞)
y ∈ (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞)

1 : n Rational Functions

Practice 2
Graph y = f (x) = x+1
(x+2)(x−3)

1.4 Rational Functions 12

 Answer

Non-permissive values:
x=
 −2, 3
Holes:
N/A

Asymptotes:
x = −2, x = 3, y = 0
x-int and y -int:
x − int = −1
y − int = − 16

Domain and Range:

x ∈ (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, 3) ∪ (3, ∞)
y∈R

n : 1 Rational Functions

Practice 3
(x+1)2
Graph y = f (x) = x−3

Answer

1.4 Rational Functions 13

 Non-permissive values:

x=
3
Holes:
N/A

Asymptotes:

x = 3, y = x + 5
x-int and y -int:
x − int = −1
y − int = − 13
Domain and Range:

x ∈ (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, ∞)
y ∈ (−∞, 0] ∪ [16, ∞)

Summary for 1.4

1.4 Rational Functions 14