Here are the direct, clear answers for all questions (Q2-1 to Q2-15), suitable for

study/revision.

Q2-1. Relationship between period and frequency

They are inversely related:

[
T = \frac{1}{f} \quad \text{and} \quad f = \frac{1}{T}
]

Q2-2. What amplitude, frequency, and phase measure

 Amplitude → Strength / height of the signal at any time
 Frequency → Number of cycles per second
 Phase → Position of the waveform relative to time zero

Q2-3. How a composite signal can be decomposed

Using Fourier analysis, a composite signal is separated into a sum of sine waves with
different frequencies.

Q2-4. Three types of transmission impairment

1. Attenuation
2. Distortion
3. Noise

Q2-5. Baseband vs Broadband transmission

 Baseband transmission → Send the signal without modulation, using the channel’s
entire bandwidth starting from 0.
 Broadband transmission → Send the signal after modulation; uses a bandpass
channel.
Q2-6. Low-pass vs Bandpass channel
 Low-pass channel → Allows frequencies from 0 to some upper limit.
 Bandpass channel → Allows only a range (band) of frequencies, not including 0.

Q2-7. Nyquist theorem

Nyquist gives the maximum data rate of a noiseless channel:

[
\text{Bit rate} = 2B \log_2 L
]

Q2-8. Shannon capacity

Shannon gives the maximum data rate of a noisy channel:

[
C = B \log_2 (1 + \text{SNR})
]

Q2-9. Why optical signals in fiber cables have short

wavelength?
Short wavelengths (high frequencies) allow:

 Very high data rates

 Less attenuation
 Better signal capacity

Q2-10. Can we tell if a signal is periodic from its

frequency-domain plot?
Yes.

 A periodic signal → has discrete spectral lines.

 A nonperiodic signal → has a continuous frequency spectrum.
Q2-11. Frequency-domain plot of a voice signal
A voice signal is nonperiodic → continuous spectrum.

Q2-12. Frequency-domain plot of an alarm system

Alarm tone is usually periodic → discrete spectrum.

Q2-13. Microphone → recorder (voice signal)

This is baseband transmission, because it is not modulated.

Q2-14. How to find period from frequency

Use:

[
T = \frac{1}{f}
]

Q2-15. Which measures the value of a signal at any time?

a. amplitude

If you want, I can format these as exam-style short answers or convert into a printable PDF.

Here are each question followed by its answer, clearly formatted for study.

Q2-16. Can we say whether a signal is periodic or nonperiodic by just looking at its time-domain
plot? How?

Answer: Yes. A signal is periodic if its pattern repeats at regular intervals. If it does not repeat, it is
nonperiodic.
Q2-17. Which of the following are causes of transmission impairment?

a. attenuation b. modulation c. noise

Answer: a. attenuation and c. noise

Q2-18. Which of the following is the characteristic of the low-pass channel?

a. A channel with a bandwidth that starts from zero.

b. A channel with a bandwidth that does not start from zero.
Answer: a. A channel with a bandwidth that starts from zero.

Q2-19. We send a digital signal from one station on a LAN to another station. Is this baseband or
broadband transmission?

Answer: Baseband transmission.

Q2-20. Which of the following is the definition of a baseband transmission?

a. Sending a digital or an analog signal without modulation using a low-pass channel.

b. Modulating a digital or an analog signal using a bandpass channel.
Answer: a. Sending a digital or an analog signal without modulation using a low-pass channel.

Q2-21. How can a periodic composite signal be decomposed into its individual frequencies?

Answer: By using Fourier series, which decomposes it into a set of sine waves with harmonic
frequencies.

Q2-22. Which of the following defines the theoretical maximum bit rate of a noiseless channel?

a. Nyquist theorem b. Shannon capacity

Answer: a. Nyquist theorem

Q2-23. Which of the following techniques are examples of digital-to-digital conversion?

a. line coding
b. block coding
c. amplitude modulation
Answer: a. line coding and b. block coding

Q2-24. Which characteristics of an analog signal are changed to represent the digital signal in:

a. ASK b. PSK
Answer:
a. ASK → amplitude
b. PSK → phase

Q2-25. Which of the two digital-to-analog conversion techniques is more susceptible to noise?

a. ASK b. FSK
Answer: a. ASK

Q2-26. Which characteristics of an analog signal are changed in analog-to-analog conversion?

a. FM b. PM
Answer:
a. FM → frequency
b. PM → phase

Q2-27. Which characteristics of an analog signal are changed to represent the digital signal in the
following digital-to-analog conversions?

a. ASK b. FSK c. PSK d. QAM

Answer:
a. ASK → amplitude
b. FSK → frequency
c. PSK → phase
d. QAM → amplitude and phase

Q2-27. Which of the three multiplexing techniques are used to combine analog signals?

Answer: FDM (Frequency-Division Multiplexing) is used to combine analog signals.

Q2-28. Define synchronous TDM, and compare it with statistical TDM.

Answer:

 Synchronous TDM: Each input line gets a fixed time slot, even if it has no data.

 Statistical TDM: Time slots are assigned dynamically only to lines with data.
Comparison: Statistical TDM is more efficient because it avoids empty slots.

Q2-29. What is the position of the transmission media in the TCP/IP protocol suite?

Answer: Transmission media are located below the physical layer, supporting the network as the
underlying hardware.

Q2-30. Name the two major categories of transmission media.

Answer:

1. Guided media

2. Unguided media

Q2-31. What are the three major classes of guided media?

Answer:

1. Twisted-pair cable

2. Coaxial cable

3. Fiber-optic cable

Q2-32. What is the purpose of cladding in an optical fiber?

Answer:
To keep light inside the core through total internal reflection and protect the fiber.

Q2-33. Describe how omnidirectional waves are propagated.

Answer:
They radiate in all directions from the antenna, spreading outward uniformly.

Q2-34. List three techniques of digital-to-digital conversion.

Answer:

1. Line coding

2. Block coding

3. Scrambling

Q2-35. Distinguish between a signal element and a data element.

Answer:

 Data element: The smallest unit of information (bit).

 Signal element: The shortest unit of a signal that represents one or more data bits.

Q2-36. Characteristics changed in digital-to-analog conversions

a. ASK → amplitude
b. FSK → frequency
c. PSK → phase
d. QAM → amplitude and phase

Q2-37. Which digital-to-analog technique is most susceptible to noise?

Answer: ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying)

Reason: Noise affects amplitude more easily than frequency or phase.

Q2-38. Define analog-to-analog conversion.

Answer:
Converting a low-pass analog signal (voice/data) to a bandpass analog signal using modulation (AM,
FM, PM).

Q2-39. Characteristics changed in analog-to-analog conversions

a. AM → amplitude
b. FM → frequency
c. PM → phase

Q2-40. Which analog-to-analog technique is most susceptible to noise? Defend.

Answer: AM
Because noise mainly affects the amplitude of the signal, and AM varies amplitude.

Q2-41. Describe the goals of multiplexing.

Answer:
To share a channel efficiently by combining multiple signals, increasing capacity, speed, and cost-
effectiveness.

Q2-42. List the three main multiplexing techniques.

Answer:

1. FDM

2. TDM

3. WDM

Q2-43. Which multiplexing techniques combine analog or digital signals?

Answer:
  Analog signals: FDM

 Digital signals: TDM

 Optical signals: WDM

Q2-44. Name the two major categories of transmission media.

Answer:

1. Guided

2. Unguided

Q2-45. How do guided media differ from unguided media?

Answer:

 Guided: Signals travel in a physical path (cables).

 Unguided: Signals travel through air, using wireless propagation.

Q2-46. What are the three major classes of guided media?

Answer:

1. Twisted-pair

2. Coaxial

3. Fiber-optic

Q2-47. What is the significance of the twisting in twisted-pair cable?

Answer:
Twisting reduces electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk.

Q2-48. What is refraction? What is reflection?

Answer:

 Refraction: Bending of a wave when it passes between different mediums.

 Reflection: Wave bouncing back from a surface.

Q2-49. Advantages of fiber-optic cable over twisted-pair and coaxial

Answer:
  Higher bandwidth

 No electromagnetic interference

 Long-distance transmission

 Light weight

 Very secure

Q2-50. Difference between omnidirectional and unidirectional waves

Answer:

 Omnidirectional: Radiates in all directions.

 Unidirectional: Radiates in one specific direction.