CHM 101: Introductory Chemistry I

INTRODUCTION:

What is Chemistry?

It is the study of Matter

Chemistry is the science that deals with the characteristics properties of a substance
that can be measured and the changes it undergoes.

Chemistry is largely an experimental science that deals with things that can be
measured.

What is measurement?

Measurement is the comparison of a physical quantity with a unit (of measurement)

or a standard.

A complete measurement is made up of three parts namely: (1). Figure (2) Unit
and (3). Uncertainty

UNITS

For measurement in the laboratory, S.I. units are adopted and there are a number of
common devices available for measurement.

Note: No measurement is complete without a unit.

Examples of units and what they are used for:

Basic Quantity Device Unit Symbol

Length Meter Rule Metre m
Mass Chemical balance Kilogram kg
Weight Spring Balance Newton N
Electric current Ammeter ampere A
Time Stop clock, watch Second s
Temperature Thermometer Kelvin K
Degree Celcius ˚C

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Some Quantities are formed from basic quantities and they are measured with
derived units

Volume Volumetric flask, Burette, Centimeter cube cm3

Pipette, Measuring
cylinder
Area Square of length squared metre m2
Concentration Molar; Moles/Volume M,
mole/dm3
Density Mass/Volume g/cm3
Pressure Force/unit area kg/(m.s2)

One advantage of S.I. Unit if that it is a decimal system

Name of a fraction or multiple of a unit

The larger or smaller unit for a quantity is indicated by a prefix.

Prefix is added to a base unit to indicate the number of multiplicity. e.g.

Prefix Multiplicity Symbol

Kilo 103 k

Mega 106 M

Giga 109 G

deci 10-1 d

Centi- 10-2 c

milli 10-3 m

Micro 10-6 µ

nano 10-9 n

pico 10-12 p

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 Figures
Significant Figures: The number of digits reported for the value of a measurement
or calculated.

The numbers recorded in a measurement are called significant figures.

Example: 1.86kg = 3 s.f. 35.639 = 5 s.f.

Rules for counting significant figures:

1. All non-zero integers are counted as significant figures: e.g. 1457, 9.12, ….

All digits are significant except zeros at the beginning of the number.

2. Zeros: (a) All leading zeros i.e. zeros that precede all the non-zero digits are
not significant, so they are not counted. 9.12; 0.912; 0.00192, all are 3 s.f.

(b) Captive Zeros: These are zeros that fall between non-zero digits. They
are always counted as significant figures. e.g. 1.008 has 4 s.f.

(c) Zeros at the right end of a number may or may not be significant. They
are significant if the number is written with a decimal point

100 = 1 s.f.; 9.00 = 3 s.f. 100. = 3 s.f.

3. Exact numbers – Numbers obtained by counting. They are not obtained by

measuring device. e.g. 10 experiments, 1 in = 2.54 cm. They are assumed to
have unlimited number of significant figures

Counting of significant figures:

0.01080 g of vit.C 0.0050060 g of Hair 100 riders

Scientific notation:

This is the representation of a number in the form of A x 10m.

e.g. 900 = 9 x 102 5.030 x 103 ft.

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 Use of Significant figures in calculation

1. For Multiplication and Division

The number of significant figures in the result must be the same as the
number of significant figure in the measurement with the least number of
significant figures:

e.g. 4.56 x 1.4 = 6.384 =➔ 6.4 - 2 s.f.

= 0.0279027 => 0.0279 or 2.79 x 10-2

2. In addition and subtraction.

Use the number of decimal places in calculation. The answer should contain
the number of decimal places as the figure with the least number of decimal
places.

e.g. 12.11 + 18.0 + 1.013 = 31.123 => 31.1 to 1 decimal place

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 UNCERTAINTIES IN MEASUREMENT

If a particular measurement is repeated, you may not obtain precisely the same
result because each measurement is subject to experimental error.

If you perform a series of identical measurements of a quantity, the closeness of a

set of values obtained is termed Precision.

e.g. titre value: 25.05, 25.10, 25.00, 25.01, 24.95, 25.90.

Accuracy: is the closeness of a single measurement to its true value.

Errors in Measurement

Repetitions of a scientific measurement under controlled condition generally do not

give identical results.

Deviation from the correct value is termed errors in measurement.

Measurements are accompanied by two kinds of errors:

1. Determinate errors – also called Systematic errors: These vary from one
measurement to another. They are due to biases in the measuring procedures

They can be accounted for or minimized.

2. Indeterminate Errors – also called Random Errors. These are caused by

variability inherent in the process of making measurements.

Features of Determinate and Indeterminate errors

Determinate Errors Indeterminate Errors

1. Sources of error can be traced or Sources of error cannot be traced or
determined determined
2. Errors can be avoided or The error cannot be avoided
compensated for
3. The error is either constant or The errors are random (i.e. small
systematic and therefore difference) and are not predictable.
predictable

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 Minimisation of Determinate Error
The following methods can be used to minimize determinate errors.
1. Calibration of apparatus and application of corrections
2. Running of a blank determination
3. Running of a control determination
4. Use of independent method of analysis
5. Running parallel determinations
6. Use of standard addition techniques
7. Use of internal standard techniques
8. Isotopic dilution

Estimation of Errors
In a set of measurements, deviations from true value or accepted value can be
obtained.

In the absence of a true value, an average (mean) value of the measurements is

taken as the accepted value.

Example: For measurement values: x1, x2, x3, …….

Mean = =

Deviation = Xi -

Absolute Deviation: =

Mean (Average) Deviation: =

Example:

A student took measurement of a sample and obtained the following results:

X = 8.58g, 8.57, 8.59, 8.56, 8.55, 8.58, 8.57, 8.59, 8.57, 8.54.

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 = = 8.57

Calculate the standard deviation of the measurement.

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xi Deviation

8.58 0.01 0.0001

8.57 0.00 0.00

8.59 0.02 0.0004

8.56 0.01 0.0001

8.55 0.01 0.0004

8.58 0.01 0.0001

8.57 0.00 0.00

8.59 0.02 0.0004

8.57 0.00 0.00

8.54 0.03 0.0009

85.70 0.0024

Standard Deviation = s = √[ ] for N < 30

= √[ ] = √0.000266667

= 0.0163299418

When N >= 30, s = √[ ]

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Therefore, = 8.54 ± 0.016 to 3 s.f.

Relative Standard Deviation = R.S.D. =

Percentage Relative Standard Deviation = x 100

RULES FOR COMBINATION OF ERRORS

Maximum errors (E) and standard errors (Δ) each has different rules for
combination.

Case 1. For Addition and Subtraction.

Z =A + B - C

Maximum Error in Z is given by: The addition of individual errors in the

measurement.

EZ = EA + EB + EC

Standard Error in Z (ΔZ) is given by:

(ΔZ)2 = (ΔA)2 + (ΔB)2 + (ΔC)2

ΔZ = √{(ΔA)2 + (ΔB)2 + (ΔC)2}

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Case 2: Multiplication and Division

Z =

Maximum Error in Z = EZ is given by:

= + +

EZ = Z{ + + }

Standard Error in Z = ΔZ

( )2 = ( )2 + ( )2 + ( )2

ΔZ = Z√{( )2 + ( )2 + ( )2}

Case 3: Products, Quotients and Power.

Maximum Error in Z = Ez

= + +

Ez = Z( + + )

Standard Error in Z = ΔZ

( )2 = m2( )2 + n2( )2 + p2( )2

ΔZ = Z√{ m2( )2 + n2( )2 + p2( )2}

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