E.

F KACHULE
Likuni Boys Secondary School
P.O. Box 50
Likuni
Lilongwe, MALAWI

Phone: 09 934 423 / 08 391 913

Email: ekachule@[Link]
amphunzitsi@[Link]

© Kachule 2008

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing
of the author or expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate
reprographics rights organization. It is illegal to have this publication photocopied
 MODULAR NOTES
FOR MSCE
PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

This modular notes book has been designed to simplify the understanding of some topics
covered at MSCE Physical Science syllabus level. Students are encouraged to work extra
hard in Physical Science if they are to enroll for most of the courses at University and other
tertiary levels.

Time has now come when learners have to clear the mentality that Physical Science is a
difficult subject (is there any subject which is simpler?). Learners need to have a positive
attitude towards Physical Science and they should also understand that failing is part of
learning (but don’t try to fail your examinations).

The skills that one can attain during the learning of physical science can be used as a
stepping stone towards development of such skills as:
1. Food processing (e.g. jam and juice making, drying fruits, yoghurt making etc)
2. Radio repairing
3. Farming
4. Water harvesting and building of dams.
5. Performing stage magic tricks

There is a misconception that Physical Science have to be taught where there is a laboratory,
this may not be true in some areas such as most community day secondary schools and even
other schools. There are some experiments which can be carried out in simple environment
and the results can be the same as those carried in standard laboratories: such experiments as
those involving the pendulum, electricity, forces etc can be carried out using simple
improvised apparatus. Teachers are therefore encouraged to be very innovative and assist
their students to have a hands on experience in some of these experiments (seeing is
believing). Students attempting the MSCE national examination should be given a chance to
have a practical experience before they sit for their examination.

The setting of MSCE examination is as follows:

1. Paper I – 2½ hours Theory paper (150 marks), with eight extended questions which
most of the time cover more than 10 pages. Is written after Paper II
- The candidate uses the same question paper as an answer book
- Some questions involve mathematical calculations and use of scientific formulae.

2
 - The paper basically covers all the topics (Std1 to Form 4 – since Malawi school
starts from std 1)
- May also involve one or two essay questions which are supposed to be answered
scientifically (using sound knowledge of scientific investigation reporting and
arguments).
- This paper constitutes 75% of the final mark for Physical Science

2. Paper II – 2 hr Practical Paper (50 marks), with four questions (two Chemistry and
two Physics). It is the first to be written.
- Two experiment questions (1 hour), one Chemistry and one Physics
- Two theory questions (1 hour), one Chemistry and one Physics.
- Some questions may involve plotting of graphs.
- Some questions may also involve mathematical calculations and use of scientific
formulae.
- There is need to get composed when carrying out the experiments and a candidate
is encouraged to go through the Form 1 topic – Scientific Investigation – before
tackling the practical paper.
- This paper constitutes 25% of the final grade

Below is a table that shows the requirements for entry into the University of Malawi. It will
be observed that most of the courses require at least a credit in Physical Science and
Mathematics

Students are therefore asked to work extra hard if they are to secure a place in the University
of Malawi colleges.

In the quest to help the Malawi learners improve in Physical Science, the author and his team
have developed other materials apart from this module and these are:

1. MSCE – A guide to Physical Science experiments (a handbook for science teachers,

students and laboratory assistants)
2. Science Kits – which enable a learner to conduct some experiments under very
friendly environments and ease. (simplifying the laboratory atmosphere while
adhering to laboratory safety)

ENTRY QUALIFICATIONS FOR UNIVERSITY OF MALAWI

PROGRAMME / Durati Entry Requirements

COLLEGE on
A POLYTECHNIC
(i) Faculty of Commerce
1 Bachelor of Commerce / 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including
Bachelor English and Mathematics.
Of Business Administration
(ii) Faculty of Engineering

3
2 Bachelor of Science in 5 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including
Civil/Electrical/Mechanical English and Mathematics and Physical
Engineering Science/General Science

3 Bachelor of Science in 5 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including

Architecture English and Mathematics and Physical
Science/General Science

(iii) Faculty of Applied

Science
4 Bachelor of Science in 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including
Information Technology English and Mathematics and Physical
Science/General Science

5 Bachelor of Science in 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including

Environmental Science and English and Mathematics and Physical
Technology Science/General Science

6 Bachelor of Science in 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including

Environmental Health English and Mathematics and Physical
Science/General Science

7 Bachelor of Science in 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including

Mathematical Science English and Mathematics and Physical
Education Science/General Science and Biology

8 Bachelor of Science in 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including

Business Information Systems English and Mathematics and Physical
Science/General Science

(iv)Faculty of Education and

Media Studies
9 Bachelor of Education 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including
(Technical) English and Mathematics and Physical
Science/General Science. Candidates
with credits in Technical Drawing with
either Wood Work or Metal Work will
have an added advantage

1 Bachelor of Arts (Journalism) 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including

0 English and Mathematics

1 Bachelor of Education 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including

1 (Business Studies) English and Mathematics
4
B CHANCELLOR COLLEGE
(i)Faculty of Science
1 Bachelor of Science 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including
English and Mathematics, Biology and
Physical Science/General Science

(ii)Faculty of Science
2 Bachelor of Arts 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including
English plus any other two humanities
subjects e.g. another language, History or
Geography.
3 Bachelor of Arts (Theology) 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including
English plus any other two humanities
subjects e.g. another language , History or
Geography

4 Bachelor of Arts (Media for 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including
Development) English plus any other two humanities
subjects e.g. another language , History or
Geography

(iii)Faculty of Social Science

5 Bachelor of Social Science 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including
English and Mathematics

6 Bachelor of Arts Public 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including

Administration English and Mathematics

7 Bachelor of Arts Political 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including

Science English and Mathematics
(iv)Faculty of Education
8 Bachelor of Education 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including
(Humanities) English plus any other two humanities
subjects e.g. another language , Bible
Knowledge, History or Geography

9 Bachelor of Education 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including

(Science) English and Mathematics and Physical
Science/General Science and Biology
C BUNDA COLLEGE OF
AGRICULTURE
(i)Faculty of Agriculture
1 Bachelor of Science 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including
Agriculture English and
5
 Mathematics and Physical
Science/General Science and Biology or
any other of the following subjects in
order of priority Geography, Home
Economics, Cookery and Nutrition

2 Bachelor of Science in 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including

Irrigation Engineering English and Mathematics and Physical
Science/General Science and Biology or
any other of the following subjects in
order of priority Geography, Home
Economics, Cookery and Nutrition

(ii)Faculty of Development
Studies
3 Bachelor of Science in 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including
Agriculture Management English and Mathematics and Physical
Science/General Science and Biology or
any other of the following subjects in
order of priority Geography, Home
Economics, Cookery and Nutrition

4 Bachelor of Science in 4 years Same as above

Agricultural Education
(iii)Faculty of Environmental
Sciences
5 Bachelor of Science in 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including
Aquaculture and fisheries English and Mathematics and Physical
Science Science/General Science and Biology
6 Bachelor of Science in 4 years Same as above
Forestry
7 Bachelor of Science in Natural 4 years Same as above
Resources Management
8 Bachelor of Science in 4 years Same as above
Environmental Sciences
9 Bachelor of Science in 4 years Same as above
Horticulture
D KAMUZU COLLEGE OF
NURSING
(i)Faculty of Nursing
1 Bachelor of Science (Nursing) 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including
English and Mathematics and Physical
Science/General Science and Biology.
Candidates will be required to undergo an
6
 interview

E COLLEGE OF MEDICINE
1 Bachelor of Science Medical 4 years Six MSCE/O – level credits including
Laboratory English and Mathematics or three A –
Technology Level passes with a grade of at least C in
Chemistry and Biology and any Science
subject(s) e.g. Physics and Mathematics

Chapter 1

OSCILLATION AND WAVES

In this topic the following will be covered

1. Oscillations
i. meaning and characteristics of oscillations
ii. factors affecting an oscillating system

2. Waves
i. meaning of waves
ii. wave velocity 7

iii. characteristics of waves

1. OSCILLATIONS

1.1 Meaning
Oscillations are repeatedly to and fro movements of any object about a fixed
point (vibration are a form of oscillations).

Examples of oscillations are In all these examples there are

common features. What are
- swing they? State two or more.
- pendulum

8
- see saw
- shock absorbers
Discuss any two types of spring
- spring movements movements that you know.

Now let us discuss the following examples of oscillating systems in details:

a. A vibrating spiral spring

Figure 1. Vibrating Spring

b. A vibrating pendulum

Figure 2. Vibrating pendulum

c. A vibrating cantilever

Figure 3. Vibrating cantilever

Note that in all the three examples:
i. x is the amplitude of the swing
ii. a and c are extreme positions of the swing
iii. b is the equilibrium (rest) position
iv. In an oscillating system, there is some potential energy, P.E. being
transferred (changed) to kinetic energy, K.E.
v. As the P.E decreases K.E also decreases until when there is nett zero P.E,
then the object will be at equilibrium (state of balanced forces.

9
1.2 Characteristics of oscillating systems
i. Amplitude – is the maximum displacement from the equilibrium
position. Measured in mm, cm or m.

ii. Displacement – is the distance from the equilibrium position

iii. Period (T) - time taken to go through one complete cycle and is measured
in seconds. E.g. in the example of a pendulum above, period is the time it
takes the bob to move from a through b to c and back to a.

iv. Frequency (f) – the number of complete cycles per second made by an
oscillating object. Measured in Hertz (Hz)

F = 1 and T = 1
T f
Example:
If a pendulum takes 25 seconds to complete 10 cycles exactly, what is the
period and frequency of the oscillating pendulum?

Period, T = Time taken = 25 = 2.5 seconds

Number of cycles 10

Frequency, f = 1 = 1 = 0.4 Hz
T 2.5

1.3 Factors affecting an oscillating system

For the oscillating systems discussed above the following are the factors that
them:

(a) Spiral Spring

i. mass on spring
ii. material of spring
iii. length of spring
(b) Pendulum
i. length of pendulum rope
ii. material of pendulum rope
iii. mass of pendulum bob

(c) Cantilever
i. mass on cantilever
ii. material of cantilever
iii. length of cantilever
10
2. WAVES
2.1 Definition.
A wave is a disturbance which carries energy from one place to another without
transferring matter.

Wave velocity, v, is the speed at which the wave moves through the medium.
Wave velocity is measured in mm/s, cm/s, m/s.

2.2 Characteristics of Waves

Figure 4: Characteristics of a wave

(a) Frequency (f) – number of complete cycles per second. Measured in

Hertz(Hz)

(b) Amplitude (x) – the maximum displacement from equilibrium position.

Measured mm, cm m.

(c) Period (T) – Time taken for one complete cycle of the wave. Measured in
seconds.

(d) Wavelength (λ, pronounced Lambda) – the length of one complete wave
(cycle). Measured in mm, cm, m. E.g. In the figure 4 above, the wavelength
can be measured between a and e or b and f
(e) Displacement – distance from equilibrium to above or below it (Note that
displacement is a vector quantity and it needs to have magnitude and
direction). Displacement is measured in mm, cm ,m.

(f) Wave velocity (as explained on page 4)

2.3 Types of Waves

(a) Transverse Waves

11
 A transverse wave is one in which particles of the wave medium move at
right angles (up and down) to the direction of motion of the wave and the
disturbances are at right angles to the wave direction.

Figure 5: Transverse Wave

Examples of transverse waves:

i. water waves
ii. electromagnetic waves (waves produced by an alternating current source
– AC source)
iii. slinky spring waves – when subjected to a quick flick at one end up and
down.

Producing a transverse wave in water

i. Initially

Figure 6: Transverse Wave production (Part 1)

ii. A little later

Figure 7: Transverse Wave production (Part 2)

12
 Thus the original energy of the moving stone has been transferred to the cork
by the wave motion on the water surface.

Energy in the Energy carried by Energy in

moving stone the wave the bobbing
(Kinetic – KE) (Kinetic and cork
Potential) (Kinetic –
KE)

(b) Longitudinal Waves

This is a wave in which the disturbances are parallel to the line of the wave
direction and the particles vibrate to and fro along the line in which the wave
is traveling (wave direction)

Producing a longitudinal wave:

i. Initially

Figure 8: Longitudinal Wave (Part 1)

ii. A little later

Figure 9: Longitudinal Wave production (Part 2)

Examples of longitudinal waves:

i. sound waves
ii. to and from movement of a slinky spring.
13
 Producing longitudinal waves using tuning fork

Figure 10: Transverse Wave production (Part 3)

Longitudinal wave can also be likened to locomotive train shunting or stopping

(halting).

Differences between Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

Transverse Waves Longitudinal Waves

Disturbances are at right angles Disturbances are parallel to
to the direction of the motion the line of the wave motion
of the wave
Particles of the wave move up Particles of the wave move to
and down and fro

2.4 Wave Description

Figure 11: Description of a transverse wave

2.5 Properties of waves

i. Refraction
Shallow regions have shorter wavelengths than those in deep parts.
14
 Figure 12: Water wave refraction

ii. Diffraction
This is the spreading of waves at the edges of obstacles. The bending of waves
as they pass around obstacles.

Figure 13: Wave diffraction

iii. Interference (superposition)

This is the combination of waves to give either a larger or smaller wave
(a) Constructive Interference – the waves are in phase. Two waves reinforce
one another’s effect

Figure 14: Constructive interference

(b) Destructive Interference – the waves cancel one another’s effect.

Figure 15: Destructive interference

iv. Reflection
Water waves are reflected when an obstacle is placed in their path.

15
 Figure 16: Wave reflection

v. Polarization
Occurs only with transverse waves.

Figure 17: Wave polarization

- BC is said to be plane polarized through the slit at B.

- AB is impolarized.
- CD, the wave is stopped and the slits are said to be crossed.

2.6 Wave Equation

Speed of the wave = Frequency x wavelength

V= fλ

Thus for a wave with constant frequency, velocity is directly proportional to

wavelength.

SUMMARY
1. Oscillations
 Oscillations are to and fro movements of any object about a fixed point.
 Characteristics of an oscillating system are
- Displacement
- Amplitude
16
 - Period
- Frequency
 Factors affecting an oscillating system (for a spiral spring, pendulum and
cantilever) are:
- mass
- material
- length
 Periodic time of an oscillating pendulum is proportional to the square root
of the length of the pendulum:
T α √ℓ
2. Waves
 A wave is a disturbance which carries energy from one place to another
without transferring matter
 Wave velocity, v, is the speed at which a wave moves through a medium.
Wave velocity is measured in mm/s, cm/s, m/s.
 Characteristics of a wave
- Frequency
- Amplitude
- Period
- Wavelength
- Displacement
 Types of waves
- Transverse wave = particles of the wave medium move up and down and
the disturbances are at right angles to the wave direction
- Longitudinal wave = particles of the wave medium move to and fro and
the disturbances are parallel to the wave direction.
 Properties of waves
- Reflection
- Diffraction
- Interference
 constructive interference
 destructive interference
- Reflection
- Polarization
 Wave equation
Wave velocity = frequency x wavelength.

17
3 LIGHT

Optics is the study of light and any other instruments that use light in their operation. These
types of instruments are called optical instruments and the following are some of the
examples of optical instruments:

i. camera
ii. projector
iii. telescope
iv. lenses
v. microscope
vi. eye
vii. binoculars

3.1. LENSES

Lenses are used in spectacles (eye glasses), cameras, telescopes, microscopes etc.

When light rays strike a lens, they tend to bend and this is called refraction. Refraction takes
place when light passes through mediums of different densities. Some of the light energy is
absorbed while some is transmitted.

Examples and kinds of lenses

Concave lens Convex lens Biconvex Plano-convex

Convex meniscus

Figure 18: Lenses

Terminologies used in discussing lenses.

(i) Principal Focus (F) – a point on the principal axis which measures one focal
length.

(ii) Focal point – a point where all the rays intersect. This point can be on either
side of the lens

(iii) Principal Axis- an imaginary line through the optical centre of the lens and
perpendicular to the focal plane.
18
 (iv) Focal plane – an imaginary plane perpendicular to the principal axis.

(v) Focal length (f) – the distance from the optical centre to the Principal Focus
(F). It is measured in mm, cm.

(vi) Optical centre (C) – a point indicating the centre of the lens. Crossing point
of the Principal Axis and the focal plane of the lens.

(vii) Object distance (u) - distance between the object and the optical centre. It is
measured in mm, cm

(viii) Image distance (v) – distance between the image and the optical centre. It is
measured in mm, cm.
(ix) Light ray – an imaginary straight line indicating the path of light.

Note: A collection of light rays all moving together is called a beam.

3.1.1 Types of Lenses

(a) Concave (diverging) lenses

Figure 19: Concave lens

Concave lenses have the following properties:

- Tends to diverge (scatter) the light rays.
- Thicker at the edge and thinner at the centre
- Produces a virtual image

(b) Convex (converging) lenses

Figure 20: Convex lens.

Convex lenses have the following properties:

19
 - Tends to converge (collect to one point) the light rays.
- Thinner at the edge and thicker at the centre
- Normally produces a real image

A real image is an image that can be cast on a screen.

A virtual image is an image that can not be cast on a screen.

3.1.2 Image Formation

Light ray diagrams are normally used in explaining image formation. i.e. you don’t have
to draw the actual lens. The lens is usually represented by represented by a straight line as
long as you know what type of lens you are using.

An object is a real thing while an image is a “picture” of a real thing. Ray diagrams show
how images are formed.
Key rays used in image formation
For both convex and concave lenses, three key rays are needed to locate the image
position and size:

1. A ray that passes through the centre of the lens and goes through without being
refracted.
2. A ray parallel to the principal axis which is refracted so as to pass through the
Principal Focus.
3. A ray that passes through the Principal Focus which is refracted so as to be parallel to
the Principal Axis.

Figure 21: Image formation using a convex lens.

Figure 22: Image formation using a concave lens

20
 3.1.3 Image Characteristics

There are always three qualitative (descriptive) characteristics that describe the image.
An image is either:
(a) Real or virtual (imaginary). Example of real images are cinema picture
and an example of a virtual image is shadow.

(b) Magnified (larger than) or diminished (smaller than) the object.

A magnified image is the one that is bigger than the object from which
it is formed.
A diminished image is the one that is smaller than the object.

(c) Erect (upright) or inverted (upside down)

An erect image always points in the same direction as the object.
An inverted image points in the opposite direction to the object.

3.1.4 Lens Formula

The lens formula which is applied for converging lenses can be used to solve light ray
diagrams by calculation.
1 1 1 Where:
u v f U = the
object distance
V = the distance
f = the focal length
When using the lens formula, u, v and f MUST have the same units. Attempt to transform
the formula to make the unknown variable subject may only complete the calculation. It is
advisable that when applying the formula, substitute the known variables and that will leave
the unknown variable standing out alone and can be found easily.

NEGATIVE values of f and v means that the image is virtual.

3.1.5 Magnification
The linear magnification is defined as the ratio of the image height h2 over object
height h1, the symbol used is m.

Therefore m = image height = h2

object height h1

Magnification can also be found by

m= v
u

This formula is derived using properties of similar triangles. Recall the knowledge of
similar triangle in mathematics.
21
 Figure 23: Magnification calculation using similar triangles.

Since m is a ratio, it has no units. Only the magnitudes of v and u are used and not
their sign.

Interpretation of the different meanings of m.

Value of m Description of image

m›1 Larger than the object (magnified image)
m=1 Image is the same size as the object
m‹1 Image is smaller than object (diminished
image)

Worked Examples

1. An upright object 6cm long is placed 30cm is front of a converging lens of focal
length 10 cm. Find the position, magnification and size of the image formed.

Solutions
(a) Image distance (position of the image)
u = 30cm f = 10cm

1 1 1 and 1 1 1 and
u v f v f u

1 1 1 and 3 – 1 2
v 10 30 30 30

1 = 2 and v = 30
u 30 2 v = 15cm

(b) Magnification

m = v 15 0.5 m = 0.5
u 30
22
 (c) Image size

m = h2 and h2 = m x h1 = 0.5 x 6 = 3.0cm

h1

Image height = 3.0cm.

2. A convex lens of focal length 60mm has an object paced at a distance of 30mm
from the lens. Find by calculation the position of the image, magnification and
image height.

Solutions
(a) Image distance (v)
f = 60mm, u = 30mm

1 + 1 = 1 and 1 = 1 - 1
u v f v f u

1 = 1 - 1 = 1 - 2 = -1
v 60 30 60 60 60

therefore

v = - 60mm
the negative sign means that the image is virtual. NOTE that the object
distance cannot be negative because it is a distance that is physical and can
be measured (it is always real)

(b) Magnification, m = v / u = 60 / 30 = 2

NOTE that magnification m, is simply a ratio as such it has NO units. When

substituting into the formula m = v/u, only the sizes (magnitudes) of v and u
are used and NOT their signs.

(c) Since the height of the image is not given in the question, we can assume that
it a unit measurement.

Therefore let the image height, h1 = 1.0 cm (1 unit)

But m = h1 / h2 and h2 = m x h1

h2 = 2 x 1 = 2 cm (units)
23
3.2 Image Construction

We are now going to consider different positions of the object and find out the
position of the image using the light rays. Recall that there are three key rays that
are used in establishing the image position.
State the three key rays that we are going to use in our image construction.
i.
ii.
iii.

3.2.1 Object outside 2F

u is greater than v (u › v)

Figure 24

Image characteristics:
- the image is real
- it is diminished
- it is inverted
- m‹1

3.2.2 Object at 2F
The image distance is equal to the object distance. (u = v)

Figure 25

Image characteristics:
- It is real

24
 - Same size as the object
- Inverted
- m=1
3.2.3 Object between F and 2F
Image distance is greater than object distance. (v › u)

Figure 26

Image characteristics:
- It is real
- Bigger than the object (magnified)
- Inverted
- m›1
- If focused on a screen, the image is sharp and clear.

3.2.4 Object at F
The object distance if equal to the focal length.

Figure 27

Image characteristics:
- It is virtual
- Bigger than the object (magnified)
- Upright
- m ›› 1 (magnification is far greater than 1)

This situation is typical of the eye – star situation.

3.2.5 Object between F and the lens

The object distance is less than the focal length (u ‹ f)

25
 Figure 28
Image characteristics:
- It is virtual
- Bigger than the object
- Upright
- m›1
3.3 Optical instruments

Research: Draw a diagram of a simple camera. In your drawing label the following
parts of the camera: aperture stop, shutter, lens, film, iris diaphragm and also
indicate the position of your object.

(a) The Camera

Figure 29: The Camera

Note that some cameras have focusing rings which are used in producing a clear
picture.

Functions of the parts of the camera

1. Aperture stop – an adjustable part that allows more or less light through onto the
film. It is a small hole
2. Shutter – controls the light entering the camera by opening and closing the hole
at different speeds.
3. Iris diaphragm – normally closed, only opened when a picture is being taken.
4. Lens – focuses the light to form an image on the film.

NOTE: this topic does not discuss digital cameras. Can you please give one main
reason why digital cameras are not a typical example of image formation using lenses?

26
Some cameras use flash lights. Discuss the importance of a flush light and when is it
used in photograph taking?

Research on:
- chromatic aberration
- spherical aberration

i. Chromatic aberration:

ii. Spherical aberration:

(b) The Eye

Research any information that you might get about the eye and from your
research please draw and fill in the main parts of the eye. In your labeling of the
eye please show the following: iris, pupil, eye lens, retina, cornea, optical, nerve
and ciliary muscles.

27
 Figure 30: The Eye

Functions of the parts of the eye

1. Iris – controls the amount of light entering the eye. It works like a curtain.
2. Pupil – black central hole through which light enters the eye.
3. Eye lens – focuses the light rays to form an image.
4. Retina – black inner surface that make up a screen where images can be formed.
5. Cornea – tough, transport and protective outer cover to the eye.
6. Optical nerve – passes on the image details to the brain.
7. Ciliary muscles – muscles connected to the eye lens and enables change of shape of
the eye lens.

NOTE: For interest’s sake on one page discuss short sight and long sight eye
defects.

Similarities and differences between the eye and the camera

Eye Camera
1. Convex lens system produces Convex lens system produces a
a real image on the retina real image on the film
2. Light falling on the retina Light falling on the film causes
stimulates cells to send messages chemical changes
to the brain.
3. Iris controls the amount of Aperture rings control the amount
light entering. of light entering.
4. Can focus on objects between Can take sharp photos of objects
least distance of distinct vision at any distance from a few
and infinity centimeters up to infinity
5. To focus the eye, lens changes To focus the lens to film distance
thickness is changed
(c) The Projector

28
 Figure 31: The Projector

The use of the projector is to show slides or a movie film using lens to produce a real
image on a screen.

Functions of the parts of the projector

(i) Concave mirror – reflects light back towards the slide/film.

(ii) Condenser lenses – concentrates more light on the slide/ film
(iii) Diffuser – energy absorbing filter to avoid damaging the film due to excessive
heat.
(iv) Projector lens – produces a real image on the screen.
(v) Lamp – source of light for the projector.

NOTE: the film is between F and 2F for the lens to have a magnified image and the
object is upside down to obtain an upright image (the image is still upside down)

Projector image properties

- bigger than the object
- inverted (but looks upright because the object is inverted)

Object properties
- between F and 2F for the lens
- inverted (the film / slide is placed upside down)

RESEARCH:
Could you please find out more information about the Telescope. In your
research please indicate the main parts of the telescope and also briefly
explain how a telescope operates. Discuss the relationship between the
principal focus of the objective lens and that of the eye piece lens.

Acknowledgement

1. Physics for Today and Tomorrow 2nd Ed, 2004; By Tom Duncan
2. GCSE Physics 4th Edition, 2001; By Tom Duncan and Heather Kennett
3. Understanding Physics for Advanced Level 2nd Ed, 1990; By Jim Breithaupt
4. Physical Science For Malawi 2nd Ed, MSCE Bk2, 1995,; By Keith Wallis

29
 Chapter 2

ELECTRICITY, ELECTROMAGNETIV INDUCTION

This topic will cover the following:

1. Electronic band theory and conducting bands

2. Semiconductors
- examples
- types

3. Diodes
- the diode
- applications
 forward bias
 reverse bias
- Importance and uses

4. Transistors
- the transistor
- parts
 base
 emitter
 collector
- uses

5. Logic circuits
- logic gates
- types of logic gates and their truth tables

30
1. Electronic band theory and conducting bands
Band Theory

The electrons in the shell of an isolated atom have well – defined energies and this
depends on which shell each electron is in.

When atoms join together they vibrate and wobble because they have thermal energy.

The energy levels spread out into bands as shown below:

How conduction is done in different materials:

(a) Metals
- the highest band containing electrons is only partly filled thus electrons in
this band can easily move to unfilled levels further up the band.
- These electrons have broken free from individual atoms and they are able to
move through the material.
- This band is called the conduction band.
- The valence band is immediately below the conduction band. Electrons in
the valence band are firmly attached to individual atoms.

(b) Insulators
- Each band containing electrons is filled completely .
31
 - The highest filled band contains the outer shell electrons which are firmly
held to atoms.
- This band (the valence band) is separated by a gap from the next band up
(the conduction band) which is empty.
- The gap between the two bands is too large for electrons to jump from one
band to another hence no conduction.

(c) Intrinsic semiconductors

- At absolute zero temperature, the band picture is like that of an insulator.
- The energy gap between the two bands is not so large.
- At temperatures above absolute zero, valence electrons gain enough energy
to jump across the gap to become conduction electrons.
- The higher the temperature, the greater the number of electrons which can
jump across the gap.
- An electron jumping across the gap corresponds to the electron breaking
away from an individual atom to become a conduction electron.

2. Semiconductors
Semiconductors are materials whose resistors lies between that of conductors and that
of insulators.

Examples of semiconductor materials

The following elements are examples of semiconductors. Their position in the periodic
table lie between metals and non-metals.

1. Silicon
2. Germanium
3. Gallium

Types of semiconductors
(a) Intrinsic semiconductors
- They occur naturally and they exist as they appear in the periodic table.
- These are semiconductors where conduction takes place by movement of
two types of charge carriers i.e. electrons and holes.

(b) Doped Semiconductors

- They made by adding impurities to the intrinsic material to give a
predominance of either electron (in n – type material) or holes (in p – type
material.

32
- The conductivity of a doped semiconductor is greater than and is less
temperature sensitive than that of intrinsic material up to fairly high
temperatures.
- Intrinsic semiconductors are improved by doping

(i) n – Type Semiconductors

Donor phosphorous atom

Silicon atom

Phosphorous atom

Extra free electron (moves through the crystal)

- If atoms with 5 electrons in their outer shell are added to the crystal they can
provide one spare electron each.
- This is because only 4 electrons are needed to complete the shared bonds
with the 4 neighboring atoms.
- Silicon or germanium doped with pentavalent (elements with 5 electrons in
the outer shell) impurity to give an excess of negative current carriers (i.e.
free electrons)
- Phosphorous, arsenic and antimony are used as donors to dope silicon and
make n – type crystals with “spare” conduction electrons.

(ii) p – Type Semiconductors

Donor aluminium atom

Silicon atom

Phosphorous atom
33
 - semiconductor material is doped with trivalent impurity to give an excess of
positive current carriers (holes/protons)
- If atoms with three electrons in their outer shell are used to dope the crystal,
for each of these atoms it will have 1 electron missing in its structure.
- The missing electrons provide positive holes for conduction.
- Aluminium, gallium and indium are used to provide these positive charge
carriers and make p – type material.

Note:
1. Semiconductors are improved by doping – their conductivity is improved by
the availability of an impurity which will make it have a predominant charge
carrier.
2. Examples of semiconductor devices

- Diode

- Transistor

- Thyristor

- diac

3. Diodes
- the diode
 A diode is a p – n junction semiconductor device that conducts only in a one
way direction, that is when it is forwardly biased.
 A diode conducts when the positive of the diode is connected to the positive
of the battery or when the negative of the diode is connected to the negative
of the battery.
 When the positive of the diode is connected to the negative of the battery or
when the negative of the diode is connected to the positive of the battery,
there is NO conduction.

34
- Applications
 forward bias

The positive of the diode is connected to the battery positive or the negative
of the diode is connected to the battery negative.

The diode conducts. Current flows and in this case the bulb lights up.

 reverse bias

The diode positive is connected to battery negative or the diode negative is

connected to the battery positive.

The diode will NOT conduct. Current DOES NOT flow and in this case the
bulb will not light up.

- Importance and uses

Diodes can be used in the following two main functions:
i. Convert ac to dc

35
 Rectifier

To convert alternating current supply to direct current supply for easy

usage. Direct current (dc) supply is the type of supply that if obtained
from batteries or cells. The dc supply has fixed polarity – positive and
negative.

The current paths are as shown in the diagram above. If four diodes are
used in the rectifier, there is full wave rectification while if two diodes are
used there is half wave rectification.
In a forward biased situation, only the positive part of the ac wave will be
conducted through the diode via the diode positive while the negative part
of the wave is “blocked” since the diode cannot be reverse biased. The
result will be as shown in the illustrations below.

Full wave before Full wave rectified Smoothed full wave

rectification dc without a rectified dc with a
capacitor capacitor

The voltage is ac Rectified dc voltage Smoothed dc when the

and has max + 12V has max +12V and capacitor, C, is added.
and min – 12V min 0V but NOT Larger capacitors
smoothed because smoothes better.
does not have a
smoother
(capacitor)

ii. Light emitting diodes

- These are junction diodes made of gallium arsenide and gallium phosphide.
- They emit light when a forward biased current flows through them.
- Colour of light depends on semiconductor material used.
- Normally a protective resistor is used to limit current to a low and safe value for
an l.e.d

Uses of l.e.d’s
Used in
- Displays e.g. in calculators, digital watches
- In indicators e.g. green or red lights on computer monitors, TV, radios
36
 Protective
Resistor
(180Ω)
5V
l.e.d (forward
biased)

Advantages of l.e.d as indicator lights

- they operate on low current.
- They have low heat production
- Their life span is almost indefinite (they are not easily replaced).

4. Transistors
- the transistor
A transistor is a semiconductor sandwich usually made of silicon.
 a thin layer of p-type silicon sandwiched between two layers of n- type silicon to
form an npn transistor.

n
p
n

 a thin layer of n-type is used between two layers of p-type to form an pnp
transistor.

p
n
p

- parts
There are three leads (legs) connected to the three layers. These are namely.
37
 Emitter
Which emits or sends charge carriers through the thin layer (base)
 Collector
Collects the charge carriers from the thin layer.

 Base
Thin layer to which the charge carriers are sent

pnp transistor npn transistor

The arrow indicates the direction in which conventional current flows through
the transistor when the Collector and Base are connected to the battery positive
and the Emitter to the battery negative.

Current flow in a transistor

There are two current paths through a transistor. One is the base-emitter path
and the other is the collector-emitter (via base) path.
Thus the transistor’s usefulness arises from the fact that it can link circuits
connected to each path so that current in one controls that in the other.

In the circuit diagram above:

(a) when S is open

The base current IB is zero and neither L1 nor L2 lights up showing that the
collector current IC is also zero even though the battery is correctly connected
across the C-E path.

(b) when S is closed

38
 The base is connected through R (10K) to the battery positive (+) and L2
lights up but not L1. This shows that there is now collector current IC (which
passes through L2) and that it is much greater than the base current which
passes through L1, but it is too small to light it up.

Therefore it can be concluded that in a transistor IB switches on and controls

the much greater IC.

The 10K resistor is there to limit the IB which would otherwise create so
large an IC as to destroy the transistor by overheating.

Uses of transistors
(i) as a switch
- an npn transistor is switched off when the input voltage between its base
and emitter is below 0.6V (a low input), the same transistor is switched on
when the input voltage rises above 0.7V ( a high input)

(ii) as a current amplifier (gain)

- Current gain (symbol hFE) = IC/IB

Advantages of transistors as switches

i. they are small
ii. they are cheap
iii. they are reliable
iv. have no moving parts
v. their life is almost indefinite (in well – designed circuits).
vi. They can switch on and off millions of times a second.

5. Logic circuits
logic gates
Logic circuits use gate. Logic gates are switching circuits used in computers and other
electronic systems.
There are five basic types of logic gates and they are all made from transistors in
integrated circuits (IC’s) form. The behaviour of each gate is described in a truth table,
which shows what the output is for all possible inputs. (1- High e.g. 5V and 0- low e.g.
near 0V).
Inputs and Out puts are represented by either 1 or 0 and these notations 1 and 0 are
referred to as logic levels.

Types of logic gates and their truth tables

(a) NOT gate (or Inverter)
39
 - Has one input
- Produces a high output if input is low
- The input is always inverted by the gate
Symbol
Truth Table
Input Output
Input Output
0 1
1 0

(b) OR gate
Symbol Truth Table

A B F
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1
- Inputs are added to get the output
- Output is 1 if input A OR B OR both are 1
- Output is 0 when input A and B are both

(c) NOR gate

Symbol Truth Table
Input
Output
A B F
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 0

- inputs are added up and inverted to get the output

- Output is 1 if neither input A NOR input B is 1.

(d) AND gate

Symbol Truth
Table
Input
Output
A B F
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
40
 1 1 1

- Multiplies inputs to get output

- Output is 1 when input A AND input B are 1

(e) NAND gate

Symbol Truth
Table
Input
Output
A B F
0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0
- Multiplies inputs and inverts output
- Output is 1 when either input A or input B is 0 or both inputs are 0

Research:
1. Get any electronic circuit board (could be that of a radio, computer, etc, and
try to physically identify such components as diodes, transistors, resistors,
IC’s).
2. Explain how you would design a flood alert electronic system that would
warn a village community upstream of rising levels of water. In your design
you can use such a floater, contacts, electromagnetic coil, batteries (or any dc
supply), audible alarm, and any other relevant materials.
3. Explain how you would design an alarm system to protect some treasures
(such as diamond) in a house. The alarm system should operate when the
valuable items are lifted from their normal position.

You may use any other books to conduct the above research or you may discuss with
friends on how you would come up with a working circuit or concept.

REFERENCES:
1. Understanding Physics for Advanced Level, 2nd Ed. By Jim Breithaupt – 1990.
2. Explaining Physics, GCSE Edition by Stephen Pople
3. GCSE Physics 4th Ed By Tom Duncan, Heather Kennett
41
 Chapter 3

CHEMICAL REACTIONS I

1. Chemical equations
Chemical reactions involve the chemical properties of a substance and during the
reaction, these chemical properties change. Chemical changes are different from
physical changes.
Word equation: state
During a chemical reaction, a new substance is formed. the names of the
reactants and the
products.
1.1. Characteristics of a chemical reaction

i. There are reactants and products.

Hydrogen (gas) + Oxygen (gas) Water

Chemical equation:
uses the symbols of
the substances as they
H2 + O2 H2O exist in nature

- hydrogen gas exists as H2 and NOT H. But you can have H existing as H in
other substances.
- Oxygen gas exists as O2
- The reactants are hydrogen and oxygen
- The product is water
42
 ii. One or more new chemical substances are formed.
Reacting hydrogen and oxygen (in the example above) gives out water as a
product.
Thus it is seen that a totally new substance which did not exist in the reactants is
formed.

iii. Total number of atoms involved as reactants is the same as the total number
of atoms involved in the products.
- There is conservation of atoms in such a way that the number and type of
atoms involved as reactants is maintained in the product side (this is
achieved in balancing the equation as you will going to cover in this topic)
- No new atoms are cleared (however new molecules are created)

iv. Energy is taken in or given out during the reaction.

Energy can be taken in or given out during chemical reactions.

v. The change is usually difficult to reverse

- To return to the original reactants may require another chemical reaction
(with an exception of reversible equations).
- You may not necessarily return to the exact quantities.

Let us consider these examples:

1. When maize is taken to a mill to be ground, it turns into flour. This is a physical change.
Only the physical properties of the maize are changed.
2. When the flour is added to water in the presence of heat, nsima is produced. This is a
chemical change.

Maize flour + Water Nsima

Heat
Maize flour and water are the reactants and sigma is the product. Sigma is
a totally new product.
3. Heat is used as a catalyst.

How to write the equation for a reaction

The following are the steps that are to be followed when writing a chemical equation
i. Write the word equation.
43
 ii. Then write the equation using chemical symbols and make sure all the formulae
are correct.
iii. Check that the equation is balanced. i.e. number of each atom in turn must be
equal both in the reactants and product sides. (Note: Do not change any formula
otherwise you may end up changing the name of the substance).
iv. Add the state symbols of your reactants and products (in what state are they?).
The state symbols used are :
 Liquid (l)
 Solid (s)
 Gas (g)
 Aqueous (aq)

Examples
(a) Calcium burns in chlorine to form calcium chloride, a solid. Write an equation for
this reaction.

1. Write the word equation.

Calcium + Chlorine calcium chloride

2. Write the equation using symbols

Ca + Cl2 Ca Cl2
3. Balance the number of atoms

Atom LHS RHS

Ca 1 1
Cl 2 2

Ca: 1 atom on the left and one atom on the right.

Cl: 2 atoms on the left and 2 atoms on the right
Therefore the number is balanced hence the equation is balanced.

4. Ca (s) + Cl2 (g) Ca Cl2 (s)

(b) In industry, hydrogen chloride is formed by burning hydrogen in chlorine. Write an

equation for this reaction.

1. Hydrogen + chlorine hydrogen chloride

2. H2 + Cl2 HCl

3. H: 2 atoms on the left and 1 atom on the right.

Cl: 2 atoms on the left and one atom on the right.
Equation is NOT balanced. There is need for another molecule of HCl on the
right side

44
 H2 + Cl2 2HCl
The equation is now balanced.

4. H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) 2HCl (g)

You may try some examples from different books. We will discuss more as we go
along in this topic.

2. Units of measurements

One mole of a substance is an amount that is obtained by weighing out the RAM
(Relative Atomic Mass) of RFM (Relative Formula Mass) of the substance in grams.
One mole of any substance contains 6.02 x 10 23 particles (or molecules or atoms or
ions) of the substance. The number 6.02 x 1023 is called the Avogadro’s number.

The Avogadro Number is the same number of carbon atoms contained in exactly 12
grams of the Carbon – 12 isotope. Its value is 6.02 x 1023

Thus to find the mass of a mole of a substance;

i. write down the symbol or formula of the substance
ii. find out its RAM or RFM.
iii. Express that mass in grams.

For example:

i. 1 mole of Helium (He):

RAM of He = 4
Therefore 1 mole of He is 4 grams

ii. 1 mole of Oxygen (O2):

RAM of O = 16
Since there are 2 Oxygen atoms, RFM of O2 = 2 x 16 = 32
Therefore 1 mole of Oxygen is 32 grams

iii. 1 mole of Ethanol (C2H5OH)

RAM’s: C = 12, H = 1, O = 16. There are 2 C, 1 O and 6 H
RFM of C2H5OH = (2 x 12) + (1 x 16) + (6 x 1) = 24 + 16 + 6 = 46
Therefore 1 mole of C2H5OH is 46 grams.

Note that a beam balance is used to measure mass.

45
 Then the following formula can be used to determine the number of moles of a
substance from a given mass.
Number of moles = mass of substance
mass of 1 mole of the substance

We can as well use the following mole conversion calculations:

Number of moles of an atom (N) = mass of substance in grams

Relative Atomic Mass in grams

Number of moles of molecules (N) = mass of substance in grams

Relative Formula Mass in grams

Number of moles of molecules (N) = mass of substance in grams

Relative Molecular Mass in grams

Number of moles of an particles (N) = Number of particles

Avogadro Number

Example:

1. How many moles of oxygen molecules are there in 64 grams of oxygen, O2.
RFM of oxygen gas = 32
So 32 grams of oxygen = 1 mole of oxygen
Number of moles = mass
Mass of 1 mole

= 64g = 2 moles
32g

2. Calculate the number of moles of magnesium oxide MgO in

(a) 80g (b) 10g of the compound. (RAM: Mg = 24; O = 16)

Solution: In MgO there is 1 atom

of Mg and 1 atom of O

(a) In 80g
Number of moles = Mass of MgO
RFM of MgO

RFM of MgO = (RAM of Mg + RAM of O) = (1x 24) + (1 x 16) = 40g

Therefore Number of Moles = 80/40 = 2 moles

46
 (b) In 10g
Number of moles = Mass of MgO
RFM of MgO

= 10/40 = 0.25 moles

3. Empirical Formula and Molecular formula

Empirical formula is the simplest form of a chemical formula that shows the lowest
ratio of the atoms that make up the compound.

Molecular formula of a substance shows the actual number of atoms of each element
present. The molecular formula may be any multiple of the empirical formula.

Example:

(a) If 0.24g of magnesium burns in 0.16g of oxygen to form magnesium oxide. Work
out the empirical formula of magnesium oxide

Number of moles of Mg = mass of Mg/ RAM of Mg = 0.24/24 = 0.01 moles

Number of moles of O = mass of O / RAM of O = 0.16 / 16 = 0.01 moles

Multiply by 10 on each quantity will give us
- 1 mole of Mg
- 1 mole of O
Therefore the simplest formula of Magnesium oxide is MgO (1 Mole of Mg and 1
mole of O)

(b) Let us now with an unknown compound:

Calculate the empirical formula of an organic compound containing 92.3% carbon
and 7.7% hydrogen by mass. The RFM of the compound is 78. What is its
molecular formula? (RAM: C = 12, H =1)

Solution:
C C
% by mass 92.3 7.7
In 100g 92.3 g 7.7 g
No. of moles 92.3 / 12 7.7 / 1
= 7.7 = 7.7
Ratio of moles 1 1
(obtained by dividing by 7.7 on
each side)
Empirical formula = CH
47
 RFM of the empirical formula unit CH = (1 x 12) + (1 x 1) = 13
Considering that the RFM of the compound is 78,

Number of Empirical Formula = RFM of the compound

Units present RFM of the empirical formula unit

Therefore number of empirical formula units = 78 / 13 = 6

And the molecular formula of the organic is 6 x CH = C6H6.

This substance is benzene.

Calculations on composition

The following procedure can be followed to calculate percentage of an element in a

compound.
(i) Write down the molecular formula of the compound
(ii) Using a list of RAM’s, work out its formula mass (RFM)
(iii) Write the mass of the element you want, as a fraction of the total (RFM)
(iv) Multiply the fraction by 100, to give a percentage.

In the example of benzene above, calculate the percentage composition of carbon

- the molecular formula of benzene is C6H6.

- RFM of benzene = (6 x 12) + (6 x 1) = 78
- The mass of carbon in the formula = 72
- The composition by percentage of carbon = 72/78 x 100% = 92.3%

Therefore the percentage composition of carbon in benzene is 92.3%

4. Concentration / Molarity

Moles and gases

- Gases are always light therefore when measuring, volume of the gas is
considered rather than its mass.
- Thus one mole of any gas occupies a volume of approximately 24dm3 (24
litres) at room temperature and pressure
- Therefore

48
 Number of moles of a gas = Volume of the gas (in dm3 at rtp)
24 dm3

- Or

Volume of a gas (in dm3 at rtp) = number of moles x 24 dm3 of gas

Example:

Calculate the number of moles of carbon dioxide, in a volume of 52 dm3 of the

gas measured at rtp (room temperature and pressure)

Number of moles of carbon dioxide = Volume of carbon dioxide in dm3

24 dm3
= 52 / 24 = 2.166 moles
Moles and solutions

- concentration of a solution is measured in number of moles per dm3 (mol

dm-3 ).
- When 1 mole of a substance is dissolved in water and the solution is made
up to 1 dm3 (1000cm3 or 1 litre), then 1 molar (1M) solution is produced.
- Thus concentration (molarity) of a solution can be calculated as follows:

Concentration = Number of moles

Volume (in dm3)

The units are moles / dm3 or Molar (M)

Example:
Calculate the concentration of solutions containing:
(a) 0.2 moles of sodium hydroxide dissolved in water and made up to 100cm3

Solution:
Concentration = Number of moles
Volume (in dm3)

100cm3 = 100/1000 = 0.1 dm3 (1000cm3 = 1 dm3)

Concentration = 0.2 / 0.1 mol dm-3
= 2 mol dm-3
= 2M
(b) 9.8g of sulphuric acid dissolved in water and made up to 500cm3

Solution
- The RFM of sulphuric acid is H2SO4
49
 - (RAM: H = 1, S = 32, O = 16)
- Therefore RFM of H2SO4 = (2 x 1) + (1 x 32) + (4 x 16) = 98
- Number of moles of H2SO4 in 9.8g can be calculated as follows

Number of moles = Mass of substance in grams

RFM in grams

= 9.8 / 98 = 0.1 moles

- Volume is 500cm3 (has to be converted to dm3) = 500 / 1000 dm3 = 0.5 dm3

- Therefore concentration = Number of moles

Volume in dm3

= 0.1 / 0.5 mol dm-3

= 0.2 mol dm-3
= 0.2 M

Moles and chemical equations

Lime, calcium oxide (CaO) is produced by heating (blasting) calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) and the chemical equation is as follows:

CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

1 mole 1 mole 1 mole
(40 + 12 + (3 x 16) 40 + 16 12 + (2 x 16)
= 100g = 56g = 44g

(Recall that: 1 mole of a substance has mass (in grams) equal to its RFM in grams)
5. Preparation of standard solution

A Standard Solution is a solution whose concentration is known.

However you may also be required to produce a solution of a specific concentration from
a given one. Both solutions will be standard because their concentrations are known.

For example:
- 1M solution of NaCl is a standard solution. Explain how you would prepare
1M of NaCl solution.

Concentration = No. of moles

Volume in dm3

1 = No of moles
1 dm3

50
 1 x 1 = No of moles

No of moles = 1

1 mole of NaCl should be dissolved in 1 dm3 of water

And 1 mole of NaCl is the RFM of NaCl measured in grams

1 mole of NaCl is therefore (16 + 35.5)g = 51.5g

Therefore 51.5g of NaCl should be dissolved in 1 dm3 of water to make 1M of

NaCl.

- 4M solution of NaOH is also a standard solution. Explain how you would

prepare 1M of NaCl solution.

Concentration = No. of moles

Volume in dm3

4 = No. of moles
Volume in dm3

4 = No. of moles
1 dm3

4 x 1 = No. of moles

No. of moles = 4

Therefore 4 moles of NaOH has to be dissolved in 1 dm3 to produce 1M of NaOH.

But 1 mole of NaOH is (23 + 16 + 1)g = 40g.
And 4 moles of NaOH is (4 x 40)g = 160g

Thus 160g has to be dissolved in 1dm3 of water to produce 4 M of NaOH.

Diluting Solutions

Most of the acidic or alkali aqueous solutions are available commercially in concentrated
form. For example we may have 20M HCl , 15M NaOH etc.

However, in our laboratories and during day to day use, the concentrated aqueous
solutions can be diluted to desirable concentration.

When dilution takes place, the number of moles does not change, only the concentration
decreases. Thus if the initial solution had concentration MA, volume VA and the diluted
solution has concentration MB volume VB.

51
Then MAVA = MBVB

And the added volume VC = VB – VA

Any units of volume can be used as long as both VA and VB have the same units.

Examples:

1. If you dilute 34ml of 1.32M KMnO4 (potassium permanganate) to 0.28M KMnO4.

What is the final volume of the solution? What is the added volume?

Solution
MAVA = MBVB

MA = 1.32M
VA = 34ml
MB = 0.28M

Therefore
VB = MAVA = 1.32 x 34 = 160.29ml
MB 0.28

The final volume is 160.29ml

The added volume VC = VB - VA

160.29 – 34 = 126.29ml

2. Given 5.0ml of 14.8M NH3 (ammonia). What will the final volume be after this
solution is diluted with water to give 1.0M NH3?

Solution

MAVA = MBVB

VB = MAVA = 14.8 x 5 = 74.0 ml

MB 1

3. If 100ml is added to 15ml of 0.5M NaOH, what will be the final concentration.
What will be the final concentration.

Solution:

VB = VC + VA = 100 + 15 = 115 ml

And MB = MAVA = 0.5 x 15 = 0.065M

VB 115
52
6. Titration

Titration is a method of volumetric analysis in which a volume of one reagent (for

example an acid) is added to a known volume another reagent (e.g. an alkali) slowly from
a burette (syringe) until an end - point is reached. If an acid and an alkali are used, then an
indicator is used to show that the end - point has been reached.

End - point is a point that is reached when enough acid has been added to the base to
neutralize it, during titration.

In titration such apparatus as burette (syringe), pipette, beakers and can be arranged as
shown below. The whole objective of titration to find out how much volume of one
solution would be required to neutralize the other solution.

The following formula is used in titration:

M1V1 = M2V2
Macid Malkali
Where M1 = concentration of the acid in moles/dm3
M2 = concentration of the alkali (base) in moles/dm3
V1 = volume of the acid in cm3
V2 = volume of the alkali in cm3
Macid = no of moles of the acid shown in the balanced chemical equation.
Malkali = no of moles of the alkali (base) shown in the balanced chemical
equation
Examples:

4. 22.4cm3 of a solution containing 0.10mol dm-3 of sulphuric acid just neutralizes

25.0cm3 of a sodium hydroxide solution. What is the concentration of this sodium
hydroxide solution?

Solution:

Using calculation method

H2 SO4 + 2NaOH Na2 SO4 + 2H2O

Therefore Macid = 1 and Malkali = 2

M1V1 = M2V2
Macid Malkali

From the formula,

53
M2 = M1V1 x Malkali
V2 x Macid

= 0.1 x 22.4 x 2
25.0 x 1

M2 = 0.179 = 0.18

Therefore the concentration of NaOH = 0.18 M

5. 24.2cm3 of a solution containing 0.20mol dm-3 of hydrochloric acid just neutralized

25.0cm3 of a potassium hydroxide solution. What is the concentration of this
potassium hydroxide solution?

Solution by calculation

HCl + KOH KCl + H2O

HCl KOH
V1 24.2 cm3
V2 25.0cm3
M1 0.20 mol dm-3
M2 To be calculated
Macid 1
Malkali 1

M1V1 = M2V2
Macid Malkali

M2 = M1V1
V2 since Macid = 1 and Malkali = 1

= 24.2 x 0.20
25 = 0.194 mol dm-3

M2 = 0.194 mol dm-3

6. How many cm3 of HNO3 of 1.0 M molarity is needed neutralize

i. 1dm3 of 1M KOP
Solution:

HNO3 + KOH KNO3 + H2O

54
 The chemical equation is balanced therefore there is 1M of HNO3 and 1M of
KOH.

And M1 = 1.0M
M2 = 2.0M
V2 = 1dm3 = 1000cm3
Macid = 1
Malkali = 1

M1V1 = M2V2
Macid Malkali

V1 = M2V2 = 2 x 1000 = 2000cm3

M1 1

ii. 20cm3 of 2M Ca(OH)2

Solution
2HNO3 + Ca (OH)2 Ca (NO3)2 + 2H2O
2 moles of HNO3 and 1 mole Ca (OH)2
M1V1 = M2V2
Macid Malkali

M1 = 1.0M
M2 = 2.0M
V2 = 20cm3
Macid = 2
Malkali = 1

V1 = M2V2 x Macid
M1 x Malkali

= 2 x 20 x 2
1 = 80cm3

Using Titration method

In this process an experiment is conducted to determine the concentration of one
solution when the concentration of the other is known.

Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram below.
2. Fill in 0.5M NaOH in the beaker with a known volume (say 100cm3)
3. Fill in HCl in the burrette up to a known value (say 60cm3)
4. Add at least 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator into the beaker (the NaOH
will turn to pink because when phenolphthalein is added to a base it turns
pink)

55
 5. Slowly release the acid into the beaker and keep on shaking until when the
pink colour just disappears. (This is your end point), record the volume. (the
readings can be recorded in a given table)
6. Repeat procedure 2 to 5 at least three times to iron out any errors. Every
time using a fresh volume of NaOH.
7. Get an average of the acid used
8. Then using mathematical calculation, find the concentration of the acid. (you
have to use the titration formula)
Retort stand
HCl

Burette

Burette
control valve

Beaker
NaOH

Titration Apparatus 1

Initial Volume Final Volume of Volume of HCl

of HCl (V1) HCl (V2) used (V1 – V2)
60 50 10
50 41 9
41 29 11

Average volume of HCl used = 10 + 9 + 11 = 30 = 10cm3

3 3

Volume

Balanced chemical equation of the reaction of HCl and NaOH is

HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O

The no of moles used in both acid and base is 1

Using the titration formula

M1V1 = M2V2 (since Macid = Malkali = 1)

56
 And M1 = M2V2 = 0.5 x 100 = 5M
V1 10

Note that:
 it is advisable to take your last reading from the burette as initial reading for the
subsequent observation.
 make sure that the beaker is rinsed before the next setup.
 Read your burette from the bottom of the meniscus
 The shaking of the beaker as you add the acid is to avoid getting biased results.

A Molar solutions is a solution that contains 1 mole per 1dm3. It is actually a 1M

solution. It is however a Standard solution because its concentration is known.

Methods of deriving concentration of a solution.

(a) Mass per unit volume

Concentration = mass of solute

Volume of solution (units: g/l, g/cm3, g/dm3)

(b) Mass per unit mass

Concentration = mass of solute

Mass of solution (or solvent) (expressed as percentage)

Often used in expressing the number of grams of solute per 100g of solvent, for
measuring solubility.

(c) Moles per volume

Concentration = Number of moles of solute
Volume of solution in dm3
(units: mol per dm3 or mol dm-3)

Recall that 1dm3 = 1 litre therefore concentration can also be expressed in moles / litre

You may also be required to produce solutions of known concentration from standard
solutions. Normally acids come in concentrated form and have to be diluted to
required concentrations and this topic enables you to manage this.

Can you come up with examples of solutions whose concentrations can be reduced
to required levels? State any four of such solutions.

57
 Challenge:

You are given a 0.5M NaOH solution whose volume is 250cm3. Explain how you
would prepare from it 500cm3 of 0.1M NaOH.

Molar volume

a. Gases
Molar volume for a gas is the volume occupied by 1 mole of a gas . It is 24dm3
at room temperature and pressure (RTP) or 22.4dm3 at standard temperature
and pressure (STP)

b. Solutions
For solutions, molar volume is the volume occupied by 1 mole of a solution. It
is 1dm3

7. Heats of reaction

Most chemical reactions involve some heat energy. When heat is given out, it will
cause the container to get hot and when heat is taken in the container will get cold.

7.1 Exothermic reactions

Are chemical reactions that give out heat to the surroundings (making the
container heat up

Examples of exothermic reactions are:

- sulphuric acid reacting with water
- sodium hydroxide reacting with hydrochloric acid.
7.2 Endothermic reactions
Are reactions that take in heat from the surroundings. Thus the container becomes
cold than before.

Examples of endothermic reactions are:

- Dissolving ammonium nitrate in water
- Evaporation of water to water vapour.

8. Bond breaking and bond forming

 in the reactants side of the chemical equation, bonds are broken and energy is required
to break the bond (thus energy is taken in)
 in the products side of the chemical equation, new bonds are formed and energy is
given out.
 If the energy out is greater than the energy in, then the reaction is exothermic
58
 If the energy out is less than the energy in, then the reaction is endothermic.

The energy required to break one mole of bonds is the same as the energy
required to make the same mole. This energy is called bond energy.

The following are some values of bond energies in kJ/Mole

Type of bond Bond energy

(kJ/Mole)
C-C 346
C=C 612
C-O 358
O=O 498
O-H 464
H-H 436
N≡N 946
N-H 391

Example
If steam is blown through white-hot coke, the carbon gets oxidized.
a. Calculate how much energy is required to break the bonds
b. The amount of energy required to form the bonds.
c. Calculate the overall energy in the chemical reaction.
d. Is the reaction exothermic or endothermic
e. State a reason for your answer in (d) above.

Solution:
Using the bond energy table above

Carbon + Water vapour Carbon monoxide + Hydrogen

C (s) + H2O (g) CO (g) + H2 (g)

a. Energy in to break the bonds

1 mole of carbon 717 kJ
1mole of water 928 kJ
Total energy in 1645 kJ

b. Energy out from forming bonds

1 mole of carbon monoxide 1077 kJ
1 mole of hydrogen 436 kJ
Total energy out 1513 kJ
c. Overall Energy = Energy in – Energy out = 1645 – 1513 = 132 kJ

59
 d. The reaction is endothermic

e. The reaction shows that it takes in more energy than it gives out.

9. Energy Diagrams

An energy diagram is basically an energy profile of reactions. In a chemical reaction,

bonds are broken in the reactants and bonds are formed in the products. When
presented as a vector, energy in is drawn as a vector pointing upwards (positive
vector) and energy out is presented as a vector pointing downwards (negative vector).
The bigger the vector is, the bigger the magnitude. Thus the vectors of the energy
diagram should be proportional to magnitudes of the vectors.

In the example of carbon reacting with steam, the energy diagram can be drawn as
follows: Bonds broken

Energy IN Energy OUT

1 mole CO
2 mole H2
Bonds formed

1 mole of C Overall energy

1 mole of H2O IN

Figure 24

The products are at a higher energy level (from the reference point) than the
reactants. Therefore the reaction is endothermic. The reaction has taken in
heat energy.
Let us consider the chemical reaction that take place when hydrogen and
chlorine exploding in the sun.

Hydrogen + Chlorine Hydrogen Chloride

H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) 2HCl (g)

 It takes 436 kJ of energy to break the bonds in one mole of hydrogen molecules.
 And 242 kJ of energy to break the bonds in one mole of chlorine molecules.
 431 kJ of energy is required to form one mole of hydrogen chloride

Energy in to break bonds

For one mole of hydrogen molecule 436 kJ
For one mole of chlorine molecule 242 kJ
Total Energy IN 678 kJ

60
 Energy out from forming bonds
for 2 moles of hydrogen chloride molecules 862 kJ

Energy out – Energy in = 862 – 678 = 184 kJ

Energy diagram for the reaction is

Bonds broken

Energy IN Energy OUT

1 mole of H2
1 mole of Cl2

Overall energy 2 mole HCl

OUT Bonds formed

Figure 25

The products are at a lower energy level than the reactants, thus the reaction is
exothermic.

Activation energy is the minimum energy needed to break enough bonds to get the
reaction started. Activation energy can be sourced from sunlight, a lit match, spirit
burner, etc.
If we analyze the energy diagram using the vector principle, a vector pointing up is
positive and the one pointing down is negative then

 if the resultant is negative, the overall energy is energy OUT. The reaction is
EXOTHERMIC
 if the resultant is positive, the overall energy is energy IN. The reaction is
ENDOTHERMIC.

61
 REFERENCES:

1. GCSE Chemistry by B. Earl and L D R Wilford, 2004

2. Co-ordinated Science – Chemistry 2nd Ed – by RoseMarie Gallagher, 2000
3. Physical Science for Malawi, 2nd Ed, MSCE Bk1 by Keith Wallis, 1995
4. General Chemistry by Ebbing, 1984

Chapter 4

CHEMICAL REACTIONS II

1. OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

Oxidation is a process through which a substance gains oxygen during a reaction.

After oxidation, the substance gets oxidized.

Reduction is a process through which a substance loses oxygen during a reaction.

After reduction, the substance is reduced.

Reduction and oxidation always take place together in a reaction, hence the term
“Redox Reaction” (Reduction Oxidation Reaction).

Example:

62
 When hydrogen is passed over black copper II oxide, (in the presence of heat), the
black powder turns pink

Figure 26: Redox illustration

Copper (II) oxide + Hydrogen Copper + Water

Cu O (s) + H2 (g) Cu (s) + H2O (g)

Copper (II) oxide is losing oxygen, it is being reduced .

Hydrogen is gaining oxygen, then it is being oxidized.

2. OXIDATION NUMBER
Oxidation number is the charge on an atom or on an ion.

For example:
When a magnesium atom becomes an ion, it will lose two electrons from an atom state
to an ionic state.

Mg atom Mg ion

- 2e-

Mg0 (s) Mg ++ (aq)

Figure 27: Magnesium atom becoming a magnesium ion.

The oxidation number for magnesium atom is 0 and that of a magnesium ion is + 2.
This implies that the oxidation number of Mg has increased from 0 to + 2 during the
reaction.
Since oxidation is also termed as loss of electrons, then it can be concluded that
oxidation takes place when the oxidation number increases. Thus when the atom loses
electrons, the net charge on its ion becomes positive (since in an atom of an element,
the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons hence the net charge of an
atom is zero, then by losing electrons the ion becomes more positive than negative)

Consider the following situation:

Sodium chloride decomposing to form sodium ions and chlorine ions

63
Na Cl Na+ + Cl -

Thus Na0 Na+ There is increase in oxidation number: Oxidation

Cl0 Cl - There is decrease in oxidation number: Reduction

It can therefore be concluded that

1. Oxidation can be explained as:

- gaining of oxygen
- increase in oxidation number
- losing electrons

2. Reduction can be explained as:

- taking away oxygen
- decrease in oxidation number
- accepting electrons

Examples:
1. Dilute sulphuric acid solution ionizes in water as follows

H2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l) 2H+ (aq) + SO4-2 (aq)

(a) 2H0 2H+ Oxidation: because oxidation number increased

(b) SO40 SO4-2 Reduction: because oxidation number decreased.

2. Iron (III) oxide reacting with carbon monoxide (this occurs in a blast furnace)

FeO + CO Heat Fe + CO2

Fe+3 Fe0 reduced because oxidation number decreased.

Assigning Oxidation Numbers

The following points are to be considered when assigning oxidation numbers

1. All elements have an oxidation number of zero (0) because all elements have a
neutral charge.
2. Oxygen has an oxidation number of -2 except when it is a gaseous element then its
oxidation number is zero.
3. Hydrogen has a charge of +1 except when it is an element.
4. For all neutral molecules the sum of the separate charges inside the molecule must
add up to zero.

64
5. For a charged ion, the sum of the separate charge inside the ion must be equal to
the final charge on the ion itself.

Examples illustrating the above conditions:

1. Work out the oxidation number (charge) of S in SO2

Solution:
Recall that oxidation number for O = -2
Therefore (2) O = 2 (-2) = - 4
S + 2(- 2) = 0
S + (- 4) = 0
S–4=0
S=4

Therefore the oxidation number of S in SO2 is + 4

2. What is the oxidation number of C in CO2?

Solution:
C + 2 (-2) = 0
C + (-4) = 0
C–4=0
C=4

The oxidation number of C in CO2 is + 4

3. Work out the oxidation number of Mg in Mg Cl2, where the oxidation number of
Cl is -1

Solution:
Mg + 2(-1) = 0
Mg – 2 = 0
Mg = + 2

Thus the oxidation number of Mg in Mg Cl2 is +2

4. What is the oxidation number of Na in a NaOH?

Solution:
Na + (-2) + (+1) = 0
Na -2 + 1 = 0
Na – 1 = 0
Na = +1

The oxidation number of Na in NaOH is +1

5. Work out the oxidation number of Mn in MnO4-

65
 Solution:
MnO4- is a charged ion and recall that for a charged ion the sum of the separate
charges inside the ion must be equal to the final charge on the ion.

Mn + 4(-2) = -1
Mn – 8 = -1
Mn = 8 -1
Mn = +7

The oxidation number of Mn in MnO4- is +7

3. HALF REACTIONS EQUATION

Electrolysis
This is the chemical decomposition of an electrolyte caused by electricity when the
circuit is complete. The electrolyte is broken down into its existing ions.

Terminologies used in electrolysis

a. Electrolyte – the conducting solution
b. Electrodes - conducting rods preferably of graphite (carbon) because graphite
does not react during the process.
c. Cathode - the electrode joined to the negative terminal of the battery. It is also
negative because the electrons from the battery flow to it.
d. Anode - the electrode joined to the positive terminal of the battery.
Electrolysis apparatus setup

Figure 28: Electrolysis apparatus setup

Half reaction equations

Half reaction equations are the two chemical equations that explains the reactions that
take place at the anode and at the cathode during the process of electrolysis.
66
They are called half reaction equations because they are the two halves of an overall
chemical equation.

Example of an electrolysis process.

Let us consider electrolysis of lead bromide. Lead bromide has to be an electrolyte and
recall that an electrolyte can be in molten or liquid state. Thus lead bromide will
decompose into lead ions and bromine gas

Lead bromide Lead + Bromine

PbBr2 (l) Pb (l) + Br2 (g)

- One lead ion (Pb2+) gains 2 electrons to become lead atom (Pb0)
- Two bromide ions become two bromine atoms (hence one molecule of bromine)
after losing two electrons.

Complete Electrolysis At the Cathode At the Anode

- Opposite - The lead - The

charges attract ions each bromide
- Lead ions are receive 2 ions
attracted to the electrons each
cathode and give up
- Bromide ions becomes 1
are attracted to lead atoms electron
2+ -
the cathode Pb + 2e Pb0 to
become
- The lead bromine
atoms atoms
collect - These
together on atoms
67
 the cathode pair
and then together
fall to the as
bottom of molecule
the beaker s

2Br- Br2 +
-
2e

- The
bromine
bubbles
off as a
gas.

The anode and cathode equations of the electrolysis process are the half reaction
equations:
Cathode: Pb2+ + 2e- Pb0

Anode: 2Br- Br2 + 2e-

Conclusion: In the electrolysis of lead bromine
(a) Bromine gas is formed at the anode.
(b) Lead atoms are collected at the cathode.

Facts about electrolysis

1. All ionic compounds can be electrolyzed, when they are molten or in solution form.
2. The electrolyte always decomposes, so the electrical energy is causing a chemical
change (it is a catalyst).
3. The electrodes are usually made of graphite or platinum. These substances are
unreactive or inert. That means they will not react with the electrolyte or the products
of the electrolysis.
4. Metals always form positive ions. Positive ions always go to the cathode. So they are
called cations.
5. Non metals (except hydrogen) always form negative ions. They go to the anode so
they are called anions.
6. So when a molten ionic compound is electrolyzed, a metal is always formed at the
cathode and a non metal at the anode.
7. Electrolysis is the most powerful way used to decompose ionic compounds. So it is
used in industry to extract metals such as sodium and aluminium from their ores.
(Sodium is extracted from molten rock salt or sodium chloride. Aluminium is
extracted from molten aluminium oxide). But electrolysis uses up large quantities of
electrical power thereby making it very expensive. So it is used only for very stable
compounds which are difficult to decompose in other ways.

68
Half Reaction equations of some electrolysis processes

1. Sodium chloride, NaCl

With the electrolyte as sodium chloride
The decomposition will be as follows

Sodium chloride Sodium + Chloride

2NaCl (l) 2Na (l) + Cl2 (g)

Half reaction equations

At the cathode : 2Na+ + 2e- 2Na

At the anode: 2Cl- Cl2 + 2e-

2. Potassium iodide. KI
With the electrolyte as Potassium iodide
The decomposition will be as follows

Potassium iodide Potassium + iodine

2KI (l) 2K(l) + I2 (g)
Half reaction equations
At the cathode : 2K+ + 2e- 2K

At the anode: 2I- I2 + 2e-

3. Copper (II) bromide, CuBr2

With the electrolyte as copper (II) bromide
The decomposition will be as follows

Copper (II) bromide Copper + bromine

CuBr2 (l) Cu (l) + Br2 (g)

Half reaction equations

At the cathode : Cu2+ + 2e- Cu

At the anode: 2Br- Br2 + 2e-

Note:
In the half equations,
i. The equation at the anode is an oxidation process (losses electrons)
ii. The equation at the cathode is a reduction process (gains electrons)
iii. The substance obtained (collected) at the anode is a reducing agent.
iv. The substance obtained (collected) at the cathode is an oxidizing agent.

69
Hint to help in remembering the meaning of oxidation and reduction is to use the
words OIL RIG

O I L R I G

Oxidation Is Loss Reduction Is

Gain
Of electrons
4. REDUCING AND OXIDISING AGENTS
In a redox reaction;
(a) the substance that is oxidized is called a reducing agent
(b) the substance that is reduced is called an oxidizing agent

Examples:
i. In the reaction of carbon and water vapour to give out carbon monoxide and
hydrogen can be explained as follows:
Carbon + Water vapour Carbon monoxide + Hydrogen

C (s) + H2O (g) CO + H2 (g)

(a) Carbon has been oxidized, therefore it is a reducing agent.

(b) Water vapour has been reduced, therefore it is an oxidizing agent

ii. During electrolysis process

(a) At the anode there is loss of electrons: oxidation.
(b) At the cathode there is gain of electrons: reduction.

5. DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS

Displacement reactions are also called competition reactions. A more reactive metal
will always displace a less reactive metal from solutions of their compounds.

Experiment 1.
To investigate which metal is more reactive between copper and iron.

Iron nail The iron nail is placed in some blue

copper
(II) sulphate

Blue solution of
Copper sulphate
Coating of
70
 copper on nail Soon a coat of copper appears on the
nail.
The solution turns pale green (becomes iron
sulphate

Blue solution of
Copper sulphate

Conclusion: Iron and copper are competing to be the compound in the solution. Iron wins;
thus iron displaces copper from copper (II) sulphate. Green iron (II) sulphate is formed.

The chemical equation of the reaction above can be presented as follows:

Iron + Copper (II) sulphate Iron (II) sulphate + Copper

Fe (s) + Cu SO4 (aq) FeSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

Experiment 2: To investigate the way copper reacts with silver nitrate solution.

Copper wire Solution goes blue

Colorless solution Wire gets coated

Of silver nitrate With silver

A coil of copper is placed in a The solution goes blue and at the

solution of silver nitrate. The same time a coating of silver
copper gradually dissolves. forms on the copper wire

Conclusion: Copper displaces silver in the solution.

Copper + Silver nitrate Copper nitrate + Silver

Cu (II) (s) + Ag (NO3)2 (aq) Cu (NO3)2 (aq) + Ag (s)

6. DISPLACEMENT TABLE (SERIES)

This is also known as the Reactivity Series. The series rank the metals from the most
reactive to the least reactive.

71
 Potassium Most Reactive
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Zinc Increasing Reactivity
Iron
Lead
---------------------------------------------metals above this line react with acids
displacing hydrogen
Copper
Silver
Gold Least Reactive

To help you remember the order in the series try this

Potato Soup Can Make All Zimbabweans Ironically Lazy (but not) Coke, Sprite and
Ginger.
The letters which are bold and big denote the elements in the reactivity series i.e. P is
for Potassium, S is for Sodium and so on. The (but not) marks the boundary
indicating the metals above the line which can react with acids displacing hydrogen.

More facts about the displacement table

1. The more reactive the metal is, the more it likes to form compounds. So only
copper, silver and gold are ever found as elements in the earth’s crust. The other
metals are always found as compounds.
2. The more reactive the metal, the more stable its compounds. A stable compound is
difficult to break down or decompose because the bonds holding it together are
very strong.
3. The more reactive the metal, the more difficult it is to extract from its compounds.
For the most reactive metals, the toughest methods of extraction such as
electrolysis are required. E.g. Sodium is extracted from sodium chloride using
electrolysis.
4. When a metal reacts, it gives up electrons to form ions. The more reactive the
metal, the more easily it gives up electrons.
5. Many metals occur naturally as oxides, they are extracted by heating the oxide with
a more reactive metal which will steal the oxygen away, e.g. aluminium is used to
extract iron from iron oxide (however it much cheaper to carbon monoxide).

72
 6. If you put two metals together in air touching, the more reactive one will corrode
first. The other will not start corroding until the first has corroded away (Sacrificial
protection). That is often used to stop iron from rusting.
7. Since copper, silver and gold occur as elements in the Earth, they are easy to
extract, that is why they have been in use for thousands of years.

Table showing when some metals began to be widely used.

Metal Year
Aluminium 1890
Zinc 1500
Iron 1400 BC
Lead 2000 BC
Copper 8000 BC

7. RUSTING/CORROSION
Rusting is the oxidation of iron or steel in damp air. It is also called corrosion.

Iron + Oxygen + Water vapour Hydrated iron (III) oxide

4Fe (s) + 3O2 (g) + 6H2O (g) 2Fe2O3. H2O (s) rust

The metals are oxidized because they are losing electrons. The oxygen of the air is
reduced thus it acts as an oxidizing agent.

Effects of Rusting
1. Rusting weakens structures (made of iron) such as car bodies, iron railings,
lampposts and ships’ hulls.
2. Shortens life span (useful life) of metals made of iron.

Conditions for rusting

1. Presence of water.
2. Presence of oxygen (from the air).
3. Rusting can be speeded up by the presence of an electrolyte e.g. sea water or acid
solution

Investigating the conditions for rusting

1.
Seal of wax
Stops air entering
73
 Iron nail in boiled water

Boiling water contains no air

Result: NO rusting
Conclusion: Rusting needs air

2.
Seal of wax
Stops air entering

Iron nail over

Calcium chloride as drying agent
Calcium Chloride powder to dry air.

Result: NO rusting

Conclusion: Rusting needs water

3.
Iron nail in tap water

Tap water contains air

Result: Rusting takes place

Conclusion: Rusting needs both air and water

Prevention of corrosion
The following are the common methods of preventing (stopping) rusting:
1. covering the metal by paints.
2. covering the metal by oil or grease.
3. Covering the metal with another metal by the process of electroplating e.g.
(a) using electroplating to cover iron by chromium.
(b) Covering of tin in tin cans (tinning) or by zinc (galvanizing) is done by
dipping.
(c) Nails can be electroplated with copper.

8. ELECTROPLATING
74
 Electroplating is the process of covering a metal by another metal by means of
electrolysis.

Conditions for electroplating are as follows:

1. The metal to be covered or plated i.e. the underneath metal, is made (becomes) into
the cathode of the voltammeter (electrolysis cell).
2. The covering metal i.e. the metal on top, is made into the anode by connecting it to
the positive side of the battery.
3. The electrolyte should be a soluble salt of the same metal that makes up the anode.

Coating a metallic object using the process of electroplating.

Silver anode

Nickel jag
as cathode

Silver nitrate solution

At the anode: The silver dissolves, forming silver ions

Ag Ag+ + e-

There is loss of electrons therefore oxidation takes place.

At the cathode: Silver ions receive electrons and turns into atoms then form a layer of
silver on the jug. When the layer is thick enough the jug is removed.

Ag+ + e- Ag
Reduction takes place at the cathode

Observation:

1. The silver anode becomes thinner and must be dissolving. The anode mass
decrease.
75
 2. The jug cathode turns silvery: caused by the silver atoms being plated (coated) on
top. The mass of the cathode increases.

Rules of electroplating
To plate an object with metal X, use:
1. the object as the cathode
2. a strip of X as anode
3. a solution of a compound of X as electrolyte.

For example: to coat a silver spoon with copper

1. the spoon should be the cathode.
2. a strip of copper as anode
3. a solution of copper sulphate (CuSO4)

Application of electroplating
1. Plating of car bumpers (e.g. with chromium) to make them look good.
2. Coating of metals to prevent rusting (e.g. steel is plated with tin to make “tins” for
food.
3. A hard surface is given that can slow down wear.
4. Worn out machinery parts can be given extra thickness and get reused.

9. PROTON TRANSFER REACTIONS

The Bronsted – Lowry theory defines

(a) an acid as a proton (H+ ion) donor
(b) a base as a proton (H+ ion) acceptor

Acids and bases are NEVER described in terms of pH in the Bronsted – Lowry
theory.

The following should be noted:

1. for an acid to behave as a H+ ion donor, there must be another substance present to
accept the H+.

2. pure acids behave differently from their aqueous solutions.

3. the presence of water is not absolutely necessary in Bronsted – Lowry theory.
4. a proton is simply a H0 atom that has lost its electron. i.e. it is a H+
5. acids react with bases to give salt plus water. This is called neutralization reaction.

Acid + Base Salt + Water

6. if a substance can behave both as a Bronsted – Lowry (B/L) acid and as a Bronsted
– Lowry (B/L) base, it is called amphoteric, e.g. water
- water can react with B/L bases such as ammonia to form the base OH-

76
 Ammonia + Water Ammonium + Hydroxyl ion
NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Thus in the above reaction, water is used as a B/L acid

- water can also react with acids

HCl (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl (aq)

In this case water is used as a B/L base.

10. HYDRONIUM ION

A hydronium ion is a water molecule that has accepted (received) a proton.

In a Brosted – Lowry system and water, a hydronium ion (H3O+) can be formed in the
following ways:

(a) Water as a base

In an ionization equation that involve a reaction with H2O where a water molecule
acts as a B/L base by accepting a proton, H+
HCl (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Where the positive charge is spread all over the whole H3O+ and not only on the oxygen.
The ion is what is called the hydronium ion. The equation is reversible (takes place in
both directions) because there is continuous transfer of a proton from the Right hand Side
to the Left Hand Side and back.

Thus a standard way of presenting the chemical equation can be:

HB1 + B2 HB2 + B1

Where:
HB1 is an acid in the reactants side.
B2 is a base in the reactants side.
HB2 is an acid the product side.
B1 is a base in the product side.

Examples:
i. HNO3 (aq) + H2O (l) H3O (aq) + NO3- (aq)
Nitric acid

ii. H2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + HSO4- (aq)

77
 Sulphuric acid

iii. CH3COOH (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)

Ethanoic acid

(b) Water as an acid

Water can also donate protons and act as a B/L acid in the presence of bases.

HB1 + B2 HB2 + B1

i. H2O (l) + NH3 (aq) NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

ii. H2O (l) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Since water can act both as a B/L base and a B/L acid, it can therefore donate protons
to itself.

(c) Water reacting with ions.

In the hydrolysis of water (the reaction of an ion with water), water accepts protons

i. HCO- (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + CO3-2 (aq)

ii. HSO4- (aq) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + SO4-2 (aq)

11. CONJUGATE ACIDS AND BASES

Inside the reversible equation, there are two pairs of acids and bases. Thus there is an
acid in the reactants and another acid in the product side of the equation, the same is
true for the base.

It can therefore be noted that the acid in the reactants has a sister base (the remainder
when the proton has been donated) in the products side. This pair of acid and base
from the Left Hand Side and the Right Hand Side of the equation are called conjugate
acid and conjugate base.

HCl + NH3 NH4+ + Cl-

Acid 1 + Base 2 Acid 2 + Base 1

HB1 + B2 HB2 + B1

By losing donating a proton, the acid on the left hand side of the equation becomes a
base on the right hand side.
It is noticed that HCl - H+ Cl-

78
 Conjugate Acid - H+ Cl-

Conjugate Acid to Conjugate Base

Conjugate Acid - H+ Conjugate Base

H2SO4 - H+ HSO4-
HCl - H+ Cl-
HNO3 - H+ NO3-
H3O+ - H+ H2O
CH3COOH - H+ CH3COO-
NH4+ - H+ NH3

(b) Conjugate Base to Conjugate Acid

Conjugate Acid + H+ Conjugate Base

OH- + H+ H2O
H2O + H+ H3O+
CH3COO- + H+ CH3COOH
Cl- + H+ HCl
SO2 -2 + H+ HSO3-

12. STRENGTH OF ACIDS AND BASES

The strength of an acid depends upon how many molecules disassociates (split up)
when the acid is dissolve in water.

The relative strength of a base is found by comparing one base with another and it
depends upon the disassociation of the base in aqueous solution

The following should be noted when describing the strength of an acid or a base in
terms of the B/L theory. (Note: in the B/L theory strengths of acids and bases are
never expressed in pH)

1. Strong acids donate protons well

- i.e. a strong acid can ionize almost completely in water.
HCl (aq) + H2O(l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

- Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and Nitric acid (HNO3) are other examples of strong
acids

2. Weak acids donate protons a little, they are stingy in terms of proton donation.
79
 - weak acids ionizes (in water) slightly to give a few H+ (aq) to the receiving
base, water.

HF(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+ (aq) + F- (aq)

(HF is Hydrofluoric acid)

- Carbonic acid (H2CO3), water (H2O), acetic acid (CH3COOH), most organic
acids and NH4+ (ammonium ion)

3. A base with strong basic strength, is the one that accepts protons well and holds
them strongly.

Strong B/L acids give away protons very easily to produce weak B/L bases, that
have little hold onto their protons.

HCl (aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl- (aq)

Cl- (aq) in HCl has a very weak basic strength.

4. A strong B/L base holds onto protons well and is partenered by a weak conjugate
acid.

H2CO3 (aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + HCO3- (aq)

The conjugate base HCO3- in H2CO3 holds onto the protons well and does not
allow its acid to release them to the other base, water, such that the acid H2CO3
ionizes very little.

80
 References:
1. GSCE Chemistry: by B. Earl and L.D.R Wilford, 2001
2. Coordinated Science – Chemistry 2nd Edition : by RoeMarie Gallagher 1994.
3. Physical Science for Malawi 2nd Edition, MSCE Bk 1 by Keith Wallis, 1995.
4. GSCE Chemistry 2nd Edition: by B. Earl and L D R Wilford, 2001

Chapter 5

NUCLEAR PHYSICS

In this topic the following will be covered

1. Nuclear structure of an atom

2. Nuclear notation

3. Isotopes

4. Radioactivity
i. its nature
ii. characteristics of radioactive substances
81
5. Properties of alpha, beta particles and gamma rays in terms of
i. ionization effects
1. Nuclear Structure
Let us consider the following atoms

i. Hydrogen atom

Energy level (shell)

Electron

Nucleus (contains neutrons and protons.

These form the nucleons)

82
 The nucleus contains nucleons

Figure 29: Hydrogen Atom

ii. Sodium atom

Figure 30: Sodium Atom

The mass or nucleon number A of an atom is the number of nucleons in the nucleus.

2. Nuclear Notation

a. The atomic or proton number Z of an atom is the number of protons in the

nucleus.
b. The mass or nucleon number A is the mass of the nucleons.
c. Therefore
A=Z+N

Where N is the neutron number.

Thus for any atom X, we can therefore have the following key

3. Isotopes

Isotopes of an element are atoms which have the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons.
For example:
i. Chlorine – has two isotopes

83
ii. Hydrogen – has three isotopes

(a) Hydrogen with 1 proton

(b) Deuterium; with 1 proton and 1 neutron

(c) Tritium; with 1 proton and 2 neutrons

Each form of an element is called a nuclide. Thus nuclides with the same Z but different
A are isotopes.
Radioactive isotopes are also called radioisotopes (radionuclide) and their nuclei are
unstable.

4. Radioactivity

Radioactivity is the radiation (emission) of gamma γ, beta β and alpha α from radioactive
materials such as uranium, plutonium, americium, strontium, radium etc.

RESEARCH: Discuss the position of these elements in the periodic table. They are metals and
metalloids.

Nature and characteristics of radioactive substances.

i. They are metals.

ii. They emit radioactive rays e.g. Alpha, Beta and Gamma
iii. Their atoms are unstable (not all atoms but certain isotopes of the element) because
of the extra number of neutrons.

5. Properties of alpha, beta particles and gamma rays.

(a) Alpha rays

- are stopped by a thick sheet of paper and have a range in air of a few
centimeters
- cause intense ionization in a gas.
- Are deflected by electric and strong magnetic fields (in a direction and
by an amount which suggests they are helium atoms minus two
electrons)

84
 Plutonium and americium may be used as pure alpha sources.

(b) Beta rays

- are stopped by a few millimeters of aluminium.
- Their ionizing power is much less than that of alpha particles.
- As well as being deflected by magnetic fields and measurements show
that they are streams of high energy electrons, like cathode rays,
emitted with a range of speeds, up to that of light.

Strontium emits beta rays only.

(c) Gamma rays

- are the most penetrating and are stopped by many centimeters of lead.
- They ionize a gas even less than beta particles.
- Are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
- They give interference and diffraction effects and are electromagnetic
radiation traveling at the speed of light.

Cobalt is a pure Gamma source.

Radium emits alpha, beta and gamma rays.

Penetrating Power

γ
Only a little gamma radiation
gets through.

Paper Aluminium Lead

(a few mm) (a few cm)

Figure 31: Penetrating Power

- alpha radiation is stopped by a thin sheet of paper.

- Beta radiation can pass through paper but is stopped by a few

millimeters of aluminium.
- Gamma radiation is very penetrating, needing several centimeters of
lead to reduce the intensity to almost zero.
85
 Detection by magnetic and electric fields.

Magnetic field (into paper)

Deflection not to scale (β is greater than α)

Figure 32: Effects of magnetic and electric fields

- Alpha radiation is slightly deflected by both electric and magnetic

fields. The direction of bending suggests that alpha carries a positive
(+) charge.
- Beta radiation is deflected very strongly in the other direction. It
seems to carry a negative (-) charge.
- Gamma radiation is not deflected by electric or magnetic fields. They
behave like short wavelength X – rays.

6. Radiation detectors

i. Photographic Plates
Sensitive to ionizing radiation and can be used to detect all the three rays of
radiation from radioactive sources.

ii. Gold – Leaf Electroscope

Ions produced in air

Radioactive source

Positive ions attracted

towards negative electroscope

Leaf falls

Figure 33: Gold Leaf Electroscope

86
 - a radioactive source held near the cap of a charged electroscope
produces positive and negative ions in air around the cap. Ions with a
charge positive to that on the electroscope are attracted and this
gradually discharges the electroscope. The leaf falls.
- Works with alpha particles; beta particles and gamma radiation do not
produce enough ionization in the air.

iii. Ionization Chamber

radiation
wire
gauze

ionization
metal rod and plate
chamber
metal
can

insulation

milliameter

electrometer
(dc
amplifier)

Figure 34: Ionization Chamber

- An ionization chamber “collects” the ions produced by ionizing

radiation. A battery maintains a small potential difference (p.d)
between the outer metal can and the central electrode. Ions produced
in the air inside the chamber are attracted to the electrode of positive
sign. This movement of ions is equivalent to a small electric current in
the circuit and produces a p.d across the load resistor. This p.d is then
amplified by a sensitive amplifier.
- Works best with alpha particles, but can be used to detect any type of
ionizing radiation.

iv. Scintillation Counter

87
 Photocathode

γ photon

Crystal

Figure 35: Scintillation Counter

- useful as a γ – detector
- uses materials such as sodium iodide which flashes with light when hit
by γ – photon.
- Photoelectrons are ejected from the photocathode and attracted onto
the anode A of the photomultiplier thereby emitting more electrons to
hit anodes B,C, D etc.

v. Spark Counter
α- particle source

wire gauze
each α –
particle produces
one spark in the gap

Metal strip

High voltage (500V)

Insulating base

- the α – particles produces ions in the air gap and these are attracted
towards the electrode of opposite sign.
- The p.d. is very large so the ions move very fast and as they go they
collide with more air molecules causing more ionization.

88
 - Each spark is produced by an alpha particle thus number of alphas can
be counted.
- Works with alpha particles but not with beta and gamma rays.

vi. Geiger – Muller Tube

Argon (at low pressure) Pulse detecting

circuit

Protecting gauze

Thin window Metal tube Central wire

Scaler (counter pulse) or rate

meter (indicates pulses/sec)
Figure 36: Geiger - Muller Tube
- has a similar design as the ionization chamber, but works like a special
kind of spark counter.
- When radiation enters the tube, either through a thin end-window or it
is very penetrating through the wall, it creates argon ions and
electrons.
- Upon reaching the electrodes the ions produces a current which is
amplified and fed either to a scaler or rate meter. (A scaler counts the
pulses and show a total received in a certain time.)

Works with alpha, beta and gamma particles.

vii. Cloud Chamber

Felt ring soaked with alcohol.

89
 Figure 37: Diffusion Type Cloud Chamber

Can come in different forms as:

(a) Expansion Type

- A high potential difference (p.d) between the top and bottom of the
chamber provides an electric field which clears away unwanted ions.
The tracks seen are therefore those rays that leave the sources as the
expansion occurs.

(b) Diffusion Type (as shown in the figure above)

- alcohol vapor form the rings is diffused downwards and cooled by
solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) in the lower section and condenses near
the floor on air ions formed by radiation from the source.

7. Radioactivity decay
This is also referred to as radioactive stability. It is the emission of an alpha or a beta
particle from an unstable nucleus producing an atom of a different element which may
itself be stable.
- The nucleus which decays is called the parent nucleus
- The nucleus which results is called the daughter nucleus
- Daughter nucleus and the emitted particles form the decay products.

7.1 Alpha Decay

An α – particle is a helium nucleus having 2 protons and 2 neutrons. Thus when an
atom decays by α – emission, its nucleon number decreases by 4 and its proton
number decreases by 2
For example:

Parent Daughter Alpha particle

nucleus nucleus

Decay products
90
 Figure 38: Alpha Decay of radium - 226

- when radium (Ra) of nucleon number 226 and proton number 88 emits
an α – particle, it decays to radon (Rn) of nucleon number 222 and
proton number 86.
- The value of A and Z must balance on both sides of the equation since
nucleons and charge are conserved.

A: 226 222 + 4 Recall that the mass number (A) decreases by

4 and its proton number (Z) decrease by 2

Z: 88 86 + 2

When a nuclide decays by alpha emission, it becomes a nuclide with an atomic number two less than
before, and a mass number four less.

7.2 Beta Decay

A beta particle is an electron. It has negligible mass and carries a charge of -1 unit.
Can be represented as
e or β
In a β decay:
-

- a neutron from the nucleus changes to a proton and electron.

- the proton remains in the nucleus (thus in the nucleus, the neutron
number decreases by 1 and the proton number increases by 1 therefore
the mass number is maintained)
- the electron is emitted as a β- particle.
- a particle called antineutrino ( v ), no charge and negligible mass is
also emitted in β- decay.

C N + β- + e
Ignoring the antineutrino, the decay process can be written as

C N + β-

Other examples of β- decays are

I Xe + β-

Na Mg + β-

In a β+ decay:
91
 - a proton from the nucleus changes to a neutron and electron.
- the neutron remains in the nucleus (thus in the nucleus, the neutron
number increases by 1 and the proton number decreases by 1 therefore
the mass number is maintained)
- the electron is emitted as a β+ particle.
- a particle called neutrino ( v ), no charge and negligible mass is also
emitted in β+ decay.
- Positrons are subatomic particles with the same mass as an electron
but with a positive charge and are emitted in some β+ decay processes.

Cu Ni + β+ + e

When a nuclide decays by beta emission, it becomes a nuclide with an atomic number one greater
than before, but with the same mass number.

7.3 Gamma Emission

After emitting an α – particle, β or β - rays some nuclei are left in an excited
state.

Then rearrangement of protons and neutrons takes place a burst of γ – rays is

released. The arrangement aims at having a stable nuclei.

Emitting a gamma does not change the atomic number of the atom, it also has
very little effect on the mass.

Note that the stability of a nucleus depends on both the number of proton (Z)
and the number of neutrons (N) it contains.

8. Nuclear Equation

(a) Alpha

Mass number
decreases by 4

238 234 4
U Th + He
92 90 2

Atomic number
decreases by 2

92
 “Parent” nucleus “Daughter” nucleus + Alpha particle

(b) Beta

Mass number
Stays the same

131 131 0
I Xe + e
53 54 -1
Atomic number
increases by 1

“Parent” nucleus “Daughter” nucleus + Beta particle

9. Decay Curves and Half – Life

During radioactive decay, nuclei disintegrate at random at a rate which is unaffected
by chemical change or temperature.

Decay curves depict how many (how much) nuclei disintegrate per given time. Each
element (atom) will have its own decay curve.

The half – life of a radioactive nuclide is the time taken for half the nuclei present in
any given sample to decay.

The average number of disintegration per second in a radioactive sample is called the
activity. Thus the half – life of a radioactive nuclide is the time taken for the activity
of any given sample to fall to half its original value.

Other Half – life values

93
 Nuclide Half – life
Uranium – 235 7 x 108 years
Radium – 226 1620 years
Sodium – 24 15 hrs
Radon – 220 52 seconds
Polonium – 212 3 x 10 -7 seconds

Half – life of a nuclide of a radioactive substance can vary from seconds to

million of years.
The half life of I – 131 is 8.07 days
1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 10 20 30 40 50
60
Time in days

Figure 39: Half – Life Curve for Iodine – 131

Similarly a decay curve of activity / disintegration per second against time, for I
– 131 will also the half life of 8.07 days.

How the half – life works

Example: for radium – 226:

Starting with 1g of pure radium – 226,
½ g remains as radium after 1620 years
¼ g remains as radium after 3240 years
⅛ g remains as radium after 4860 years
1
/16 g remains as radium after 6480 years
And so on and so forth BUT never will the quantity be zero however it will be
very small so that the effects may be minimal.

94
 This example also explains why it is very dangerous to use nuclear bombs. It is
because the radioactive material will be active many years after they are
dropped.

10. Dangers and Safety of radioactive substances

Dangers
a. The dangers from α – particles is very small unless when the source enters
the body.
b. Β and γ rays can cause radiation burns (i.e. redness and sores on the skin)
and delayed effects such as cancer and eye cataracts.
c. Fall – out from atomic explosion contains highly active elements (e.g.
Strontium), with long half – life that are absorbed by the bones.

Safety

a. Weak sources of radioactivity have to be handled by long tongs.

b. Lead containers and concrete walls also protect contact with radioactive
materials.

11. Uses of Radioactivity

i. Thickness gauge
– in paper, plastic and metal sheets manufacturing. Thickness is
automatically controlled by radioactivity techniques.
ii. Tracers
- detect brain tumors.
- detect the uptake of fertilizers by plants.
- measure fluid flow in pipes.

iii. Radiotherapy
- treatment of cancer by gamma rays.
iv. Archaeology (using carbon dating)
- a radioisotope of carbon is used to date archaeological remains of
wood, linen and bones.

v. Power generation
- nuclear power stations (1kg of enriched uranium produces electrical
energy equal to 55 tonnes of coal)

vi. Sterilization / food preservation

12. Nuclear Fission and Fusion

95
 a. Nuclear Fission
Fission of a nucleus occurs when the nucleus splits into two approximately
equal fragments. This can be caused in two ways:

i. Spontaneous fission - when a nuclide splits on its on due to external

forces or parameters. When this happens the nuclide splits into two and in
the process releases neutrons which end up hitting other nuclides causing
them to also split and the process goes on and on. This continuous
reaction is called chain reaction. Vast amount of energy is given off

Figure 40: nuclear fission caused by splitting of a nuclide on its own

ii. There may be a neutron which may start hitting a nuclide causing it to
split thereby releasing more neutrons and a chain reaction follows. The
result is more energy is also given off.

Figure 41: Nuclear fission caused by a neutron

Note: that for any fission process there should be a certain critical mass
used to start up the process otherwise there will be too many neutrons that
will escape without causing further fission.

Nuclear fission produces a lot of energy and radioactive products.

When uranium in the form of the isotopes Uranium – 235 is bombarded

with neutrons, fission takes place.

96
 In nuclear reactors, controlled chain reaction takes place and thermal
energy is released at a steady rate.

b. Nuclear Fusion

Fusion occurs when light nuclei are joined together. Energy is also
released during fusion and very very high temperatures of above 100
million degrees Celsius are required.

Figure 42: Nuclear fusion

The sun’s energy is believed to be from fusion. Fusion reactions are also called
thermonuclear reactions.

13. Natural and artificial radiation.

a. Natural radiation
- occurs naturally e.g. cosmic radiation from space which intensifies
with O – Zone layer depletion.
- Absorption of radioactive carbon is another example of natural
radiation

b. Artificial radiation
- has to be induced or caused (deliberately or accidentally)
- can also take place in reactors.
- Can also result from working in radioactive environment and safety
precaution measures should be adhered to. Wearing of lead work suits
or keeping the radioactive material in lead or concrete containers.
- Can also be used to achieve useful objectives like in health, agriculture
etc.
ACKNOWLEGEMENT:
1. GCSE Physics 4th Ed, By Tom Duncan & Heather Kennett. 2002
2. Understanding Physics for Advanced Level 2nd Ed, By Jim Breithaupt. 1990.
3. Explaining Physics, GCSE Ed, By Stephen97
Pople. 1993
4. Physics for Today and Tomorrow 2nd Ed, By Tom Duncan.2004.
 Chapter 6

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY I

Organic compounds (carbon compounds in living things, coal, oil and gases) are found under
the surface of the earth. The organic compounds are separated into large “fractions” by the
process of fractional distillation. (Recall Junior Certificate Physical Science)

In this topic we are going to discuss two of the organic compound homologous families viz:
Alkanols and Carboxylic acids.

1. ALKANOLS

These are organic compounds whose functional group is –OH (the hydroxyl group).
Alkanols are also called alcohols.

1.1. General Formula

CnH2n+1 OH

98
To determine the formula of a member of the alkanol family, given the number of carbon
atoms available, to get the number of hydrogen atoms, multiply the number of carbon atoms
by 2 and add 1(see the nomenclature table below)

1.2. Common Nomenclature(IUPAC nomenclature)

Nomeclature is basically the system of naming. Let us look at the nomenclature of the first
ten alkanols.

Carbon Formula Prefix Suffix Name

No
1 CH3OH Meth- -anol Methanol
2 C2H5OH Eth- -anol Ethanol
3 C3H7OH Prop- -anol Propanol
4 C4H9OH But- -anol Butanol
5 C5H11OH Pent- -anol Pentanol
6 C6H13OH Hex- -anol Hexanol
7 C7H15OH Hept- -anol Heptanol
8 C8H17OH Oct- -anol Octanol
9 C9H19OH Non- -anol Nonanol
10 C10H21OH Dec- -anol Decanol

1.3. Structures of Alkanols

As already stated, alkanols being organic compounds have C-H with an attached –OH.
Recall that Carbon has four electrons on its outer shell, therefore it will be capable of getting
three H- atoms and the remaining bond will be attached to the –OH. Also recall that the
bonds formed in organic compounds, and in alkanols, are covalent (molecular) bonds.

Structure Chemical Name

Formula

CH3OH Methanol
- C - OH

- C – C- OH

-C – C – C – OH
99
 -C – C – C – C – OH

-C – C – C – C – C – OH

Can you please try to draw the remaining five members of the alkanol family.

The difference, in terms of chemical formula, between members in the series adjacent to
each other is – CH2 – . Thus to get to the next series (level), we keep on adding – CH2 – ot
get to the the next series. This causes the intermolecular forces between the molecules to
increase.

The greater the intermolecular forces tend change (affect) the physical properties of alkanols;
making the alkanols to:
 Have much higher boiling and melting points.

 Be liquid at room temperature for the C1 to C5 molecules.

 Be viscous (resist flow) liquids when more than – OH group is present in a molecule
e.g. glycerol ([Link].CH2OH).

1.4. Ethanol

Ethanol is the best know alcohol (alkanol) – it is jus called “alcohol”.

Chemical formula for Ethanol: C2H5OH

Structural formula:

-C – C - OH

1.4.1 Properties of ethanol

100
1.5.

101