Charge Distributions

1. Line Charge Distribution

The line charge density is defined as
dq
λ= [C/m] (1)
dl
The total charge along a curve L is
Z
Q= λ(l) dl (2)
L

2. Surface Charge Distribution

The surface charge density is defined as
dq 2
σ= [C/m ] (3)
dA
The total charge on a surface S is
ZZ
Q= σ(x, y, z) dA (4)
S

3. Volume Charge Distribution

The volume charge density is defined as
dq 3
ρ= [C/m ] (5)
dV
The total charge in a volume V is
ZZZ
Q= ρ(x, y, z) dV (6)
V

Gauss’s Law
Statement: The total electric flux through a closed surface is equal to the total
charge enclosed within the surface, divided by the permittivity of free space ε0 .

Integral Form
I
Qenc
E · dA = (7)
∂V ε0
where
• E is the electric field,

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 • dA is the outward normal area element on the closed surface ∂V ,
• Qenc is the total enclosed charge,
• ε0 is the permittivity of free space.

Differential Form
ρ
∇·E = (8)
ε0
where ρ is the volume charge density.

Divergence Theorem
From the divergence theorem:
I Z
E · dA = (∇ · E) dV, (9)
∂V V
and since
Z
Qenc = ρ dV, (10)
V
we conclude that
ρ
∇·E= . (11)
ε0

Gauss’s Laws: Electric and Magnetic Fields

1. Gauss’s Law for Electricity
I
Qenc
Integral form: E · dA = (12)
∂V ε0
ρ
Differential form: ∇·E= (13)
ε0

2. Gauss’s Law for Magnetism

I
Integral form: B · dA = 0 (14)
∂V

Differential form: ∇·B=0 (15)

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Gauss’s Laws: Electric and Magnetic Fields
1. Gauss’s Law for Electricity
I
Qenc
Integral form: E · dA = (16)
∂V ε0
ρ
Differential form: ∇·E= (17)
ε0

2. Gauss’s Law for Magnetism

I
Integral form: B · dA = 0 (18)
∂V

Differential form: ∇·B=0 (19)

3. Comparison Table

Gauss’s Law for Electricity Gauss’s Law for Magnetism

I I
Qenc
E · dA = B · dA = 0
∂V ε0 ∂V
ρ
∇·E= ∇·B=0
ε0
Electric field lines start/end on charges Magnetic field lines are closed loops
Charges ρ are sources of E No magnetic monopoles (no sources of B)

Derivation of Poisson and Laplace Equations

Poisson Equation
We begin with Gauss’s law in differential form:
ρ
∇·E= (20)
ε0
The electric field is related to the electrostatic potential ϕ by:
E = −∇ϕ (21)
Substituting this into Gauss’s law:
ρ
∇ · (−∇ϕ) = (22)
ε0
ρ
−∇2 ϕ = (23)
ε0
ρ
∇2 ϕ = − (24)
ε0

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 This is called the Poisson equation.

Laplace Equation
In a charge-free region, ρ = 0, so the Poisson equation reduces to:

∇2 ϕ = 0 (25)

This is the Laplace equation.

Proof that Curl of Electrostatic Field is Zero

In electrostatics, the electric field E can be expressed as the negative gradient
of the scalar potential ϕ:
E = −∇ϕ (26)
Taking the curl of E:

∇ × E = ∇ × (−∇ϕ) (27)

Since the curl of a gradient of any scalar field is identically zero:

∇ × ∇ϕ = 0 (28)

Therefore,
∇×E=0 (29)

Alternative Proof using Line Integral

From the electrostatic version of Faraday’s law:
I
E · dl = 0 (30)
C

By Stokes’ theorem:
I ZZ
E · dl = (∇ × E) · dA (31)
C S

Since the line integral is zero for any closed path in electrostatics, we must
have
∇×E=0 (32)
Thus, the electrostatic field is irrotational.

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Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction
Integral Form
Faraday’s law in integral form states that the electromotive force (emf) around
a closed loop C is equal to the negative rate of change of magnetic flux through
the surface S bounded by C:
I ZZ
d
E · dl = − B · dA (33)
C dt S

Differential Form
Using Stokes’ theorem:
I ZZ
E · dl = (∇ × E) · dA (34)
C S

Equating both expressions gives the differential form of Faraday’s law:

∂B
∇×E=− (35)
∂t

Ampère’s Law (Before Maxwell’s Correction)

Integral Form
Ampère’s law in its original form states:
I
B · dl = µ0 Ienc (36)
C

where Ienc is the total conduction current passing through the surface S bounded
by the loop C.

Differential Form
By Stokes’ theorem, I ZZ
B · dl = (∇ × B) · dA (37)
C S

Equating both sides gives the differential form of Ampère’s law (before
Maxwell’s correction):
∇ × B = µ0 J (38)
This form is valid only for steady currents (magnetostatics). It fails in the
case of time-varying electric fields, which motivated Maxwell to introduce the
displacement current term.

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Ampère’s Law with Maxwell’s Correction
Integral Form
Ampère’s law in integral form is given by
I ZZ
d
B · dl = µ0 Ienc + µ0 ε0 E · dA (39)
C dt S

where Ienc is the total current passing through the surface S bounded by the
loop C.

Differential Form
By Stokes’ theorem, I ZZ
B · dl = (∇ × B) · dA (40)
C S
Equating both sides, we obtain the differential form:
∂E
∇ × B = µ0 J + µ0 ε0 (41)
∂t
Here, J is the current density and the second term represents the displace-
ment current density.

Continuity Equation and Ampère’s Law

1. Continuity Equation
The conservation of charge is expressed as:
∂ρ
+∇·J=0 (42)
∂t

2. Ampère’s Law (Original Form)

In differential form:
∇ × B = µ0 J (43)
Taking the divergence of both sides:

∇ · (∇ × B) = µ0 ∇ · J =⇒ ∇ · J = 0 (44)

This is consistent only for steady currents. For time-varying charge, ∇·J ̸=
0, leading to inconsistency.

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3. Maxwell’s Correction: Displacement Current
Maxwell added the displacement current density:
∂E
Jd = ε0 (45)
∂t
The modified Ampère-Maxwell law:
∂E
∇ × B = µ0 J + µ0 Jd = µ0 J + µ0 ε0 (46)
∂t
Taking divergence:
∂E
∇ · (∇ × B) = µ0 ∇ · J + µ0 ε0 ∇ · =0 (47)
∂t
ρ
Using Gauss’s law ∇ · E = ε0 :

∂ρ
∇·J+ =0 (48)
∂t
Thus, the continuity equation is satisfied even for time-varying currents.