Unit-III

Suspension & Braking System

Suspension system;

Suspension system is the term given to the system of springs, shock absorbers and linkages that connects
a vehicle to its wheels. It is basically cushioned for passengers protects the luggage or any cargo and
also itself from damage and wear.
Sir William Brush is the father of suspension system in automobiles.

The main role of suspension system is as follows:

 It supports the weight of vehicle.
 Provides smoother ride for the driver and passengers i.e. acts as cushion.
 Protects your vehicle from damage and wear.
 It also plays a critical role in maintaining self driving conditions.
 It also keeps the wheels pressed firmly to the ground for traction.
 It isolates the body from road shocks and vibrations which would otherwise be
transferred tothe passengers and load.

Principle:

When a tire hits an obstruction, there is a reaction force. The size of this reaction force
depends on theunsprung mass at each wheel assembly.
In general, the larger the ratio of sprung weight to unsprung weight, the less the body and
vehicle occupants are affected by bumps, dips, and other surface imperfections such as
small bridges. A large sprung weight to unsprung weight ratio can also impact vehicle
control.
No road is perfectly flat i.e. without irregularities. Even freshly paved highways have
subtle imperfections that can be interact with vehicle‘s wheels. These are the
imperfections that apply forces on wheels.

Components of Suspension system;

There are three fundamental components of any suspension system.

 Springs

 Coil spring

 Leaf springs

 Air springs

 Dampers

 Shock Absorbers

 Struts

 Anti sway bars.

Types of Suspension system;

Advantages;
 Comfort to passengers

 Good handling

 Shields the vehicle from damage

 Increases life of vehicle

 Keeps the tires pressed firmly to ground.

FRONT AXLE
• The major unit on front part of the motor vehicle is front axle. It takes the weight of the front
portion of the automobile. It gives steering facility and absorbs shocks. The weight of the front
part of the vehicle is transmitted to the road surface through front wheels by the front axle of a
vehicle. It also houses the mechanism for steering the vehicle to absorb shocks due to road surface
variations.

• Axle beam is a major part of the front axle. It is used to transmit the vehicle weight to the front
wheel through the spring. A typical front axle shown in Figure 4.31 elaborates the front axle
components with steering linkage.
• The components of the front axle are axle beam, stub axle, swivel pin and track load
• The ends of the axle beam are shaped in such way to assemble the stub axle. The ends of the axle
beam are shaped either as a yoke or plain surface with drilled hole to hold a swivel pin connecting
 the stub axle portion of the assembly. The wheels are connected on stub axles. The inclined
steering arms are located to track rod ends. The third steering arm is connected to the drag link.
The steering linkage is connected by the drag link to the drop arm of the steering box. The main
axle beam is attached to stub axles by kingpins. The front road wheels are connected on these stub
axles.

Types of Rear Suspension System

Suspension systems vary by vehicle body type and, in certain cases, even by brand. Here are the eight
most common car suspensions you‘ll come across.
• Independent Suspension
• Rigid Suspension or Leaf Spring
• Multi-Link Suspension
• Rigid Axle Suspension
• Air Suspension System

Independent Suspension

• Independent suspension refers to a suspension system that is installed on each wheel separately.
This means that bumps encountered by one wheel are unaffected by those experienced by the
others. As a result, the ride and control are extremely comfortable. The Macpherson Strut, Double
Wishbone Suspension, and Multi-link Suspension are some of the suspensions that use this
technique.

Rigid Suspension or Leaf Spring:

 • The leaf spring rigid suspension, like the beam axle suspension in construction, uses leaf springs
instead of coil springs to act as dampers. Leaf springs are large bundles of spring material, mostly
steel, that flex as the vehicle‘s axle is pressed on them. Leaf springs are perfect for use in
commercial vehicles since they can support a lot of weight without breaking a sweat. However,
they are not designed for comfort, high speed, or fast turning, and if used under those conditions,
the suspension will alter vehicle handling.
Multi-Link Suspension:

This form of suspension features several links connecting to the automobile chassis and wheel assembly,
as the name implies. Because these many links can respond to any force applied to them, they‘re also
employed in off-road vehicles. On the rear tires, multi-Link suspension systems are used to provide a
highly comfortable ride and good grip. This suspension will keep your wheels attached to the ground in
the event of a rapid turn. Due to their intricate construction, these suspensions are only found on high-end
vehicles, and any damage necessitates a time-consuming and costly repair.

Rigid Axle Suspension:

The rigid axle suspension, also known as beam axle suspension, has a perpendicular axle that is attached
to the wheels by a wheel spindle and can be used with leaf springs or coiled springs. A stiff axle is
extremely sturdy and capable of carrying a significant amount of weight. The rigid axle suspension,
unlike most current suspensions, has a very simple configuration that makes it straightforward to fix and
replace. Because of its load-carrying capability and improved articulation, this suspension and its
modified versions are employed in heavy-duty vehicles and off-roaders. However, these suspensions are
not designed for fast speeds or sharp turns, and if subjected to heavy cornering, the cars will rollover.
Air Suspension System:

• Air suspension, often known as air springs, is a type of suspension that uses air bellows instead
of coils and dampers. These air bellows can be inflated and deflated with the help of an air
compressor to alter the vehicle‘s ride height. Air suspension is one of the most comfortable
and load-bearing suspensions available, which is why it is found in the majority of high-end
luxury and sports automobiles. Many vehicles and buses utilize them because of their
weight carrying capabilities. Air suspensions are extremely adaptable, and when combined
with an onboard computer, they can adjust to any height, load, or passenger.
Requirement of automobiles suspension system:
The automobile suspension system is having the following requirement
 To have minimum deflection to the vehicles with required stability
 To have minimum wheel hop.
 To safe guard the occupants and cargo against road shocks
 To minimize the effects of stresses due to road shocks on the Mechanism of the vehicle.
 To keep the body perfect in level while travelling over rough
anduneven roads.
 To keep the body of the vehicle safe from road shocks.

Types of suspension system - conventional and Independent

There are different types of suspension system provided in different vehicles. Those are

(i) Conventional suspension system

(ii) Independent suspension system
Conventional suspension system
In this suspension system. The wheels are fitted on beam type which are attached to the chassis
frame through road springs. In this type of suspension, the effect on one wheel is directly
transmitted to the other side wheel through the axle.

Conventional Suspension System

Independent suspension system:

 In this system the suspension for each wheel in an independent unit and in free from the effect of
one another. There will be no effect of road shocks on the vehicle directly.

Types of independent suspension system

(i) Wishbone arm system
(ii) Trailing ling system
(iii) Sliding pillar system
Wishbone arm system
Wishbone arm type independent suspension system is most popular

type of all independent suspension system. In this system transverse springs along with coil,
springs are mostly used. In European cars, torsion bars instead of coil springs are used. In this
system there are two suspension or control arms are used in each side of the vehicle. There arm
are like two legs of chicken wishbone or better „V‟, . These wishbone arms are connected with
chassis frame on the open end. The closed end spread out of the chassis frame. One arm is below
whereas the other is above the frame. The closed ends of both upper and lower suspension arms
are connected with steering knuckle support to which the steering knuckle is attached by means
of kingpin. A coil spring is placed between the frame and the lower wishbone arm. Mostly the
open end of upper control arm is connected with the sock absorber shaft which is fitted at the
frame when there is a bump, the wheel tends to go up, the control since the shock absorber is
fitted with the upper control arm, ti damps the vibrations set up in the coil spring due to road
irregularities.

Trailing link system

The trailing link independent suspension use parallelogram linkages lying beside the frame side
members usually a horizontal coil springs is used in this type of suspension system. During
compression and rebound, the spring winds and unwinds . In some vehicles the torsion bar may
also be fitted instead of horizontal coil spring.

Sliding pillar system

In this system the pillar or elongated king pin is attached to the wheel and slides up and down in
the axle type beam a fixed rigidly to the vehicle frame.
Types of springs - Laminated Spring, coil spring, helical spring

The springs support the chassis frame. The entire weight of the vehicle live engine, power train,
body, passengers, cargo etc, falls on the chassis frame. The spring damp the road shocks
transmitted to the wheels as they travel over the road thereby protecting the units supported
directly by the frame. The springs are placed between the chassis frame and the axle.

Types of springs

(i) Leaf springs

(ii) Coil springs
(iii) Helical Springs
(i) Leaf springs: The leaf springs are of different types namely-full elliptic three quarter elliptic,
semi elliptic, quarter elliptic transverse. In almost all automobiles which are having conventional
suspension system the semi elliptic leaf springs are most commonly used.

Leaf Springs

The leaf springs are made of long flat strip steel. Several strips are placed one on the other and
held together by means of centre bolt and champs. Each strip is called is leaf. There is one main
leaf which is extended to full length.
Each succeeding leaf is shorter than the proceeding one. The main leaf contains eyes are both
ends for making connections with the frame. The entire
set is fitted from the chassis frame by hanging with a shackle at one side and the other side is
fixed to frame. During jerks, the leaf spring bounces and each strip flexes and rebounces again
and again.

(ii) Coil springs : Coil spring is made of a length of special spring steel, usually round in section
 which is wound in the shape of coil The ends of coil spring are kept flat so that could seat
properly . They can store twice energy per unit volume in comparison to leaf spring. To seat the
coil springs pan shaped brackets or spring seats are attached to the axles. This suspension is also
used in combination with torque tube or torque rod.

(ii) Coil springs : Coil spring is made of a length of special spring steel, usually round in section
which is wound in the shape of coil The ends of coil spring are kept flat so that could seat
properly . They can store twice energy per unit volume in comparison to leaf spring. To seat the
coil springs pan shaped brackets or spring seats are attached to the axles. This suspension is also
used in combination with torque tube or torque rod.

Coil Spring

(iii) Helical Springs: The helical springs are preferably used in combination with independent
suspension system. The length and diameter of the spring wire greatly affect the stiffness of the
spring. But the length is controlled by the diameter of the coil and the number of active coils.

Need of Shock absorber

 Shock absorber compresses with the road shock and rebalances while travelling on uneven roads
due to usage of this, the effect of road shock in required by the shock absorber suddenly and
releases slowly whole travelling on uneven roads.
There shock absorber are of two types

(i) Mechanical type

(ii) Hydraulic type
Hydraulic Shock Absorber

The shock absorber develop resistance to the spring by forcing a fluid through check valves and
small holes. „Double” acting shock absorber offer resistance both during compression and
rebound of the spring. The „Double acting Hydraulic telescopic shock absorber „ are the
commonly used shock absorber which are described as shown in the figure below
 Hydraulic shock absorber

Its upper eye is connected to the axle and the lower eye to the chassis frame. A two way valve „A‟
is attached to as rod „G‟. Another two way valve Bis attached to the lower and of the cylinder C .
The fluid is in the space above and below the cylinder C and tube D, which is connected to the
space below the valve B. The J has glad H . Any fluid scrapped off the rod G is brought down into
the annuler space through the inclined passage.
 Hydraulic shock absorber (detailed
construction)
When the vehicle comes across a bump the lower eye E moves up. Therefore the fluid passes
from the lower side of the vehicle A to its type’s side .But since the volume of the space above
valve A is less than the volume B. This pressure of the fluid through the valve opening provides
the damping force. Similarly when the lower eye E moves down. the fluid passes from the
upper side of the valve A to the lower side and also from the lower of the valve B to the upper
side.

Stabilizers bar and torsion bar Stabilizer:

A stabilizer or a sway bar is necessarily used in all independent front suspension units. It
reduces the tending the vehicle to roll or tip and either side when taking a turn. This tendency
has been increased due to the use of softer springs and independent front end suspension.
 A stabilizer is simply a bar of as long steel with arms at each and connected to the lower wishbone arm
of independent suspension or to the axle. supported i bush bearing fixed to the frame and is parallel to
the cross member. When both the wheels deflect up or down by the same amount the stabilizer bar
simply turns in the bearings. When only one wheel deflects then only one end of stabilizers moves,
thus twisting the stabilizer has which acts as springs between two sides of independent suspension
system. In this way, the stabilizer reduces healing or tipping of the vehicle on curves.

Torsion bar:
In independent suspension system, the torsion bar is attached to the axle with the king pin of the front
axle. The torsion bar axles the shock by moving in certain angle with the axle. It is almost being used
along with any kind of independent suspension system. It is used along with rubber torsion units.

Torsion bar

Braking System;

A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion, slowing or stopping a moving object
or preventing its motion. The rest of this article is dedicated to various types of vehicular
brakes. Most commonly brakes use friction between two surfaces pressed together to
convert the kinetic energy of the moving object into heat, though other methods of energy
conversion may be employed. For example regenerative braking converts much of the
energy to electrical energy, which may be stored for later use. Other methods convert
kinetic energy into potential energy in such stored forms as pressurized air or pressurized
oil. Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields to convert kinetic energyinto electric current in
the brake disc, fin, or rail, which is converted into heat. Still other braking methods even
transform kinetic energy into different forms, for example by transferring the energy toa
rotating flywheel.
Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other forms
such as the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air). Some vehicles use
a combination of braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars with both wheel brakes
and a parachute, or airplanes with both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into the air
during landing.

Since kinetic energy increases quadratically with velocity (k=mv2/2) an object moving
at 10 m/s has 100 times as much energy as one of the same mass moving at 1 m/s, and
consequently the theoretical braking distance, when braking at the traction limit, is 100
times as long. In practice, fast vehicles usually have significant air drag, and energy lost to
air drag rises quickly with speed. Almost all wheeled vehicles have a brake of some
sort. Even baggage carts and shopping carts may have them for use on a moving ramp.
Most fixed-wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes onthe undercarriage. Some aircraft
also feature air brakes designed to reduce their speed in flight.
Notable examples include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft, primarily some
fighter aircraft and many dive bombers of the era. These allow the aircraft to maintain a
safe speed in a steep descent. The Saab B 17 dive bomber and Vought F4U Corsair
fighter used the deployed undercarriage as an air brake. Friction brakes on automobiles
store braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake while braking then conduct it to the air
gradually. When traveling downhill some vehicles can use their engines to brake.
When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed, ultimately a
piston pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the
brake drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum which also
slows the wheel down. Brakes may be broadly described as using friction, pumping, or
electromagnetic. One brake may use several principles: for example, a pump may pass
fluid through an orifice to create friction: Frictional brakes are most common and can be
divided broadly into "shoe" or "pad" brakes, using an explicit wear surface, and
hydrodynamic brakes, such as parachutes, which use friction in a working fluid and do not
explicitly wear. Typically the term "friction brake" is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and
excludes hydrodynamic brakes, even though hydrodynamic brakes usefriction.
Friction (pad/shoe) brakes are often rotating devices with a stationary pad and a rotating wear
surface. Common configurations include shoes that contract to rub on the outside of a rotating drum,
such as a band brake; a rotating drum with shoes that expand to rub the inside of a drum, commonly
called a "drum brake", although other drum configurations are possible; and pads that pinch a rotating
disc, commonly called a "disc brake".
Other brake configurations are used, but less often. For example, PCC trolley brakes include a flat
shoe which is clamped to the rail with an electromagnet; the Murphy brake pinches a rotating drum,
and the Ausco Lambert disc brake uses a hollow disc (two parallel discs with a structural bridge) with
shoes that sit between the disc surfaces and expand laterally. Pumping brakes are often used where a
pump is already part of the machinery. For example, an internal-combustion piston motor can have
the fuel supply stopped, and then internal pumping losses of the engine create some braking. Some
engines use a valve override called a Jake brake to greatly increase pumping losses. Pumping brakes
can dump energy as heat, or can be regenerative brakes that recharge a pressure reservoir called a
hydraulic accumulator.
Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is already part of the
machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles use the electric motor as a generator
to charge electric batteries and also as a regenerative brake. Some diesel/electric railroad locomotives
use the electric motors to generate electricity which is then sent to a resistor bank and dumped as heat.
Types of Braking system in Automobile;
 By applications –

1. Foot Brake,

2. Hand brake.

 By Method of power –

1. Mechanical brake,

2. Hydraulic brake.

3. Vacuum brake,
 4. Electrical brake and

5. Air brake.

 By method of operations –

1. Manual brake,

2. Servo brake.

3. Power operation.

 By construction –

1. Drum type brake,

2. Disc type brake

Anti-lock braking system (ABS)

Anti-lock braking system (ABS) is an automobile safety system that allows the wheels on a motor
vehicle to maintain tractive contact with the road surface according to driver inputs while braking,
preventing the wheels from locking up (ceasing rotation) and avoiding uncontrolled skidding. It is an
automated system that uses the principles of threshold braking and cadence braking which were
practiced by skillful drivers with previous generation braking systems. It does this at a much faster
rate and with better control than a driver could manage.

ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping distances on dry and slippery
surfaces for many drivers; however, on loose surfaces like gravel or snow-covered pavement, ABS
can significantly increase braking distance, although still improving vehicle control.
Since initial widespread use in production cars, anti-lock braking systems have evolved considerably.
Recent versions not only prevent wheel lock under braking, but also electronically control the front-
to-rear brake bias. This function, depending on its specific capabilities and implementation, is known
as electronic brake force distribution (EBD), traction control system, emergency brake assist, or
electronic stability control(ESC).
Operation

The anti-lock brake controller is also known as the CAB (Controller Anti-lock Brake). Typically ABS
includes a central electronic control unit (ECU), four wheel speed sensors,
and at least two hydraulic valves within the brake hydraulics. The ECU constantly monitors
the rotational speed of each wheel; if it detects a wheel rotating significantly slower than the others, a
condition indicative of impending wheel lock, it actuates the valves to reduce hydraulic pressure to
the brake at the affected wheel, thus reducing the braking force on that wheel; the wheel then turns
faster.
Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning significantly faster than the others, brake hydraulic
pressure to the wheel is increased so the braking force is reapplied, slowing down the wheel. This
process is repeated continuously and can be detected by the driver via brake pedal pulsation. Some
anti-lock systems can apply or release braking pressure 15 times per second. Because of this, the
wheels of cars equipped with ABS are practically impossible to lock even during panic braking in
extreme conditions.
The ECU is programmed to disregard differences in wheel rotative speed below a critical threshold,
because when the car is turning, the two wheels towards the center of the curve turn slower than the
outer two. For this same reason, a differential is used in virtually all roadgoing vehicles. If a fault
develops in any part of the ABS, a warning light will usually be illuminated on the vehicle instrument
panel, and the ABS will be disabled until the fault is rectified.
Modern ABS applies individual brake pressure to all four wheels through a control system of hub-
mounted sensors and a dedicated micro-controller. ABS is offered or comes standard on most road
vehicles produced today and is the foundation for electronic stability control systems, which are
rapidly increasing in popularity due to the vast reduction in price of vehicle electronics over the years.
Modern electronic stability control systems are an evolution of the ABS concept. Here, a minimum of
two additional sensors are added to help the system work: these are a steering wheel angle sensor,
and a gyroscopic sensor. The theory of operation is simple: when the gyroscopic sensor detects that
the direction taken by the car does not coincide with what the steering wheel sensor reports, the ESC
software will brake the necessary individual wheel(s) (up to three with the most sophisticated
systems), so that the vehicle goes the way the driver intends. The steering wheel sensor also helps in
the operation of Cornering Brake Control (CBC), since this will tell the ABS that wheels on the inside
of the curve should brake more than wheels on the outside, and by how much.
ABS equipment may also be used to implement a traction control system (TCS) on acceleration of the
vehicle. If, when accelerating, the tire loses traction, the ABS controller can detect the situation and
take suitable action so that traction is regained. More sophisticated versions of this can also control
throttle levels and brakes simultaneously.
Components of ABS

There are four main components of ABS:

 Speed sensors,

 Valves,
  Pump, and

 Controller.

Speed sensors

A speed sensor is used to determine the acceleration or deceleration of the wheel. These sensors use a
magnet and a coil of wire to generate a signal. The rotation of the wheel or differential induces a
magnetic field around the sensor. The fluctuations of this magnetic field generate a voltage in the
sensor. Since the voltage induced in the sensor is a result of the rotating wheel, this sensor can
become inaccurate at slow speeds. The slower rotation of the wheel can cause inaccurate fluctuations
in the magnetic field and thus cause inaccurate readings to the controller.
Valves

There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the ABS. On some systems, the valve has
three positions:
In position one, the valve is open; pressure from the master cylinder is passed right through to the
brake.
In position two, the valve blocks the line, isolating that brake from the master cylinder. This prevents the
pressure from rising further should the driver push the brake pedal harder.
In position three, the valve releases some of the pressure from the brake.

The majority of problems with the valve system occur due to clogged valves. When a valve is clogged
it is unable to open, close, or change position. An inoperable valve will prevent the system from
modulating the valves and controlling pressure supplied to the brakes.

Pump
The pump in the ABS is used to restore the pressure to the hydraulic brakes after the valves have released it.
A signal from the controller will release the valve at the detection of wheel slip. After a valve release the
pressure supplied from the user, the pump is used to restore a desired amount of pressure to the braking
system. The controller will modulate the pumps status in order to provide the desired amount of pressure and
reduce slipping.
Controller

The controller is an ECU type unit in the car which receives information from each individual wheel
speed sensor, in turn if a wheel loses traction the signal is sent to the controller, the controller will
then limit the brake force (EBD) and activate the ABS modulator which actuates the braking valves
on and off.
Use
There are many different variations and control algorithms for use in ABS. One of the simpler
systems works as follows,
The controller monitors the speed sensors at all times. It is looking for decelerations in the wheel that
are out of the ordinary. Right before wheel locks up, it will experience a rapid deceleration.

If left unchecked, the wheel would stop much more quickly than any car could. It might take a car five
seconds to stop from 60 mph (96.6 km/h) under ideal conditions, but a wheel that locks up could stop
spinning in less than a second.
The ABS controller knows that such a rapid deceleration is impossible, so it reduces the pressure to
that brake until it sees an acceleration, then it increases the pressure until it sees the deceleration
again. It can do this very quickly, before the tire can actually significantly change speed. The result is
that the tire slows down at the same rate as the car, with the brakes keeping the tires very near the
point at which they will start to lock up. This gives the system maximum braking power.
This replaces the need to manually pump the brakes while driving on a slippery or a low traction
surface, allowing steering even in the most emergency braking conditions.

When the ABS is in operation the driver will feel a pulsing in the brake pedal; this comes from the
rapid opening and closing of the valves. This pulsing also tells the driver that the ABS has been
triggered. Some ABS systems can cycle up to 16 times per second.
Hydraulic braking system

The disc brake or disk brake is a device for slowing or stopping the rotation of a wheel while it is in
motion. A brake disc (or rotor in U.S. English) is usually made of cast iron, but may in some cases be
made of composites such as reinforced carbon-carbon or ceramic-matrix composites.
This is connected to the wheel and/or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction material in the form of
brake pads (mounted on a device called a brake caliper) is forced mechanically, hydraulically,
pneumatically or electromagnetically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and
attached wheel to slow or stop. Brakes (both disc and drum) convert motion to heat, but if the brakes
get too hot, they will become less effective because they cannot dissipate enough heat. This condition
of failure is known as brake fade.
Construction of Braking system;

The most common arrangement of hydraulic brakes for passenger vehicles, motorcycles, scooters, and
mopeds, consists of the following:
 Brake pedal or lever

 A pushrod (also called an actuating rod)

 A master cylinder assembly containing a piston assembly

 Reinforced hydraulic lines

Brake caliper assembly usually consisting of one or two hollow aluminum or chrome-plated steel
pistons (called caliper pistons), a set of thermally conductive brake pads and a rotor (also called a
brake disc) or drum attached to an [Link] system is usually filled with a glycol-ether based brake
fluid (other fluids may also be used).
At one time, passenger vehicles commonly employed drum brakes on all four wheels. Later, disc
brakes were used for the front and drum brakes for the rear. However disc brakes have shown better
heat dissipation and greater resistance to 'fading' and are therefore generally safer than drum brakes.
So four-wheel disc brakes have become increasingly popular, replacing drums on all but the most
basic vehicles. Many two-wheel vehicle designs, however, continue to employ a drum brake for the
rear [Link] following description uses the terminology for and configuration of a simple
In a hydraulic brake system, when the brake pedal is pressed, a pushrod exerts force on the piston(s)
in the master cylinder, causing fluid from the brake fluid reservoir to flow into a pressure chamber
through a compensating port. This results in an increase in the pressure of the entire hydraulic system,
forcing fluid through the hydraulic lines toward one or more calipers where it acts upon one or two
caliper pistons sealed by one or more seated O-rings (which prevent leakage of the fluid).
The brake caliper pistons then apply force to the brake pads, pushing them against the spinning rotor,
and the friction between the pads and the rotor causes a brakingtorque to be generated, slowing the
vehicle. Heat generated by this friction is either dissipated through vents and channels in the rotor or
is conducted through the pads, which are made of specialized heat-tolerant materials such as kevlar
orsintered glass.
Subsequent release of the brake pedal/lever allows the spring(s) in my master cylinder assembly to
return the master piston(s) back into position. This action first relieves the hydraulic pressure on the
caliper, then applies suction to the brake piston in the caliper assembly, moving it back into its
housing and allowing the brake pads to release the rotor.
The hydraulic braking system is designed as a closed system: unless there is a leak in the system,
none of the brake fluid enters or leaves it, nor does the fluid get consumed through use.
Pneumatic braking system

An air brake or, more formally, a compressed air brake system, is a type of friction brake for vehicles
in which compressed air pressing on a piston is used to apply the pressure to the brake pad needed
to stop the vehicle.
Air brakes are used in large heavy vehicles, particularly those having multiple trailers which must be

linked into the brake system, such as trucks, buses, trailers, and semi-trailers in addition to their use in
railroad trains.
George Westinghouse first developed air brakes for use in railway service. He patented a safer air brake on March 5,
1872. Westinghouse made numerous alterations to improve his air pressured brake invention, which led to various
forms of the automatic brake. In the early 20th century, after its advantages were proven in railway use, it was adopted
by manufacturers of trucks and heavy road vehicles
Construction of Braking system;

Air brake systems are typically used on heavy trucks and buses. The system consists of service
brakes, parking brakes, a control pedal, and an air storage tank. For the parking brake, there is a disc
or drum brake arrangement which is designed to be held in the 'applied' position by spring pressure.
Air pressure must be produced to release these "spring brake" parking brakes. For the service brakes
(the ones used while driving for slowing or stopping) to be applied, the brake pedal is pushed, routing
the air under pressure (approx 100–120 psi or 690–830 kPa) to the brake chamber, causing the brake
to be engaged. Most types of truck air brakes are drum brakes, though there is an increasing trend
towards the use of disc brakes in this application. The air compressor draws filtered air from the
atmosphere and forces it into high-pressure reservoirs at around 120 psi (830 kPa).
Most heavy vehicles have a gauge within the driver's view, indicating the availability of air pressure
for safe vehicle operation, often including warning tones or lights. Setting of the parking/emergency
brake releases the pressurized air in the lines between the compressed air storage tank and the brakes,
thus allowing the spring actuated parking brake to engage. A sudden loss of air pressure would result
in full spring brake pressure immediately.
A compressed air brake system is divided into a supply system and a control system. The supply
system compresses, stores and supplies high-pressure air to the control system as well as to additional
air operated auxiliary truck systems (gearbox shift control, clutch pedal air assistance servo,
etc.).
Highly simplified air brake diagram on a commercial road vehicle (does not show all air reservoirs
and all applicable air valves). The air compressor is driven by the engine either by crankshaft
pulley via a beltor directly from the engine timing gears. It is lubricated and cooled by the engine
lubrication and cooling systems.
Compressed air is first routed through a cooling coil and into an air dryer which removes moisture and
oil impurities and also may include a pressure regulator, safety valve and smaller purge reservoir. As
an alternative to the air dryer, the supply system can be equipped with an anti-freeze device and oil
separator. The compressed air is then stored in a reservoir (also called a wet tank) from which it is
then distributed via a four way protection valve into the front and rear brake circuit air reservoir, a
parking brake reservoir and an auxiliary air supply distribution point. The system also includes
various check, pressure limiting, drain and safety [Link] brake systems may include a wig wag
device which deploys to warn the driver if the system air pressure drops too low.
Control system
The control system is further divided into two service brake circuits: the parking brake circuit and the
trailer brake circuit. This dual brake circuit is further split into front and rear wheel circuits which
receive compressed air from their individual reservoirs for added safety in case of an air leak. The
service brakes are applied by means of a brake pedal air valve which regulates both circuits.

The parking brake is the air operated spring brake type where its applied by spring force in the
spring

brake cylinder and released by compressed air via hand control valve. The trailer brake
consists of a direct two line system: the supply line (marked red) and the separate
control or service line (marked
blue). The supply line receives air from the prime mover park brake air tank via a park
brake relay valve and the control line is regulated via the trailer brake relay valve. The
operating signals for the relay are provided by the prime mover brake pedal air valve,
trailer service brake hand control (subject to a country's relevant heavy vehicle
legislation) and the prime mover park brake hand control.
Advantages of Air Brakes;
Air brakes are used as an alternative to hydraulic brakes which are used on lighter
vehicles such as automobiles. Hydraulic brakes use a liquid (hydraulic fluid) to transfer
pressure from the brake pedal to the brake shoe to stop the vehicle. Air brakes have
several advantages for large multitrailer vehicles:
 The supply of air is unlimited, so the brake system can never run out of its
operating fluid, as hydraulic brakes can. Minor leaks do not result in brake
failures.
 Air line couplings are easier to attach and detach than hydraulic lines; there is no
danger of letting air into hydraulic fluid. So air brake circuits of trailers can be
attached and removed easily by operators with little training.
 Air not only serves as a fluid for transmission of force, but also stores potential
energy. So it can serve to control the force applied. Air brake systems include an
air tank that stores sufficient energy to stop the vehicle if the compressor fails.
 Air brakes are effective even with considerable leakage, so an air brake system
can be designed with sufficient "fail-safe" capacity to stop the vehicle safely
even when leaking.

In Automobiles brakes play important role in slowing down and stopping of the vehicle as and
when required by the driver. Fundamentally the brakes are of two types

(i) Internal expanding (ii) External contracting type.

(ii) Different types of brakes are used in different vehicles as per the requirement.
According to application, the brakes are of different types-mechanical, hydraulic air,
vacuum, Air assisted Hydraulic.
Functions of Brakes
(i) To slow down or to stop the vehicle as and when required.
(ii) To control the vehicle when the vehicle is rolling down on a slope road
down ward.
(iii) To travel smoothly and safely even in heavy flow of traffic by
Controlling the movement of the vehicle.
Requirement of Automobile Brakes
(i) The brakes must stop the vehicle within shortest possible distance.
(ii) These must be released suddenly after releasing them
(iii) Total control of the vehicle should be there
Stopping time and Stopping Distance
The stopping time and stopping distance shows the efficiency of brakes. The
maximum retarding force applied by the brake at the wheels, F,
Depends upon the coefficient of friction between the road and tyre surface and the
component of the weight of the vehicle on the wheel, w.
In actual practice 100% of brakes efficiency is not used. The stopping time and
distance depend upon
(i) Vehicle speed
(ii) Condition of road surface
(iii) Condition of tyre tread.
(iv) Coefficient of friction between the tyre tread and road surface.
(v) Coefficient of friction between brake drum and brake lining (in case of Drum brakes).
(vi) Coefficient of friction between the disc and the friction pad (in case of
Disc brakes).
(vii) Brake force applied by the driver.
Types of Braking system - Disc and Drum
Braking system
Disc Brakes

The disc brake consists a cast iron disc bolted to the wheel hub and a stationary housing
called calliper. The Calliper is connected to some stationary part of vehicle, like axle
casing or the stab axle and is cast in two parts, each part containing a piston. In between
each piston and the disc, there is a friction pad held in position by retaining pins, spring
plates etc.

Disc Brakes

When the brakes are applied, hydraulically actuated piston move the friction pads into contact
with the disc, applying equal and opposite forces on the later. On releasing brakes, the rubber
sealing rings act as return springs and retract the pistons and the friction pads away from the
disc.

Drum Brakes
 Drum brakes
In this type of brakes, a brake drum is attached concentric to the axle hub whereas on the axle
casing is mounted a back plate. In case of front axle, the brake plates are bolted to the steering
knuckle. The back plate is made of pressed steel and is ribbed to increase rigidity and to provide
support for the expanding brake shoes. These brakes are also known as internal expanding
brakes.
Construction and working of Mechanical, Hydraulic and Air
brakes. Construction and working of Mechanical Brakes
These brakes are operated completely through mechanical links and lever. These are applied in
two wheelers and these wheeler. These are also applied in four wheeler as parking or
Emergency brakes . In the wheel drum there are two brake shoes which are linked closely by a
retracting spring. There will be a can between the two shoes. When brake pedal is applied, the
can will rotate causing the brake shoes expand against the force of the returning spring. This
causes the shoes to rub against rotating wheel drum and thereby stopping it. When brake pedal
is released, the can inside wheel drum will come back to its position causing the brake shoes to
come back with the presence of returning position and thus releasing brakes.
Construction and working of hydraulic brakes
The hydraulic brakes are being operated in the Pascal‟s law which states that “The pressure
applied on any liquid is equally transmitted to all the direction at the same time”. In the same
manner the pressure of brake pedal which is applied on the brake fluid in the master cylinder is
transmitted to all the four wheel cylinder with equal pressure and at the same time. In this way
the brake shoes which are attached to the wheel cylinder (s) are expanded and thus the brakes
are applied. The parts of hydraulic braking system one (i) Brake pedal (ii) Pull and push rod
(iii)- Master cylinder (iv) Brake pipe lines (v) wheel cylinder (vi) brake shoes . When the
brake pedal is applied the piston inside the master cylinder in pushed forward and it caused the
pressurized brake fluid moves forward to all the four wheel cylinder at the same time with
same pressure. There at the wheel cylinder the brakes shoes will be expanded with the
developed pressure in the wheel cylinder. All the wheel cylinder will be operated at the same
time according to Pascal‟s law. This is how the brakes are applied. While releasing brakes
with contracting of brake shoes with spring force the brake fluid in the wheel cylinder will try
to go back to the master cylinder. As there is no pressure on the position of the master
cylinder, the brake fluid push the check valve of master cylinder and the enter into the
reservoir through barrel and by pass valve of master cylinder.

Hydraulic Brake System

Master cylinder

It is the most important part of hydraulic braking system. It contains two main chambers.
(i) Fluid reservoir – which stores the brake fluid in it
(ii) Barrel-which is compressor and develops pressure in brake fluid
(i) Reservoir : The reservoir also contains two parts . The larger part is
called filler or intake port and the smaller port is called by pas through which the returned fluid
from the system will enter into reservoir from barrel.
(ii) Barrel : In the barrel of master cylinder the parts are – (a) Primary cup (b)
Position (c) Secondary cup (d) Return spring (d) Return spring (e) Check value .
When the brake pedal is applied the push rod will push the piston of master cylinder
and there by the pressure is applied on the Hydraulic Brake
fluid. The pressurized brake fluid will enter into system through check valve which does not
allow the fluid to return back. This causes the pressure on the system and applying brakes at
the wheel cylinder.

Master Cylinder

Wheel cylinder:
 Wheel Cylinder

Wheel cylinder or slave cylinder assist the main master cylinder in covering the pressure to the
piston inside it and push the brake shoes attached to it . Some of the wheel cylinder having one
piston and some having two pistons. The wheel cylinder having one piston will operate only one
brake shoe and the two-wheel cylinder are require to operate two brake shoes. In some wheel
cylinder, both brake shoes are operated as they are having two pistons in them.
When brakes are applied the brake fluid enter into the cylinder through a brake pipe line. It
causes to force out the piston. This motion is transmitted to brake shoes causing them to expand
against the running wheel drum to hold it tightly and stop it.

Bleeding of brakes in Hydraulic brakes:

In Hydraulic Brakes, the removal of air from the entire Hydraulic system starting from master
cylinder to different wheel cylinders is known as Brake Bleeding
 Bleeding of brakes
It includes the following process:

(i) At first check all the pipe lines and junction boxes from master cylinder to wheel cylinder.
Whether there is any leak among them.
(ii) Ask one person to pump the brake pedal and keep it in pressing position
(iii) The second person should loosen the bleeding nipple at the back plate of the wheel cylinder
position.
(iv) Keep the bleeding nipple in open until the air bubbles disappear and the brake fluid comes
out with a force. Collect the brake fluid in a glass tumbler.
(v) Then tighten the bleeding nipple
(vi) Repeat this process in all the wheel cylinders starting from the farthest wheel to the master
cylinder and ending with the nearest wheel.
(vii) Make sure that the level of brake fluid in master cylinder is ¼ less than the top covers
while filling it.

Air Brakes:

The manufacturers of braking systems offer a variety of air brake equip- ment. However, the
simplest system consists of an air compressor, a brake valve, series of brake chambers, unloader
valve, a pressure gauge and a safety valve. These are all connected by lines of tubing. The other
braking systems may have additional components such as stop-light switch, a low pressure
indicator, an air supply valve to supply air for tyre inflation, a quick release
valve to release air quickly from the front brake chambers when pedal is released, a limiting valve for
limiting the maximum pressure in the front brake chambers and a relay valve to help in quick admission
and release of air from rear brake chambers.

Air Brake

 The compressor sends compressed air to the-reservoirs which are connected to the brake valve.
 The lines of tubing from the brake valve extend to the front and rear brake chambers.
 When the drive depresses the pedal, it operates the brake valve thus admitting compressed
air to all the brake chambers.
 The compressed air operates the diaphragm of the brake chambers thereby applying the brakes.